Scientists now have access to sensitive

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY instruments that measure eye movement,

heart rate, and muscle tension.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: Development is lifelong.
It’s complex and multifaceted and shaped
HUMAN Scientific study of processes of change and by interacting arcs of influence. (School of
DEVELOPMENT stability throughout the human lifespan. thoughts & perspective)
> biological, psychological, psychosocial
characteristics Students of human development draw
25 yrs old - brain fully collaboratively from a wide range of
developed ALTHOUGH WE ARE UNIQUES disciplines, including psychology, psychiatry,
INDIVIDUALS, DEVELOPMENT IS sociology, anthropology, biology, genetics,
PATTERNED - Life Span Development family science, education, history, and
> the pattern is in stages medicine.

LIFE SPAN Researchers acknowledge that development 3 DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

DEVELOPMENT can be either positive or negative (EX:
C-PTSD - complex post traumatic disorder) PHYSICAL Growth of body and brain, including patterns
DEVELOPMENT of change in sensory capacities, motor
For these reasons, events such as the timing skills, and health.
of parenthood, maternal employment, and
marital satisfaction are now also studied as For example, physical development affects
part of developmental psychology cognitive and psychosocial development. A
child with frequent ear infections may
COMPLEX POST due to very heavy and severe life event develop language more slowly than a child
TRAUMATIC > begins during childhood without this physical problem.
DISORDER > shapes personality
Have disorganized relationship - negative COGNITIVE Pattern of change in mental abilities, such as
development DEVELOPMENT learning, attention, memory, language,
Trauma is sustained for a very long time thinking, reasoning, and creativity.

GOALS OF HUMAN DESCRIBE cognitive advances and declines are related

DEVELOPMENT EXPLAIN to physical and psychosocial development.
PREDICT
CONTROL (INTERVENTION) EX: Dementia and Intellectual disability

FOR INSTANCE: GLOBAL DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOSOCIAL Pattern of change in emotions, personality,

DELAY (GDD) IN CHILDREN (Motor Skills, DEVELOPMENT and social relationships. (Psychosocial theory
Speech and Language, Cognitive Skills, Social of Erick Erickson)
and Emotional Skills, Adaptive Behavior) If connection was lost Without meaningful social
one may lose will to connections, physical and mental health
4DS OF PERSONALITY live suffer (The three step theory 3ST of
Deviance, Distress, Disfunction, Danger suicide by David Klonsky and Alexis
May)
Humans are complex should be as diverse and varied as the
people it studies. Motivation and confidence are contributors
 to school success Basic body structures and organs form; brain growth
spurt begins.
Negative emotions such as anxiety can
Physical growth is the most rapid in the life span.
impair performance. Vulnerability to environmental influences is great.
Researchers suggest possible links
between a conscientious personality and Cognitive Developments Abilities to learn and remember and to respond to
length of life. sensory stimuli are developing.

Psychosocial Developments Fetus responds to the mother's voice and develops a

PERIODS OF THE LIFE SPAN ARE SOCIALLY CONSTRUCTED preference for it.

SOCIAL A concept or practice that may appear INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD (BIRTH TO AGE 3)
CONSTRUCTION natural and obvious to those who accept it
but that in reality is an invention of a Physical Developments All senses and body systems operate at birth to varying
degrees.
particular culture or society.
The brain grows in complexity and is highly sensitive to
environmental influence.
In the Middle Ages, an analysis of figurative Physical growth and development of motor skills are
art suggested childhood was viewed as being rapid.
composed of two stages.
Cognitive Developments Abilities to learn and remember are present, even in early
For them adolescence Children were first seen as babies/toddlers, a
weeks.
should act like an stage in which they were not expected to care Use of symbols and ability to solve problems develop by
adult for themselves or speak. Then, once past this the end of second year.
stage, children were viewed as nascent Comprehension and use of language develop rapidly.
adults, and although they were not expected
Psychosocial Developments Attachments to parents and others form.
Approximate to grasp to carry out the full duties of adulthood, they Self-awareness develops.
the factors in the were expected to work alongside their elders Shift from dependence toward autonomy occurs.
particular stage of a (Aries, 1962) Interest in other children increases.
lifespan but it still In some preindustrial societies, such as the
EARLY CHILDHOOD (AGE 3 TO 6)
depends on the Chippewa Indians, the concept of
development of a adolescence still does not exist. The Chippewa Physical Developments Growth is steady, appearance becomes more slender and
person have only two periods of childhood: from birth proportions more adultlike.
until the child walks and from walking to Appetite diminishes, and sleep problems are common.
puberty. What we call adolescence is part of Handedness appears; fine and gross motor skills and
strength improve.
adulthood (Broude, 1995).
The research focuses on how Filipino parents Cognitive Developments Thinking is somewhat egocentric, but understanding of
instill values of responsibility and respect in other people's perspectives grows.
their children during middle childhood. It Cognitive immaturity results in some illogical ideas about
the world.
analyzes parental attitudes and the methods
Memory and language improve.
used to teach these values, including the Intelligence becomes more predictable.
integration of household chores and Preschool experience is common, and kindergarten
religious participation. experience is more so.

TYPICAL MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN EIGHT PERIODS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Psychosocial Developments Self-concept and understanding of emotions become
more complex; self-esteem is global.
PRENATAL PERIOD (CONCEPTION TO BIRTH) Independence, initiative, and self-control increase.
Gender identity develops.
Play becomes more imaginative, more elaborate, and
Physical Developments Conception occurs by normal fertilization or other means.
usually more social.
The genetic endowment interacts with environmental
Altruism, aggression, and fearfulness are common.
influences from the start.
 Family is still the focus of social life, but other children Intimate relationships and personal lifestyles are
become more important. established but may not be lasting.
Most people marry, and most become parents.
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (AGES 6 TO 11)
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (AGES 40 TO 65)
Physical Developments Growth slows.
Strength and athletic skills improve. Physical Developments Slow deterioration of sensory abilities, health, stamina,
Respiratory illnesses are common, but health is generally and strength may begin, but individual differences are
better than at any other time in the life span. wide.
Women experience menopause.
Cognitive Developments Egocentrism diminishes.
Children begin to think logically but concretely. Cognitive Developments Mental abilities peak; expertise and practical
Memory and language skills increase. problem-solving skills are high.
Cognitive gains permit children to benefit from formal Creative output may decline but improve in quality.
schooling. For some, career success and earning powers peak; for
Some children show special educational needs and others, burnout or career change may occur.
strengths.
Psychosocial Developments Sense of identity continues to develop; midlife transition
Psychosocial Developments Self-concept becomes more complex, affecting may occur.
self-esteem. Dual responsibilities of caring for children and parents
Coregulation reflects gradual shift in control from may cause stress.
parents to child. Launching of children leaves empty nest.
Peers assume central importance.
LATE ADULTHOOD (AGE 65 AND OVER)
ADOLESCENCE (AGES 11 TO ABOUT 20)
Physical Developments Most people are healthy and active, although health and
Physical Developments Physical growth and other changes are rapid and physical abilities generally decline.
profound. Slowing of reaction time affects some aspects of
Reproductive maturity occurs. functioning.
Major health risks arise from behavioral issues, such as
eating disorders and drug abuse. Cognitive Developments Most people are mentally alert.
Although intelligence and memory may deteriorate in
Cognitive Developments Ability to think abstractly and use scientific reasoning some areas, most people find ways to compensate.
develops.
Immature thinking persists in some attitudes and Psychosocial Developments Retirement from workforce may occur and may offer new
behaviors. options for use of time.
Education focuses on preparation for college or vocation. People develop more flexible strategies to cope with
personal losses and impending death.
Psychosocial Developments Search for identity, including sexual identity, becomes Relationships with family and close friends can provide
central. important support.
Relationships with parents are generally good. Search for meaning in life assumes central importance.
Peer group may exert a positive or negative influence.
TYPICAL MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN EIGHT PERIODS OF HUMAN
EMERGING AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD (AGES 20 TO 40)
DEVELOPMENT
Physical Developments Physical condition peaks, then declines slightly.
Lifestyle choices influence health. ● Age divisions in the eight period of human development are
approximate and somewhat arbitrary (ex: individual
Cognitive Developments Thought and moral judgments become more complex. differences)
Educational and occupational choices are made, ● Example: adulthood (there are no clear- cut social or physical
sometimes after period of exploration.
landmarks such as starting school or entering puberty, to signal
Psychosocial Developments Personality traits and styles become relatively stable, but a shift from one period to another.
changes in personality may be influenced by life stages ● This is not to box us
and events. ● Non-arbitrary (supposed to happen)
 ● Although individual differences exist in the way people deal with relationships, education, and leisure
the characteristic events and issues of each period, activities.
developmentalists suggest that certain basic needs must be
met and certain tasks mastered for typical development to Unique Trajectories Each person follows a distinct developmental
occur, at least within the context of modern life. path.

Infants for example, are dependent on adults for Challenge in Identify universal influences and apply them
food. (parents limit their behaviors) Developmental to understand individual developmental
Psychology differences.
During early childhood children gain more self-control and become
more interested in other children INFLUENCES IN DEVELOPMENT

During middle control over behavior gradually shifts from FACTOR 1: HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND MATURATION
childhood parent to child, and the peer group becomes
increasingly important. HEREDITY (nature) Inborn traits or characteristics inherited from
the biological parents.
Adolescence the search for identity—personal, sexual, and
occupational. ENVIRONMENT totality of nonhereditary, or experiential,
(nurture) influences on development.
Emerging Adulthood typically in the early to mid-twenties,
individuals often explore various options ● Contemporary theorists focus on how nature and nurture
Exploration stage and may not yet be ready to commit to the interact rather than debating their relative importance.
typical responsibilities of young adulthood, ● For example, although intelligence is strongly influenced by
like building careers, independent lifestyles, heredity, it is also affected by parental stimulation, education,
and families. peer influences, and other variables.
● Genetic is not destiny
Middle Adulthood while physical abilities may decline, many
find excitement in new careers and life MATURATION Unfolding of a natural sequence of physical
changes, while also managing the and behavioral changes. (predetermined
responsibility of caring for aging parents. End of spectrum means biologically)
delayed or advanced ex: motor skill acquisition in infants, crawling,
Late Adulthood people deal with declining abilities, loss of standing, and walking typically follows a
loved ones, and preparing for death. predictable pattern due to biological
Retirement may mean losing work-based maturation.
relationships but can also bring joy from ex: brain development
friendships, family, and new interests. Many
become more introspective, seeking Only when deviation from the average is extreme should we consider
meaning in their lives. development exceptionally advanced or delayed.

INDIVIDUAL Differences in characteristics, influences, or FACTOR 2: CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENT

DIFFERENCES developmental outcomes.
Vary in gender, height, weight, body build, FAMILY STRUCTURE Human beings are social beings (ex: kapwa
health, energy, intelligence, temperament, theory by Enriquez)
personality, and emotional reactions.
FAMILY as the basic unit of society
Contextual Variability Differences in homes, communities, societies, ● An infant's immediate context is
 usually the FAMILY, which is COLLECTIVISTIC culture in which people tend to prioritize
influenced by the broader CULTURE collaborative social goals ahead of
neighborhood, community, and individual goals and to view themselves in the
society. context of their social relationships.
● There is no single dominant family
structure. ETHNICITY AND RACE

NUCLEAR FAMILY Two-generational kinship, economic, and ETHNIC GROUP a group united by ancestry, race, religion,
household unit consisting of one or two language, or national origins, which
parents and their biological children, adopted contribute to a sense of shared identity.
children, or stepchildren. ETHNIC GROUP IN THE PHILIPPINES:
Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Bisaya,
EXTENDED FAMILY Multigenerational kinship network of Hiligaynon, Bicolano, Tausug, Moro, Aeta,
parents, children, and other relatives, Ifugao
sometimes living together in an extended-
family household. Ethnic and cultural patterns influence development by shaping
household composition, economic and social resources, interpersonal
POLYGAMY Family structure in which one spouse, most interactions, dietary habits, children's activities, learning styles,
commonly a man, is married to more than academic performance, adult occupations, and family perceptions.
one partner. (ex: Muslim countries) ex: tagalog versus cebuano

SOCIOECONOMIC Combination of economic and social factors ETHNIC MINORITIES Ethnic groups with national or cultural
STATUS (SES) describing an individual or family, including traditions different from the majority of the
income, education, and occupation. population. EX: Lumad
For example, SES impacts developmental They are often affected by prejudice and
processes and outcomes indirectly by discrimination.
influencing the quality of homes,
neighborhoods, nutrition, medical care, and INTERSECTIONALITY An analytic framework focused on how a
schooling available. person’s multiple identities combine to create
Poverty after the Pandemic exacerbated by differences in privilege or discrimination.
climate change EX: Black Lives Matter
Poverty and the interaction to the domains of
development (cognitive, psychosocial, RACE a grouping of humans distinguished by their
physical) outward physical characteristics or social
qualities from other groups. Not a biological
CULTURE a society's or group’s total way of life, construct.
including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, (not a biological category)
language, and physical products— all
learned behavior, passed on from parents to ETHNIC GLOSS Overgeneralization about an ethnic or
children. cultural group that obscures differences
within the group.
INDIVIDUALISTIC culture in which people tend to prioritize It' s important to recognize that even within
CULTURE personal goals ahead of collective goals and broad ethnic and racial categories, there is
to view themselves as distinct individuals. significant diversity. For instance, the term
(ex: Western countries) "Hispanics " includes a wide range of groups,
such as Cuban Americans, Central Americans
 (including Mexicans), South Americans, and IMPRINTING Instinctive form of learning in which, during
U.S. -born Hispanics. a critical period in early development, a
young animal forms an attachment to the
HISPANICS used to describe this diverse group as a first moving object it sees, usually the
single entity, this is known as an ethnic gloss mother.

HISTORICAL at one time developmentalists paid little CRITICAL PERIOD Specific time when a given event or its
CONTEXT attention to the historical context—the time absence has a specific impact on
in which people live. However, over time development. (ex: mother taking drugs during
investigators began to focus on how pregnancy)
influences tied to time and place affect the
course of people ’s lives. PLASTICITY (1) Range of modifiability of performance.
(2) Modifiability, or “molding,” of the brain
FACTOR 3: NORMATIVE AND NON-NORMATIVE INFLUENCES through experience.

NORMATIVE biological or environmental events that SENSITIVE PERIODS times in development when a person is
INFLUENCES affect many or most people in a society in particularly open to certain kinds of
similar ways and events that touch only experiences.
certain individuals (Baltes & Smith, 2004). Some children—especially those with difficult
temperaments, those who are highly
NORMATIVE GRADED influences are highly similar for people in a reactive, and those with particular gene
- INFLUENCES particular age group. variants—may be more profoundly affected
For example, people don’t experience puberty by childhood experiences, whether positive or
at age 35 or menopause at 12. negative, than other children (Belsky &
Pluess, 2009).
NORMATIVE HISTORY significant events (such as World War II or
GRADED - the COVID-19 pandemic) that shape the LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT APPROACH
INFLUENCES behavior and attitudes of a HISTORICAL
GENERATION Paul B. Baltes and colleagues identified seven key principles of
life-span development:
HISTORICAL a group of people who experience the event
GENERATION at a formative time in their lives. LIFELONG Development is continuous and affects every
not the same as an age COHORT DEVELOPMENT stage of life equally.

COHORT a group of people born at about the same MULTIDIMENSIONAL Development spans biological, psychological,
time and social dimensions, each evolving at
different rates.
NONNORMATIVE characteristic of an unusual event that
happens to a particular person or a typical MULTIDIRECTIONAL Gains in some areas may be accompanied by
event that happens at an unusual time of losses in others; abilities vary throughout
life. life.
ex: such as the death of a parent when a child
is young or a typical events such as surviving SHIFTING The impact of biology and culture on
a plane crash. INFLUENCES development changes over time.

FACTOR 4: TIMING OF INFLUENCES RESOURCE Time, energy, and other resources are
 ALLOCATION shifted between growth, maintenance, and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively
dealing with loss throughout life. different stages

PLASTICITY Abilities like memory and strength can ISSUE 2: IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS?
improve with effort, though plasticity has
limits. CONTINUOUS Suggests that development is a gradual,
ongoing process without sudden changes
CONTEXTUAL Development is shaped by historical and
INFLUENCE cultural contexts, affecting and being QUANTITATIVE change in number or amount, such as in
affected by them. CHANGE height, weight, size of vocabulary, or
frequency of communication
THEORY AND RESEARCH Language Development, Height and Weight
Growth, Motor Skills
THEORIES IN A scientific theory of development is a set of
DEVELOPMENT logically related concepts or statements that DISCONTINUOUS Argues that development occurs in distinct
seek to describe and explain development stages or steps, with sudden changes
and to predict the kinds of behavior that
might occur under certain conditions. QUALITATIVE Discontinuous change in kind, structure, or
CHANGE organization
THEORY Coherent set of logically related concepts Piaget’s Cognitive Stages, Erikson’s
that seeks to organize, explain, and predict Psychosocial Stages, Puberty
data.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN DEVELOPMENT
HYPOTHESIS Possible explanations for phenomena, used
to predict the outcome of research. PERSPECTIVE 1: PSYCHOANALYTIC

FALSIFIABILITY A theory or idea can be tested and proven ORGANISMIC active and discontinuous (Qualitative)
wrong. For a theory to be scientific, there THEORISTS - SIGMUND FREUD
must be a way to show that it could be - ERIK ERIKSON
incorrect. If there's no way to test it or prove
it false, then it isn’t considered scientific. SIGMUND FREUD was a Viennese physician
(1856 - 1939) View of human development as shaped by
THEORIES SHARE SOME COMMON THEMES unconscious forces that motivate human
behavior.
ISSUE 1: IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR REACTIVE?
Conscious
REACTIVE Individuals respond or react to stimuli, Preconscious - Ego - Reality principle
experiences, or influences around them Unconscious - Superego - Morality Principle
- Id - Pleasure principle
MECHANISTIC MODEL Model that views human development as a
series of predictable responses to stimuli PSYCHOSEXUAL In Freudian theory, an unvarying sequence of
DEVELOPMENT stages of childhood personality development
ACTIVE People make choices, explore, and influence in which gratification shifts from the mouth to
their own growth and environment the anus and then to the genitals. (biological
drives)
ORGANISMIC MODEL Model that views human development as
internally initiated by an active organism and
 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES months) Virtue: hope.

CRUCIAL STAGES ORAL - ANAL - PHALLIC Autonomy versus Child develops a balance of independence
shame and doubt (12 - and self-sufficiency over shame and doubt.
ORAL ( BIRTH TO Baby's chief source of pleasure involves 18 months to 3 years) Virtue: will.
12-18 MONTHS) mouth-oriented activities (sucking and
feeding). Initiative versus guilt Child develops initiative when trying new
(3 to 6 years) activities and is not overwhelmed by guilt.
ANAL (12-18 MONTHS Child derives sensual gratification from Virtue: purpose.
TO 3 YEARS) withholding and expelling feces. Zone of
gratification is anal region, and toilet training Industry versus Child must learn skills of the culture or face
is important activity. inferiority (6 years to feelings of incompetence.
puberty) Virtue: skill.
PHALLIC (3 TO 6 Child becomes attached to parent of the
YEARS) other sex and later identifies with same-sex Identity versus Adolescent must determine own sense of self
parent. Superego develops. Zone of identity confusion ("Who am I?") or experience confusion about
gratification shifts to genital region. (puberty to young roles.
adulthood) Virtue: fidelity.
OEDIPUS COMPLEX concerns the conflicts between a mother and
a male child during phallic development Intimacy versus Person seeks to make commitments to others;
isolation (young if unsuccessful, may suffer from isolation and
ELECTRA COMPLEX relates to the relationship between the female adulthood) self-absorption.
child and her father Virtue: love.

FIXATION occurs when the primary needs or desires of a Generativity versus Mature adult is concerned with establishing
major developmental stage are not stagnation (middle and guiding the next generation or else feels
adequately satisfied, leading to an ongoing adulthood) personal impoverishment.
struggle to move beyond that stage. Virtue: care.

LATENCY (6 YEARS TO Time of relative calm between more turbulent Integrity versus Older adult achieves acceptance of own life,
PUBERTY) stages. despair (late allowing acceptance of death, or else
adulthood) despairs over inability to relive life.
GENITAL ( PUBERTY Reemergence of sexual impulses of phallic Virtue: wisdom.
THROUGH stage, channeled into mature adult sexuality.
ADULTHOOD) PERSPECTIVE 2: LEARNING

ERIK ERIKSON (1902 - modified and extended Freudian theory by LEARNING View of human development that holds that
1994) emphasizing the influence of society on the changes in behavior result from experience or
developing personality from adaptation to the environment.
also was a pioneer in taking a life-span Learning theorists focused on behavior, not
perspective. the mind’ s inner workings, because behavior
is observable, measurable, and offers
PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES greater objectivity.
ex: Tabula Rasa by John Locke
Basic trust versus Baby develops sense of whether world is a
mistrust (birth to 12-18 good and safe place. BEHAVIORISM learning theory that emphasizes the
 predictable role of environment in causing REINFORCEMENT something aversive
observable behavior. (STIMULUS AND
RESPONSE) POSITIVE involves the addition of an aversive stimulus
PUNISHMENT to decrease behavior
MECHANISTIC reactive and continuous (Quantitative)
THEORISTS - IVAN PAVLOV NEGATIVE involves the removal of a desirable stimulus
- JOHN B. WATSON PUNISHMENT to decrease behavior
- B.F. SKINNER
ALBERT BANDURA developed many of the principles of social
ORGANISMIC active and continuous (Quantitative) (1925 - 2021) learning theory.
THEORIST - ALBERT BANDURA Whereas behaviorists see the environment as
the chief impetus for development, he (1989)
IVAN PAVLOV (1849 - was a Russian physiologist studying the role suggested the impetus for development is
1936) of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes. bidirectional.

CLASSICAL learning based on associating a stimulus that SOCIAL LEARNING Theory that behaviors are learned by
CONDITIONING does not ordinarily elicit a response with THEORY observing and imitating models. Also called
another stimulus that does elicit the response. social cognitive theory.
(ex: dog and the bell) The person acts on the world as the world
acts on the person.
JOHN B. WATSON applied such stimulus response theories to
(1878 - 1958) children. (EX: Little Albert) RECIPROCAL Bandura’s term for bidirectional forces that
DETERMINISM affect development.
B.F. SKINNER (1904 - American Psychologist
1990) argued that an organism—animal or OBSERVATIONAL Learning through watching the behavior of
human—will tend to repeat a response that LEARNING others. (Ex. Bobo doll experiment)
has been reinforced by desirable
consequences and will suppress a response SELF-EFFICACY Sense of one’s capability to master
that has been punished. challenges and achieve goals.

OPERANT (1) Learning based on association of behavior PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE

CONDITIONING with its consequences.
(2) Learning based on reinforcement or ORGANISMIC active and discontinuous (Qualitative)
punishment. THEORISTS - JEAN PIAGET
active and continuous (Quantitative)
REINFORCEMENT The process by which a behavior is - LEV SEMENOVICH VYGOTSKY
strengthened, increasing the likelihood that
the behavior will be repeated. MECHANISTIC active and continuous (Quantitative)
THEORIST - INFORMATION PROCESSING
PUNISHMENT The process by which a behavior is weakened, APPROACH
decreasing the likelihood of repetition.
JEAN PIAGET developed the cognitive stage theory that
POSITIVE increases the target behavior by adding (1896-1980) reintroduced the concept of scientific inquiry
REINFORCEMENT something desirable into mental states.
View that thought processes are central to
NEGATIVE increases the target behavior by taking away development
 COGNITIVE STAGE Piaget’s theory that children’s cognitive information into an existing cognitive
THEORY development advances in a series of four structure.
stages involving qualitatively distinct types of
mental operations. d. ACCOMODATION Piaget’s term for changes in a cognitive
structure to include new information.
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
EQUILIBRATION Piaget’s term for the tendency to seek a
SENSORIMOTOR (0-2) Coordination of senses with motor responses, stable balance among cognitive elements;
sensory curiosity about the world. Language achieved through a balance between
used for demands and cataloguing. Object assimilation and accommodation.
permanence is developed.
LEV SEMENOVICH (1978) focused on the social and cultural
PREOPERATIONAL Symbolic thinking, use of proper syntax and VYGOTSKY processes that guide children’s cognitive
(2-7) grammar to express concepts. Imagination (1896-1934) development
and intuition are strong, but complex abstract
thoughts are still difficult. SOCIOCULTURAL Vygotsky’s theory of how contextual factors
Conservation is developed. THEORY affect children’s development.

CONCRETE Concepts attached to concrete situations. ZONE OF PROXIMAL refers to the range of tasks that a learner can
OPERATIONAL (7-11) Time, space, and quantity are understood DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) perform with the help of a more
and can be applied, but not as independent knowledgeable person, but cannot yet
concepts. perform independently.

FORMAL Theoretical, hypothetical, and counterfactual SCAFFOLDING Temporary support to help a child master a
OPERATIONAL (11 and thinking. Abstract logic and reasoning. task. (ex: a child learning how to swim)
older) Strategy and planning become possible.
Concepts learned in one context can be ACHIEVEMENT VS An intelligence test in the Vygotskian
applied to another. APTITUDE tradition might allow testers to offer hints to
children who were having trouble answering a
Cognitive growth occurs through three interrelated processes question, thereby focusing on that child’s
potential learning.
a. ORGANIZATION (1) Piaget’s term for the creation of
categories or systems of knowledge. INFORMATION primarily associated with several cognitive
(2) Mnemonic strategy of categorizing PROCESSING psychologists rather than a single theorist.
material to be remembered. APPROACH (1) Approach to the study of cognitive
development by observing and analyzing the
SCHEMES Piaget’s term for organized patterns of mental processes involved in perceiving and
thought and behavior used in particular handling information.
situations. (ex: every flying object is a bird) (2) Approach to the study of cognitive
development that analyzes processes
b. ADAPTATION Piaget's term for adjustment to new involved in perceiving and handling
information about the environment, achieved information.
through processes of assimilation and not a single theory but a framework that
accommodation. supports a wide range of theories and
research.
c. ASSIMILATION Piaget’s term for incorporation of new
 INFORMATION- Some information-processing theorists policies.
PROCESSING compare the brain to a computer: There are For instance, differences in parental leave
THEORISTS certain inputs (such as sensory impressions) policies across countries impact whether a
and certain outputs (such as behaviors). parent can stay home with a newborn,
Information-processing theorists are indirectly influencing the child' s development
interested in what happens in the middle. through these broader societal factors.
Why does the same input sometimes result in
different outputs? MACROSYSTEM encompasses broad cultural influences,
Theorists within this tradition focus on including beliefs, ideologies, and economic or
processes such as attention, memory, political systems.
planning strategies, decision errors, For example, individuals ' experiences differ
decision-making, and goal setting. (ex: based on the political environment, such as
learning a formula in Math) being raised in a democratic society versus
an authoritarian regime, shaping their
PERSPECTIVE 4: CONTEXTUAL development and worldview.

ORGANISMIC active and continuous (Quantitative) CHRONOSYSTEM refers to the dimension of time, capturing
THEORIST - URIE BRONFENBRENNER how life events and transitions—such as
changes in family structure, residence, or
URIE bioecological theory of American parents ’ employment— along with broader
BRONFENBRENNER psychologist events like wars or economic shifts, influence
(1917 -2005) (1979) is generally represented as a set of development over time.
rings with the developing child in the middle
View of human development that sees the PERSPECTIVE 5: EVOLUTIONARY/ SOCIOBIOLOGICAL
individual as inseparable from the social
context. ORGANISMIC active and continuous (Quantitative)
THEORIST - CHARLES DARWIN
BIOECOLOGICAL Bronfenbrenner’s approach to understanding
THEORY processes and contexts of human CHARLES DARWIN’S Influenced by Darwin ’ s theory of evolution,
development that identifies five levels of THEORY it draws on findings of anthropology, ecology,
environmental influence. genetics, ethology, and evolutionary
psychology to explain the adaptive, or
MICROSYSTEM includes the immediate environments like survival, value of behavior for an individual
home, school, or work, involving direct or species.
interactions with family, friends, classmates, View of human development that focuses on
or colleagues. evolutionary and biological bases of behavior.
1. Organisms vary.
MESOSYSTEM refers to the connections between 2. There are never enough resources for
microsystems, such as how a parent's all organisms to survive.
stressful day at work can negatively affect 3. Individual differences in organisms
their interactions with their child at home, are heritable.
showing how environments indirectly
influence one another. NATURAL SELECTION It refers to the process through which
individuals with traits better suited to their
EXOSYSTEM involves interactions between a microsystem environment are more likely to survive and
and external systems, like institutions or reproduce.
 ADAPTATION refers to a characteristic or trait that has
evolved through natural selection to improve
an organism's ability to survive and
reproduce in its environment.

ETHOLOGY Study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of

species of animals that have evolved to
increase survival of the species.

EVOLUTIONARY Application of Darwinian principles of natural

PSYCHOLOGY selection and survival of the fittest to
individual behavior.

RESEARCH METHODS

QUANTITATIVE Research that deals with objectively

RESEARCH measurable data.
Strengths of Examines questions in great depth and detail.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD System of established principles and Qualitative Research Allows for flexible research frameworks that
processes of scientific inquiry, which includes can be revised with new data.
identifying a problem to be studied, Provides rich insights into attitudes and
formulating a hypothesis to be tested by behavior.
research, collecting data, analyzing the data, Fosters interactive relationships between
forming tentative conclusions, and investigators and participants, humanizing
disseminating findings. the research process.
Reveals information that may not emerge in
QUALITATIVE Research that focuses on nonnumerical data, quantitative research settings.
RESEARCH such as subjective experiences, feelings, or
beliefs. Limitations of Less rigorous and more subject to bias
Qualitative Research compared to quantitative research.
WEIRD (Western, for the type of societies from which research Small, non-random samples reduce
educated, samples are typically drawn generalizability and replicability.
industrialized, rich, Although psychology as a discipline has Analysis and interpretation of large volumes
and democratic) increasingly moved toward the inclusion of of data are time-consuming.
diverse groups in research, the majority of Findings and conclusions heavily depend on
psychological data has been collected on the researcher's skills.
WEIRD samples (Henrich et al., 2010).
Overlap Between Qualitative data can be analyzed
Qualitative and quantitatively, such as using statistical
Quantitative analysis of interview transcripts or
Research videotaped observations.
Quantitative data can be enriched by
qualitative research, such as using interviews
to explore motivations and attitudes behind
test scores.
RESEARCH ISSUES Psychologists are increasingly concerned with
incorporating diversity into scientific
research. The open science movement calls
for increased integrity, reproducibility, and
accessibility of scientific work.
Researchers seek to resolve ethical issues on
the basis of principles of beneficence,
respect, and justice.
Standards for protection of children used in
research cover such principles as parental
informed consent and protection from harm
or jeopardy to the child’s well-being.