The Generic AM Process Chain The Generic AM Process Chain

• General underlying principle of AM • Decreasing the layer thickness results in

• Slice the product in layers along desired axis • Increased accuracy
• Build the product by stacking of each layer along • Increased build time
the slice axis
• Slicing a layer in non-uniform layer thickness reduces
• With this type of product buildup “Stair step effect” is the stair step effect Thick layer Thin layer Variable layer
unavoidable Layer buildup Finished product thickness

(Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and Alcazar, 2022)

• In regions with steep change in cross-section, small (Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and Alcazar, 2022)

• Most common axis layout is the one where layer thickness is selected
• Layers are in X–Y plane and
• They are stacked along Z axis • In regions with constant cross-section, layer thickness
is increased
• Accuracy along Z axis can be altered by changing layer
heights during slicing • Important point to note
• Build accuracy and mechanical properties of
finished products are not identical in all three axes
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The Generic AM Process Chain Schematic of AM Process Chain

• Steps involved in AM from CAD model to final part include

Pre-processing for AM

Build and post-processing

for AM

(Figure source: Additive Manufacturing Technologies: Rapid Prototyping to Direct Digital Manufacturing
Authors: Gibson, I., and Rosen, D.W., and Stucker, B., ) (Figure source: Additive Manufacturing Technologies: Rapid Prototyping to Direct Digital Manufacturing
Authors: Gibson, I., and Rosen, D.W., and Stucker, B., )

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Schematic of AM Process Chain Step-I: Conceptualization and CAD
• First step in AM – 3D CAD model

• CAD model – virtual representation of the desired product

• A 3D CAD model - basic requisite of all AM processes

• Methods to generate the 3D CAD model

• CAD modeling software
• Reverse engineering
• Computed tomography (CT) machines

• Reverse engineering – Design of an existing component is captured by scanners

• Once the initial design is created a design optimization is carried out for optimal part performance.
This can include
• Topology optimization for weight reduction
• Multimaterial optimization for best functionality
• Assembly optimization for part count reduction
(Figure Source: Innovations in Additive Manufacturing
Editors: Khan M.A., and Jappes M.A.W )

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Step-I: Conceptualization and CAD Step-I: Conceptualization and CAD

• Models are supposed to be “watertight” • Freeware software available for closing gaps in surfaces
➢ Meshmixer,
• This implies that there should not be any gaps in ➢ GOM Inspect
enclosing surfaces of a solid model
• By Automatically closing large gaps in models, there is a possibility that created geometry
• Gaps can occur when models are created with can substantially deviate from desired geometry
• 3D scanners Watertight model
• Computed tomography (CT) machines

• Model of cylinder (non watertight) was created by 3D scanner

• Part of the inner cylinder was optically unreachable for cameras

of 3D scanner Non watertight model

• Requirement for a 3D scanner adequately register (Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and Alcazar, 2022)

a surface during 3D scanning – All regions must be optically reachable

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Step-II: Conversion to “.STL” Step-II: Conversion to “.STL”
• Representations methods used to describe CAD geometry vary from one system to another • The STL file format approximates the surfaces of the model using tiny triangles

• Therefore, design generated from CAD software is converted to standard file formats for
further processing

• A standard interface is needed to convey geometric descriptions from various CAD packages
to AM systems

• The most commonly used format is “Standard Tessellation Language (STL)” file format which
was developed by 3D Systems

• Tesselation is a process of tiling an arbitrary surface with primitive geometric shapes (e.g.
triangles, squares) without any gaps or overlaps (Figure source: Additive Manufacturing Technologies: Rapid Prototyping to Direct Digital Manufacturing
Authors: Gibson, I., and Rosen, D.W., and Stucker, B., )

• The STL file is created from the CAD database via an interface on the CAD system

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Step-II: Conversion to “.STL” Step-II: Conversion to “.STL”

• STL file is a triangular representation of a three-dimensional surface • Since the STL format is universal, this process is identical for all of the AM techniques
geometry
• Generally, the STL file is many times larger than the original CAD data file
• Planar surfaces of a model can be tessellated with large triangles
• When manufacturing one item, file size is not an issue
• Non-planar (curved) surfaces of a model have to be tessellated with
large number of small triangles • In many powder bed fusion processes, parts are nested i.e., large number of parts can be
produced simultaneously
• This increases the number of triangles and thus increases the size of STL
(Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and
Alcazar, 2022)

file (STL files for curved parts can be very large) • Since non-planar surfaces are approximated with large number of small planar triangles
dimensional difference between CAD and STL model is inevitable
• Because the STL files use planar elements, they cannot represent curved
surfaces exactly • If deviations between models are smaller than
• AM machine resolution and
• The higher the resolution of the STL file, the better the quality of the • Build accuracy
model these deviations are not translated to the final product.

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Redundancy in “.STL” File Format Redundancy in “.STL” File Format
• Deviations between CAD model and STL model
with 29,492 triangles are shown

• Largest deviations, as expected, are on non-planar

surfaces

• There is only a small percentage of geometry which

deviates more than 50 μm from CAD file

• Most deviations are in the range from −10 to 10

μm from CAD model

• The conversion of this geometry from CAD to STL

file format is acceptable
CAD Model STL Model Deviations between CAD Deviations between CAD
and STL Model and STL Model
(Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and (Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and
Alcazar, 2022) Alcazar, 2022)

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Redundancy in “.STL” File Format Redundancy in “.STL” File Format

• STL file is losing relevance due to the emergence of AM technologies that can produce parts • Additive Manufacturing File Format (AMF) is being developed by ISO/ASTM subcommittees
with and many of the problems regarding STL file formats are solved
• Varying colors
• Textures • One of the biggest improvements of AMF file format regarding geometry is the possibility
of tessellation of surfaces with curved triangles
• STL files do not provide information about the dimensional scale of the product
• This improves part accuracy after conversion from CAD model

• If the user unintentionally imports a model in a different unit environment (milimeters vs. • 3D Manufacturing Format (3MF) is a new file format being developed by the 3MF
inches) there is big possibility that the final product would not be dimensionally correct Consortium

• Other file formats being developed to overcome limitations of STL files • 3MF format inherits most of the properties from AMF file format
• Additive Manufacturing File Format (AMF)
• 3D Manufacturing Format (3MF)

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Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation
• In this step, the STL file describing the part is transferred to the AM machine • This process of repair of STL files can be
• Tedious
• The CAD and STL files will reside in personal computers or workstations (Office) and they • Time consuming
need to be transferred to the system on AM machine (Shop floor)
• This is because of the large number of geometric entities (e.g. triangular facets) encountered
• The STL files can contain undesirable geometrical errors along the surface boundaries such in a CAD model
as
• Holes • In case of errors, the gaps in the models are filled with new triangles
• Overlapping areas
• After the generation of an error-free STL file, the next step is part placement in the build
• These errors need to be rectified before building the component envelope

• A number of commercial softwares (ex: MAGICS by Materialise) are available to detect the • Build Material- The material which is used to build the actual part
errors and to rectify them
• Support Material- The material which supports the hanging build material, and is removed
after completion

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Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation
• Part placement in build envelope is in most cases the defining • Support structures are used for
factor for success in part manufacturing • Support for regions which are more angled than a specific value
from the vertical axis (The build from falling and displacing)
• Depending on the AM technology being used, correct part • Heat conduction and dissipation (Mostly in Metal AM)
placement can result in
• Minimizing anisotropy in mechanical properties • Final part orientation with resulting support geometries for FFF
• Increase production speed technology is shown
• Optimize usage of build material
(Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and

• Depending on the selected AM technology, part may or may not Alcazar, 2022)

need support geometries for successful build

• The corrected 3D model is organized in the build platform and the

support structures are generated for delicate features such as
• Overhangs
(Figure Source: Innovations in Additive Manufacturing
Editors: Khan M.A., and Jappes M.A.W )

• Internal cavities and (Figure Source: Innovations in Additive Manufacturing

• Thin-walled sections
Editors: Khan M.A., and Jappes M.A.W ) (Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and
Alcazar, 2022)

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Support Structures Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation
• In powder-based AM technologies, nesting of parts is possible
i.e., multiple parts can be fabricated simultaneously

• For nesting of parts, the user has to orient parts in such a way
that there is minimum distance possible between each part

• Most parts produced with AM technologies generally have

complex shapes

• Therefore, ideal part orientation is hard to achieve by manual (Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and
orientation of single part in whole part group Alcazar, 2022)

• Users have to use available optimization algorithms for optimal

part orientation

(Figure source: Additive Manufacturing Technologies: Rapid Prototyping to Direct Digital Manufacturing
Authors: Gibson, I., and Rosen, D.W., and Stucker, B., )
• Build envelope prepared for simultaneous production of 20
parts is shown
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Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation
• These support structures govern the quality of the build component and build time • Once layer thickness is defined computer algorithms carry out
slicing of complete build volume from
• Now the Model contains both • Initial build platform position to final build platform position
• Required design in vertical steps defined by layer thickness
• Support structures
• Slices by themselves are a visual representation for users to
• This model will then be sliced into thin cross-sectional layers with prescribed layer thickness visualize AM process
along the vertical axis
• However, AM machines need specific commands which they can
• Slicing of build envelopes is in most cases done automatically process and use for production (Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and
Alcazar, 2022)

• Slicing is specific for each AM technology • In most cases G-code is used, and it is generated automatically
with slicing software

• G-codes include all the necessary commands for all machine

components which are utilized during production

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Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation
• G-codes are understood by the AM machine • Layer thickness in AM processes can vary from “microns to mm”
depending upon the selected AM process
• G-codes provides details on the path to be followed by the deposition head in each layer
• Layer thickness decides the quality of the built component and
• Slicing the 3D model and generating the G-code implies build time
• Design can be read by the 3D printer
• Design can be fabricated by the 3D printer • Layers are rectangular in nature

• Hence when approximating a curved object with rectangular layers

– issues with layers coinciding with the contour of the curved object

• It leads to a gap on the sides of the object – Staircase effect

(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)
• The size of the gap depends upon the layer thickness

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Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation
• For thinner layers, the gap is smaller

• Gap always remain in a layer wise build

• Effort is to minimize this gap so that the resulting contour would be

acceptable

• But the gap remains always present in the layerwise built; the effort is to
minimize this gap so that the resulting contour would be acceptable

• Optimum layer thickness should be selected

• To maximum production speed (Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

• Without no loss of precision due to staircase effect

• Generally higher layer thickness is selected for vertical edge sections of

the product (Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and
Alcazar, 2022)

• Smaller layer thickness is used for sloped edges

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Step-III: Transfer to AM Machine and STL File Manipulation Scan Strategy (Raster Pattern)
• Raster pattern – Tool path (how the deposition head moves in a layer for addition of material)
• Generally, two types of scan strategies are used
• Raster pattern for each layer includes that for fabrication of ➢ Fill scan and
• Component ➢ Contour scan
• Support structures
• Fill scan is used to scan across all areas
• Raster pattern is based on component design

• Contour scan is used to do scanning at boundaries

(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

• Raster pattern governs

• Build time
• Build quality (Distortion, residual stress and surface finish) • In figure - Fill scan is parallel scan and contour scan is done by scanning once at
• Microstructure and thereby the resulting mechanical properties
boundaries
• Therefore selection of rastern pattern is given a lot of importance
• Unidirectional - parallel scan in one direction
• Most AM processes have their own design guidelines that control
• Design of support structures
• Part orientation
• Raster pattern
• Layer thickness etc.,
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Scan Strategy Scan Strategy

• Figure shows shows parallel scan with a change in direction at alternate scan • In the case of bidirectional scan, heat source can do continuous scanning
(bidirectional scan strategy)
• Parallel-line scan mode is easy to program/implement

• Parallel line scan is the most commonly used scan mode in powder-bed fusion
processes

(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing) • Lines can be parallel to

• X-axis
• Scan time in the unidirectional scan > Scan time in bidirectional scan • Y-axis
• Making some angle with axis (45°)
• Unidirectional scan – heat source always starts from the same side => heat source
needs to travel back to the same side without scanning (dwell time)

• No scanning occurs during dwell time

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Scan Strategy Scan Strategy
• One strategy to avoid heat accumulation • In parallel-line scan mode, if cavity or hole has to be made,
• Divide the plan to be scanned into a number of smaller regions then
(islands) • Scanning stops at the boundary of the cavity and
• Scan each island with same/different scan strategy • After traversing through the cavity, the scanning again
starts
• Dividing larger area into small islands => reduce the problem of
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)
heat buildup from a big area (whole plane) to a small area (island) (Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)
• In the figure shown, the heat source beam traverses
through elliptical and rectangular cavities without being
• Scan one island at one corner and then scan another island at a switched on
distant corner of the plane => reduce heat buildup in any region
=> reduce warpage/distortion • This means that scanner time is wasted in traversing
through the cavities

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Scan Strategy Scan Strategy

• Frequently switching on and off the heat source also • Parallel-line scan mode either in big scale or small scale (island
decreases the lifetime of heat source strategy) gives rise
➢ Anisotropy and
• These disadvantages are overcome to some extent in ➢ stress evolution
island strategy
• These issues can be avoided by taking Fractal scan mode
• In island strategy, islands are made around the cavities ➢ Fractal scan path or
➢ Spiral path
• Islands are scanned without passing through the cavities
• Fractal scan path strategy suffers from the disadvantages of low
as shown
scan speed as heat source has to decelerate and accelerate
frequently
• If the cavity has a nonstraight boundary (such as circular Spiral scan mode
or elliptical cavity) => smaller islands would be required • Spiral scan mode does not give any disadvantage of parallel-line
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

to approximate the shape of the cavity (Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)
scan mode but it gives problem in filling up whole surface
uniformly
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Step-IV: Machine Setup Step-IV: Machine Setup
• In this step, the process parameters are defined • However, the quality of the AM part can be effected

• For many AM processes, these parameters are exclusive to that system • These process parameters are defined in the AM software introduced in step-III

• Here, human intervention is required for decision-making on • Generally, different sets of process parameters are used for
• Selection of process parameters • Actual part
• Support structures
• Process parameters determine the quality of the fabricated component via
• Build time • Generally support structures are made weak (use low energy) to allow for their easy removal
• Build quality (Distortion, residual stress and surface finish) from the component
• Microstructure and mechanical properties
• This step also include preparation of AM machine for physical building of the part
• Hence it is necessary to optimize process parameters
• This preparation includes
• Components can be fabricated using non-optimum process parameters • Ensure enough feedstock is available for the fabrication of the component
• In many Metal AM processes, the concentration of oxygen must be kept below 100 ppm
by purging the build chamber with inert gas
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Step-IV: Machine Setup Step-V: Build

• This step also include preparation of AM machine for physical building of the part • Building the part is mostly an automated process

• This preparation includes • Here monitoring of the machine/build is carried out to ensure that there is no
• Ensure enough feedstock is available for the fabrication of the component • Running out of feedstock
• Load the feedstock to the machine • Underdeposition or overdeposition
• In many Metal AM processes, the concentration of oxygen must be kept below 100 ppm
by purging the build chamber with inert gas • In this stage, the component is built in a layer-by-layer fashion with minimal human
• Identifying appropriate fixturing arrangements to hold the build plate intervention

• AM processes generally involve building a layer in the ‘XY’ plane by moving either the
deposition head or build plate

• Subsequently, the next layer is added on the previous layer after moving either the
deposition head upward or the build platform downward

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Step-V: Build Process Step-VI: Removal
• In AM, the machine generally indicates to the user upon the completion of the fabrication of
a part

• After building the part, the part needs to be removed from the machine

• Some OEM’s have safety interlocks that ensure that part can be removed
• After cooling to room temperature

(Figure Source: Form Labs)

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Step-VI: Removal Step-VII: Postprocessing

• The inherent limitations of most AM processes
• Support structures
• Surface finish
• Residual stress
• Porosity
• Anisotropy in mechanical properties
add an extra step called as post-processing

• Post-processing of the build component is necessary to make the component ready for the
final application

• Post-processing steps are generally specific to

• Process and
• Application

(Source: RMIT Centre for Additive Manufacturing) • Postprocessing may also involve some manual operations

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Step-VII: Postprocessing Step-VII: Postprocessing
• In the manual operations, the danger of damaging a part is particularly high • An important step in post-processing is the removal of support structures

• One main focus of postprocessing is to ensure that the part does not undergo any damage • Generally, during AM of plastic components, the support structures are either breakaway
during post-processing supports or soluble supports

• The cleaning task refers to the removal of excess resin or powder which may have remained • Breakaway supports can be removed manually
on the part
• Soluble supports are removed by dissolving them in an appropriate solvent
• For the parts fabricated using Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) processes, the excess powder has to
be removed using a brush or vacuum system • However, in the case of AM of metallic components, Wire Electric Discharge Machining
(WEDM) is commonly used for support removal

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Step-VII: Postprocessing Step-VII: Postprocessing

• Most of the AM parts need to be post processed in varying • When producing polymer parts, the support structures used
amounts to achieve are
• Aesthetic appearance • Breakaway supports or
• Mechanical properties (Heat treatment) • Soluble supports
• Geometrical accuracy
• Densification • Breakaway supports can be removed manually
• Relieving residual stress
• Soluble supports are removed by dissolving them in an
• An important step in post-processing is the removal of support (Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and
appropriate solvent
structures
(Figure source: Godec, Gutierrez, Nordin, Pei and
Alcazar, 2022)
Alcazar, 2022)

• Example of a finished part made from ABS polymer on an FFF

• Polymer based AM technologies can include operations such as machine is shown
• Manual support removal
• Sanding • This part has gone through the process of support removal,
• Painting sanding and painting

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Step-VII: Postprocessing Step-VIII: Applications
• Postprocessing in Metal AM processes generally include • After post-processing the AM built component is ready to use for desired
• Removal of support structures (Wire EDM)
application
• Heat Treatment
• Hot Isostatic Pressing (Hipping for Densification)
• Stress relief heat treatment
• Sanding and painting • This may require them to be assembled together with other mechanical or electronic
components to form a final model or product
• Consequently, In Metal AM the part face attached to the support lacks surface
quality

• Postprocessing steps in binder jetting processes generally include

• Debinding
• Sintering
• Infiltration

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Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes Powder Bed Fusion Processes

• Powder bed fusion (PBF) processes were among the first commercialized AM Processes

• Developed at the University of Texas at Austin, USA, by Carl Deckhard and colleagues.

• Carl Deckhard was a master’s student at University of Texas at Austin and he filed a patent for the
process in 1986. The patent was granted in 1989.

• Selective laser sintering (SLS) was the first commercialized PBF process. The process was
commercialized by DTM corporation (now 3D Systems who acquired DTM Corp in 2001)

• From the time it was commercialized, the process has seen exponential growth in all aspects: related
patents filed, types of materials processed, papers presented and published, new applications found,
machines sold, new industries that adopted it for research and production, etc.
(Source: Bandyopadhyay and Traxel, 2018)

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Powder Bed Fusion Processes Powder Bed Fusion Processes
• The term ‘sintering’ in the name implies that the powder is involved in the process • Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) was developed jointly by Rapid Product Innovations (RPI) and EOS
GmbH in 1994 as the first commercial rapid prototyping method to produce metal parts in a single
process
• ‘Selective’ in the name implies that all powders are not processed by laser simultaneously, i.e.,
powders are processed selectively when and where it is required
• PBF is an additive manufacturing process in which thermal energy (from a laser or electron beam)
selectively fuses regions of a powder bed
• In case of conventional sintering (Powder metallurgy technique), all powders are processed
simultaneously

• In Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) process the powders are joined by partial melting

• In Selective Laser Melting (SLM) process, the powders are joined by full melting

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Powder Bed Fusion Processes Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process

• All PBF processes share a basic set of characteristics • Thin layers of powder (typically 0.075– 0.1 mm thick) are spread
▪ one or more thermal sources for inducing fusion between powder particles across the build area using a counter-rotating powder leveling
roller
▪ a method for controlling powder fusion to a prescribed region of each layer and
▪ Mechanisms for adding and smoothing powder layers
• The part building process takes place inside an enclosed
chamber filled with Nitrogen gas to minimize oxidation and
• The most common thermal sources for PBF are lasers degradation of the powdered material

• PBF processes which utilize lasers are known as laser sintering (LS) machines
• For materials such as Ti, Argon gas is used

• CO2 lasers used for polymers; fiber lasers and electron beams used for metals (Source: Gibson [Link]., (2015))
• Infrared heaters are placed above the build platform to maintain
an elevated temperature around the part being formed, as well
as above the feed cartridges to preheat the powder prior to
spreading over the build area

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Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process
• In some cases, the build platform is also heated using resistive • Surrounding powder remains loose and serves as support for
heaters around the build platform subsequent layers

• This preheating of powder and maintenance of an elevated, • After completing a layer, the build platform is lowered by one
uniform temperature within the build platform is necessary layer thickness and a new layer of powder is laid and leveled
➢ To minimize the laser power requirements of the process (with preheating, using the counter-rotating roller
less laser energy is required for fusion) and
➢ To prevent warping of the part during the build due to nonuniform thermal (Source: Muthu and Savalani (2017))

expansion and contraction (resulting in curling) • The beam scans the subsequent slice cross section (Source: Brandt [Link]., (2017))

• Once an appropriate powder layer has been formed and • The process repeats until the entire model is created. Loose,
preheated, a focused laser beam is directed onto the powder bed unfused powder is removed during post processing
and is moved using galvanometers in such a way that it thermally
fuses the material to form the slice cross section
• A cool-down period is typically required to allow the parts to
(Source: Gibson [Link]., (2015))
uniformly come to a low-enough temperature that they can be
handled and exposed to ambient temperature and atmosphere
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Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process
• If the parts and/or powder bed are prematurely exposed to • The substrate is placed on a piston so that its vertical position
ambient temperature and atmosphere, could be changed
➢ The powders may degrade in the presence of oxygen and
➢ Parts may warp due to uneven thermal contraction
• Scanning mirror is used to scan the deposited layer on the
substrate using a laser beam coming from a laser source
• Finally, the parts are removed from the powder bed, loose
powder is cleaned off the parts, and further finishing
operations, if necessary, are performed • Step-1: A substrate is lowered down to a depth equal to layer
thickness
➢ In this step, the piston of the powder container moves upward and the piston
• Summary of steps involved in PBF (Source:[Link])
of the substrate container moves downward.
➢ This step gives requisite powder to be carried away by scraper and space on
(Source:[Link])
➢ (1) a substrate is lowered down to a depth equal to layer thickness,
the substrate container for the powder to be deposited
➢ (2) a powder layer is spread on the substrate, and
➢ (3) the deposited powder layer is scanned by the laser beam to fuse
powders at the selected area. • Step-2: A powder layer is spread on the substrate
➢ The sequence (1), (2), and (3) is repeated until the fabrication of product is ➢ In this step, powder is deposited over the substrate and the position of the
complete. scraper changes to the right of the substrate

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Laser Powder Bed Fusion Process Electron Beam Melting
• Step-3: the deposited powder layer is scanned by the laser • EBM uses a high-energy electron beam to induce fusion between metal powder particles in vacuum
beam to fuse powders at the selected area
➢ In this step deposited powders are scanned by laser beam
• This process was developed at Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden, and was commercialized
by Arcam AB, Sweden, in 2001
• The process generally occurs in a nonoxidative environment
maintained by the presence of nitrogen or argon gas
• Similarly to SLM, in the EBM process, a focused electron beam scans across a thin layer of pre-laid
powder, causing localized melting and resolidification per the slice cross section
• The temperature of the build chamber is increased using a
heater • EBM process is similar to the SLM with the only difference being its energy source used to fuse
powder bed layers: here, an electron beam is used instead of the laser
• The powder feeding, deposition system, scanning, temperature, (Source: [Link])
atmosphere, and build are computer controlled • In EBM, a heated tungsten filament emits electrons at high speed which are then controlled by two
magnetic fields, focus coil, and deflection coil
• The laser scanning path in each layer is defined by the part
geometry at the corresponding z location and the selected
scanning strategy
28-08-2021 13 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 28-08-2021 14 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing

Electron Beam Melting Electron Beam Melting

• Focus coil acts as a magnetic lens and focuses the beam into • In melting stage, a low current beam with a low scanning speed
desired diameter up to 0.1 mm is used to melt the powder

• Deflection coil deflects the focused beam at required point to • When scanning of one layer is completed, table is lowered,
scan the layer of powder bed another powder layer is spread, and the process repeats till
required component is formed

• When high speed electrons hit the powder bed, their kinetic
energy gets converted into thermal energy which melts the • The entire EBM process takes place under high vacuum of 10−4
powder to 10−5 bar

• Each powder bed layer is scanned in two stages, the preheating (Source: Badiru et. al., 2017 ) • It also has multibeam feature which converts electron beam into
stage and the melting stage several individual beams which can heat, sinter, or melt powder
bed layer

• In preheating stage, a high current beam with a high scanning

speed is used to preheat the powder layer (up to 0.4–0.6 Tm) in • ARCAM EBM system uses high power electron beam of 3000 W
multiple passes capacity to melt powder bed layers (Source: Yang et. al., 2017 )

28-08-2021 15 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 28-08-2021 16 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing
Electron Beam Melting Electron Beam Melting
• Electron beam power, current, diameter of focus, powder • In EBM process, powder heating occurs by transfer of kinetic energy
preheat temperature, and layer thickness are main processing from incoming electrons into powder particles
parameters of the EBM
• As powder particles absorb electrons they gain an increasingly
• Layer thickness of 50 – 200 μm is typically used in this process negative charge

• This has two potentially detrimental effects:

➢ If the repulsive force of neighboring negatively charged particles
overcomes the gravitational and frictional forces holding them in place,
there will be a rapid expulsion of powder particles from the powder bed,
creating a powder cloud

➢ Increasing negative charges in the powder particles will tend to repel the
incoming negatively charged electrons, thus creating a more diffuse beam

(Source: Yang et. al., 2017 )

(Source: ARCAM)
28-08-2021 17 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 28-08-2021 18 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing

Electron Beam Melting Electron Beam Melting

• Hence the conductivity of the powder bed in EBM must be high enough that powder particles do not • In EBM the powder bed must be conductive
become highly negatively charged, and
• Thus, EBM can only be used to process conductive materials (e.g., metals) whereas, lasers can be used
• Scan strategies must be used to avoid build-up of regions of negatively charged particles with any material that absorbs energy at the laser wavelength (e.g., metals, polymers, and ceramics)

• In practice, electron beam energy is more diffuse, so as not to build up too great a negative charge in • Electron beam generation is typically a much more efficient process than laser beam generation
any one location

• When a voltage difference is applied to the heated filament in an electron beam system, most of the
• As a result, the effective melt pool size increases, creating a larger heat-affected zone in the EBM electrical energy is converted into the electron beam
process

• In EBM, higher beam energies (above 1 kW) are available at a moderate cost
• Consequently, the minimum feature size, median powder particle size, layer thickness, and resolution
of an EBM process are typically higher than for an SLM process
• In contrast, it is common for only 10–20 % of the total electrical energy input for laser systems to be
converted into beam energy with the remaining energy lost in the form of heat
28-08-2021 19 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 28-08-2021 20 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing
Comparison of LPBF and EBM Processes Comparison of LPBF and EBM Processes
Characteristic Laser-PBF EBM
Characteristic Laser-PBF EBM
Thermal
Laser Beam Electron Beam Powder Relatively fine (mean particle Relatively coarse (mean particle
source
feedstock size size: 30 μm) size: 70 μm)

Energy Particles absorb heat energy The kinetic energy of electrons

transfer directly from the photons of is converted into thermal Processing
Inert gas (argon; nitrogen) Vacuum
mechanisms the laser beam energy atmosphere

Large (to avoid local charging Powder

Platform preheating by infrared
Spot size Small (20 – 200 μm) and consequent repulsive preheating Defocused ion beam scanning
Heaters or resistive heaters
forces between particles) (100 -1000 μm) strategy

Maximum Powder
400 mm × 400 mm × 800 mm 350 mm × 350 mm × 380 mm preheating Lower (T: 100℃-200℃) Higher (T: 700℃-1100℃)
build volume
temperature

28-08-2021 21 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 28-08-2021 22 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing

Comparison of LPBF and EBM Processes Comparison of LPBF and EBM Processes
Characteristic Laser-PBF EBM Characteristic Laser-PBF EBM

Materials Metals, polymers and ceramics Metals (conductors)

Beam speed Low (for single laser) High
Feature
Excellent Moderate
resolution
Residual
thermal High Low
stresses
Equipment
Lower cost (compared to EBM) Expensive
cost
Geometric
Good (± 0.05 to ± 0.1 mm) Fair (± 0.2 mm)
tolerance
Surface finish Excellent to moderate (Ra: 4-11 μm) Moderate to poor (Ra: 25-35 μm)
Power Low compared to EBM (Max: 1000 W) High upto 3000 W
Build rate 30 – 40 cc/hour (for single laser) 100 – 120 cc/hour
Minimum
30 μm 60 μm
layer thickness
28-08-2021 23 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 28-08-2021 24 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing
Comparison of LPBF and EBM Processes Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Processes
Characteristic Laser-PBF EBM • DED processes use material injection in to the meltpool
instead of scanning on a powder bed
Energy
Absorptivity-limited Conductivity-limited
absorption
• Steps in the Laser-DED Process
Scanning Galvanometer Deflection coils
➢ A substrate or existing part is placed on the work table
Lower cooling rates as the build plate is
Cooling rates Higher cooling rates
maintained at higher temperatures ➢ A shielding gas such as argon (laser processing) is used to
protect the molten metal from oxidation and to carry the
powder stream into the molten pool.
(Source Popoola et al.)

➢ During the process, a molten pool is created by focusing a laser

beam onto a metal substrate (or previous layer of the part)

➢ Streams of metallic powder are then simultaneously injected into

the molten pool for part buildup

28-08-2021 25 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 31-08-2021 3 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing

Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Processes Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Processes
• Steps in the Laser-DED Process • LDED systems generally come with multiple powder feeders

• Deposition of the desired geometry for the current layer takes • The powder feed rate of each powder feeder can be controlled individually
place by translating the substrate beneath the laser beam in the
x and y directions
• This capability is the reason why LDED processes are highly suitable for multi-material structures
• After the deposition of a single layer, the next layer is then
deposited by incrementing the powder delivery nozzle and
focusing lens assembly in the positive z direction • LDED processes also utilize five-axis stage instead of three-axis

• This process is repeated until the object is completely fabricated

• DED processes can handle large parts that cannot fit into the build volume of PBF processes
• After the deposition process, the fabricated part is removed
from the substrate by machining and often requires further (Source: DM3D Technology)

• DED processes are extremely useful for the repair of damaged/worn out parts or for feature addition
finishing operations to achieve the desired surface quality
to existing parts

31-08-2021 4 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 31-08-2021 5 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing
Comparison of LDED and LPBF Processes Comparison of LDED and LPBF Processes
Characteristic LDED Processes LPBF Processes Characteristic LDED Processes LPBF Processes

Part Size Capable of processing large and heavier Suitable for smaller size parts Multi-material Capable of processing more than one material in Limited
components Max part size part processing the same part since the powder is directly fed
Part size is limited by the handling system Part size is limited by the size of into the laser energy source and the mixing
the build chamber occurs during the deposition process

Part Complexity Relatively simple geometries compared to PBF Nearly unlimited (Complex
geometries) Build-up On 3-D surface Flat surface
Limitations on capability to build parts with
overhang features On existing parts Flat preforms
Particle Size Relatively larger size particles are used (45 – 150 Smaller particle size (10-50 µm) Beam Size Large can vary from 0.5 – 4 mm Small (50 – 200 µm)
µm)

Repair/ Possible; Capable of adding metal on 3D SLM: Possible only in limited

Layer Thickness Large (500 – 1000 µm) Small (25 – 50 µm)
Remanufacture surfaces under 5+1 axis, making repair solutions applications (Required horizontal
attractive plane to begin remanufacturing)

31-08-2021 6 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 31-08-2021 7 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing

Comparison of LDED and LPBF Processes Comparison of LDED and LPBF Processes
Characteristic LDED Processes LPBF Processes Characteristic LDED Processes LPBF Processes

Surface finish Coarse (Ra: 20-50 µm) Very good: (Ra: 9-12 µm) Residual Stress High High
Hence DED is considered more of a “near net PBF is considered as a net shape
shape” process manufacturing process
Accuracy ± 0.125 – 0.25 mm/25 mm ± 0.02 – 0.05 mm/25 mm

Design Freedom Low High

Build Rate High, 16- 320 cm3/hr Low (2-20 cm3/hr)
(Upto 0.5 Kg/hr) A DED process is suitable for operations such
as cladding, coating and high value repairs
On existing parts The PBF processes are slower as Direct manufacturing of parts
Focus Area (i.e., repair of worn components) as well as
compared to DED due to the building entirely new parts
operation of the roller or the blade,
followed by a second step of using
the laser for selective fusion Installed Systems Less (~90) (13% of market share) More (~990)
(As of 2013) (Courtesy: Wohler’s report)
Scan Speeds Upto 50 mm/s Upto 1000 mm/s or higher

31-08-2021 8 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 31-08-2021 9 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing
Case Study: LDED vs. LPBF Processes Comparison of LDED and LPBF Processes - Summary
LDED Processes LPBF Processes
• A LDED machine with 500 W power builds this
titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) nozzle in 20 minutes Wider dimensional tolerance than PBF Tighter dimensional tolerances

Larger build volumes than PBF Small build volumes

• A LPBF machine with a 400 W power will take
about 4 hours to build this titanium nozzle (20
Faster deposition speeds than PBF Slow deposition speeds
minutes of laser scanning time and 3.67 hours
of recoating time)
Less intricate components than PBF Smooth surface finish
• Hence the total build time for the part on a
PBF system is nearly four hours when you Limited repair capabilities and limited capability to
Used for medium to large parts and repair
factor in recoating add features to existing components

Ability to vary composition of the powder and wire

Used for small intricate components
([Link] feeds during deposition

31-08-2021 10 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing 31-08-2021 11 ME-427: Introduction to Additive Manufacturing

Process Parameters in LAM Processes Process Parameters in LAM Processes

• LAM – Laser Additive Manufacturing (LPBF, LDED) • LAM process parameters can be subdivided into two classes
• Variable (laser power, scan speed, layer thickness etc.,)
• In LAM, there are a large number of process parameters that influence the quality of the • Predefined (wavelength of laser beam, PSD, Morphology etc.,)
final deposit
• Research has identified process parameters (will henceforth be referred to as primary
• Large number of process parameters => challenge to optimize every process parameter process parameters) that have a significant impact on the quality of the deposit which
when determining ideal process conditions is measured in terms of
• Build conditions
• Currently there is not enough experimental or modeling data to relate all the process • Residual stress
variables to some aspect of the final product i.e., quality of deposit • Microstructure and thereby mechanical properties

• Question – Can the optimum process parameters developed for a component/material • Primary process parameters of LAM processes include
on one LAM machine be transferred to another LAM machine developed by a different ➢ Laser power
OEM ➢ Scan speed
➢ Hatch distance
➢ Layer thickness
13-09-2024 3 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 4 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Process Parameters in LAM Processes Process Parameters in LDED Process
• Secondary process parameters include
• Temperature of build plate,
• Spot size etc.,
may also be important

• Secondary process parameters are less studied

• Few process parameters are exclusive to or have more importance in either LDED or
LPBF processes
• LDED – Powder feed rate
• LPBF - Different scan strategies

(Figure Source: Shim, 2021) (Figure Source: Chen and Li, 2019)

13-09-2024 5 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 6 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Process Parameters in LPBF Process Process Parameters in LPBF Process

(Figure source: Sola and Nouri, 2019)

(Source: Brand et. al., 2017 )

13-09-2024 7 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 8 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Examples of Predefined and Variable Process Parameters Process Parameters in LAM Processes
• Predefined parameters are • LAM process parameters exhibit a high degree of interdependence
➢ The properties of the material used (density, melting point, thermal conductivity etc.,)
➢ Powder characteristics (PSD, Morphology etc.,) • LAM process parameters exhibit interacting effects on the quality of the built parts
➢ Build environment parameters (shielding gas properties)
➢ Laser beam properties (mode, wavelength, etc.) • The interaction among process parameters is not always clear but is highly important

• Variable or controlled system parameters are • Next, LAM processes are highly nonlinear
➢ Laser power
➢ Scanning speed • LAM process involve multitude of complex interacting physical phenomena
➢ Powder feed rate (only in LDED) • Heat Transfer
➢ Scan or hatch spacing • Fluid flow
➢ Layer thickness • Melting
➢ Oxygen level (PPM) in the surrounding atmosphere • Solidification
➢ Inert gas flow rate • Diffusion
• Solid-State Phase Transformations
• Thermal stress evolution

13-09-2024 9 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 10 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Process Parameters in LAM Processes Process Parameters in LAM Processes

• Due to high degree of nonlinearity of LAM processes, understanding the effect of process • Laser related parameters include
parameters on the quality of deposit is challenging
➢ Power
➢ Wavelength
• A change in a process parameter does not necessarily mean a linear change in output
➢ Spot size
• Majority of these process parameters are interrelated ➢ Pulse duration
➢ Pulse frequency
• i.e., The effect of changing one parameter in isolation will be highly dependent upon the
values of all the other fixed parameters • Scan related parameters include
➢ Scan speed
• Hence optimizing LAM process parameters for a given geometry/material presents a ➢ Hatch width
challenging task ➢ Idle time between layers
➢ Scan pattern
• Research on process parameter optimization in LAM focuses on
➢ Layer thickness
• Varying primary process parameters
• While keeping the secondary process parameters constant

14-09-2024 11 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 12 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Process Parameters in LAM Processes Process Parameters in LAM Processes
• Powder related parameters include • The process parameters in LAM processes include:
➢ Particle size and distribution ➢ Laser Power
➢ Particle shape ➢ Scan Speed
➢ Powder bed density ➢ Laser Spot Size
➢ Layer thickness ➢ Laser Beam Modes
➢ Material properties ➢ Material feed/flow rate
➢ Hatch Spacing/Scan Spacing
• Other process parameters include ➢ Layer Thickness
➢ Powder mass flow rate (Only for LDED) ➢ Transverse traverse index/Degree of overlap
➢ Substrate temperature ➢ Scanning Pattern/Strategy (Figure source: Oliveria et. al., 2020)

➢ Substrate size (thickness) ➢ Hatch angle

➢ Gas flow rate ➢ Building Strategy
➢ Atmospheric Control
➢ Gas Flow Rate

13-09-2024 13 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 14 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Laser Power Laser Power

• Laser power – Amount of heat energy delivered by the laser (measured in Watts) • Cooling rates in conjunction with thermal gradients influence grain morphology

• Laser Power – Total energy emitted by the Laser per unit time (measured in watts) • Variation of laser power => affects microstructure => thereby affects mechanical properties

• Laser power – Possibly the most important process parameter in LAM processes • Increasing laser power => increases thermal gradients => increase in residual stress

• Laser power directly correlates with total energy input into the material • Higher thermal gradients => directional solidification => long columnar grains

• Increase in laser power => larger melt pool with higher maximum temperature => slower cooling rates • Higher laser power => complete melting of powder => minimal porosity

• Decrease in laser power => smaller melt pool with lower peak temperature => faster cooling rates • Higher laser power => proper consolidation

• Increase in laser power => slower cooling rates => coarser grains • The lower bound for laser power is the power at which proper consolidation becomes possible

• Decrease in laser power => faster cooling rates => finer grains • Low/insufficient laser power => incomplete melting => lack of fusion defects with unmelted
powder
• Cooling rates influence grain size
• If the laser power is too low, no melting may be possible => no deposition
13-09-2024 15 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 16 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Laser Power Laser Power
• Increasing laser power results in
• Laser power has been most widely used as the controlling parameter for in-situ
➢ Larger and deeper melt pools
➢ This results in larger penetration of the melt pool of the current layer into the previous process control
layer/substrate which ensures good metallurgical bonding
• Consistent melt pool geometry => consistent build conditions
• Laser power affects surface finish of the deposited component
• Melt pool size tends to increase at edges due to decreased area for heat
• Laser power increases => proper melting of powder particles => surface roughness decreases
=> surface finish improves => surface waviness reduces (because of fewer unmelted particles) conduction or due to laser switch off/on

• Low laser power => improper melting which results in sticking of the unmelted or partially melted • In closed loop feedback control of the process, as melt pool dimensions change,
powder particles on the surface of the deposit => poor surface finish the laser power is automatically varied (increased or decreased) to control the size
of melt pool
• Magnitude of laser power to be used for deposition will depend upon the of material being processed

• The selection of laser power is generally not done independently but depends upon other process
parameters (for example on scan speed and spot size)

13-09-2024 17 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 18 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Laser Power Laser Power

In Summary,

• Increased laser power leads to

➢ Greater energy input
➢ A wider and deeper melt pool
➢ Higher temperatures in the melt pool and possible vaporization
➢ Lower cooling rates and coarser microstructures
➢ High thermal gradients =>Directional solidification and long columnar grains
➢ Proper melting and minimal porosity

(Figure Source: Chaurasia J.K., 2023)

• Decreasing the laser power leads to
➢ Low energy input
➢ Small melt pool
➢ Insufficient melting => lack of fusion defects
➢ Higher cooling rates and finer grains
13-09-2024 19 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 20 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Scan Speed Scan Speed
• Scan speed – Another important process parameter in LAM • Increasing the scan speed decreases the energy density imparted on the build
surface for a constant laser power and spot size
• LPBF – Scan speed is time of interaction of laser with powder

• LDED – Scan speed is the time of interaction of laser with substrate/deposited layer • Similar to laser power, scan speed affects melt-pool size and so potentially
influences build integrity and resulting part mechanical properties
• Interaction time - Time duration for which the laser beam dwells at any point during
processing • By increasing scan speed, the width and depth of melt-pool decrease due to a
reduction in the energy imparted by the laser
• Scan speed is implemented in LDED process by either
➢ Moving the deposition head relative to a substrate placed on a stationary build platform • Increasing scan speed can decrease build time
➢ Or by moving the substrate placed on a computer numerically controlled five axis table
against a fixed deposition head • Scan speed has a significant effect on cooling rates
• LPBF process - To direct the laser beam, a pair of galvanometer mirrors are combined to
move the laser spot across the powder bed
• Increasing scan speed increases cooling rates resulting in smaller grain size, as
grains have less time to grow
13-09-2024 21 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 22 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Scan Speed Scan Speed

• Scan speed affects melt pool size • Increase in scan speed => lesser interaction time => leading to incomplete melting
=> leading to lack of fusion porosity
• Higher scan speed => smaller melt pool with lower peak temperature => faster
cooling rates • Increase in scan speed => powder not melted completely => increase in surface
roughness due to sticking of unmelted powder particles on the surface of the
• Lower scan speed => bigger melt pool with higher peak temperature => slower deposit
cooling rates
• Too high a scan speed => extremely small interaction time => possibly no melting
• Higher scan speed => lesser interaction time between laser and powder =>
decrease in total energy input • Too low scan speed => higher interaction time => more energy input =>
possibility of vaporization
• Increasing scan speed => reduction in build time
• Too low a scan speed results in high energy density leading to vaporization of the
• Decreasing scan speed => increase in build time material

13-09-2024 23 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 24 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Scan Speed Scan Speed
• In LDED process with unidirectional scan when depositing successive layers – Laser needs to come to a • Surface roughness is low at low scan speeds
stop (decelerate) and then move back to the starting location
• At low scan speeds => higher laser material interaction time => larger melt pool => complete melting
• After coming back to the starting location for the deposition of the next layer, the laser needs to of powder => low surface roughness
accelerate to the set scan speed
• At high scan speeds => low laser material interaction time => smaller melt pool => possible
• For high scan speeds – the time needed to decelerate and then accelerate increases incomplete melting of powder and sticking of unmelted powder particles on the surface of the deposit
=> Increase in surface roughness
• During the deceleration/acceleration stages with a constant powder feed rate, leads to the deposition
of a greater amount of material at the edges than the center of each line • With increase in scan speed, melt pools become longer and thinner, which can result in the breaking
of the melt pool into several smaller melt pools – Balling phenomena

(Figure Source: Meacock, 2010) (Figure source: Hans Gedda, 2002)

13-09-2024 25 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 26 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Laser Spot Size Laser Spot Size

• Laser beam spot size - Diameter of the laser beam on the target • Larger spot size => laser energy is spread across a wider area =>
• Melt pool with larger width
• Spot size of the laser beam determines the resolution obtainable from LAM processes • Track with greater width

• Laser spot size has a great influence on the energy density • In LDED process, a wider melt pool will also capture a greater percentage of the incident
powder => increasing efficiency of deposition
• Laser spot size is inversely proportional to the laser energy density
• Increase in spot size is detrimental to deposition of fine features
• Very small spot size => high laser energy density
• In summary for a given laser power, increasing the spot size results in
• Decrease in energy density
• Larger spot size => laser energy is spread over a wide area => decrease in energy • Wider melt pool and wider track dimensions
density • Minimum feature size will also increase

• When operating at high laser powers, increasing spot size can be particularly useful to
prevent vaporization and keyhole effects

13-09-2024 27 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 28 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Laser Spot Size Laser Energy Per Unit Length
• If very fine detail needs to be deposited, the laser spot size must be very small • Laser energy per unit length and material fed per unit length affect the track width and height

• Laser energy per unit length = P/V (P = Laser power, V = Scan speed)
• Variable spot size is required to achieve
➢ Variable laser energy density • Powder fed per unit length = mp/V. where, mp stands for powder feed rate
➢ Precision and
➢ Speed of production • The parameters ‘laser energy per unit length’ and ‘powder fed per unit length’ govern the laser energy
and the material available for the single track deposition respectively

• For making small features such as thin walls, or small holes and getting high • At extremely high laser energy per unit length and lower powder fed per unit length, vaporization of
resolution of the product, small spot size is needed the feed material may occur.

• However, processing the powder bed with small spot size takes longer duration to • This results in very thin or no track formation
complete and increases the production time

• For processing bulk regions, larger spot size could be used

13-09-2024 29 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 30 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Laser Energy Per Unit Length Laser Modes

• On the contrary, at extremely low laser energy per unit length and higher powder fed • Laser beam is used both in continuous and pulse modes
per unit length, fusion of fed material may not occur and discontinuous tracks are
formed • When a beam is operated in pulse mode, its peak power is higher than its average
power
• Hence, a processing window is required to balance both the parameters
• This higher peak power allows to process higher melting point materials

• The pulses used in the process are generally of millisecond duration

• High peak power of pulse not only melts the powder but also vaporizes the material

(Figure source: Hans Gedda, 2002)

(Figure Source: Chaurasia J.K., 2023)

13-09-2024 31 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 32 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Laser Mode Laser Mode (Ramp Up Pulse)
• Pulse of various shapes can be generated • In ramp up–type pulse the power of the pulse at the end
suddenly increases from its average power

• The average power of the pulse lets the powder bed to be

heated

• In this type of pulse, small peak power is necessary to melt the

powder Ramp up pulse

• It is because powder is already heated before pulse reaches peak

(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

value; therefore, the contribution from the last segment of the

pulse is lessened

Ramp up pulse Ramp down pulse

(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

13-09-2024 33 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 34 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Laser Mode (Ramp Down Pulse) Material Feed/Flow Rate

• In case of ramp down pulse peak power is reached in the • The powder flow rate is another important LDED process parameter
beginning and then peak power decreases to the average
power • Powder flow rate has no meaning for LPBF processes as the powder is spread on the bed

• In this case, more peak power than ramp up case is • The powder feed rate is the amount of powder (in grams) per unit time which exits from the
nozzle
required to affect the same degree of melting
Ramp down pulse • The material flow rate needs to be effectively controlled in the LDED process as
• Since after melting, peak power does not decrease to zero ➢ Too large a material flow rate could result in improper melting of the deposited
as in the previous case, it allows melt pool to settle, which
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

powder or
increases the surface quality ➢ Even no melting at all

• Powder flow rate affects especially the layer thickness

• High flow rates result in very thick layers

13-09-2024 35 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 36 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Material Feed/Flow Rate Material Feed/Flow Rate
• When depositing material for filling infill pattern, if the powder feed rate decreases, there may • Too low a powder flow rate is also not very useful in the LDED process because
not be sufficient powder to fill the gap between two parallel lines, hence creating porous
zones ➢ If the available energy density is high and the powder flow rate is too low,
vaporization of material could result which is not desirable
• Conversely, high feed rate may result in a thicker layer which compromises the integrity of the
subsequent build layers or introduces part non-uniformities

(Figure Source: Meacock, 2010)

13-09-2024 37 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 38 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Hatch Spacing/Scan Spacing/Hatch distance Hatch Spacing/Scan Spacing/Hatch distance

• Scan spacing is the separation between two consecutive laser beam scans

• It is also called hatch spacing or hatch distance

• Hatch spacing is measured by a distance from the center of one beam to the center
of the next beam

(Source: Additive Manufacturing Advanced Materials and Design Techniques

(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing) Edited By Pulak Mohan Pandey, Nishant K. Singh, Yashvir Singh)
(Figure source: Yap et. al., 2015)
13-09-2024 39 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 40 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Hatch Spacing/Scan Spacing/Hatch distance Hatch Spacing/Scan Spacing/Hatch distance
• Consider a layer of powder spread on a substrate plate and the • An overlap in the LAM parts is necessary to have continuity
laser is activated to melt the powder selectively between the tracks leading to a solid sample

• The laser will melt the entire area of the powder in the form of • In most of the LAM processes, an overlap of at least 20% is
several tracks maintained to have better quality samples

• The width of the tracks depends on the laser power, spot size (Figure source: Yap et. al., 2015) (Figure source: Yap et. al., 2015)

and the scan speed

• A single SLM layer consists of several hatches with hatch

distance “h”

• In order to achieve good bonding between subsequent tracks,

conditions should be set in such a way that there will be an
(Figure source: Hans Gedda, 2002)

overlap between two hatches called the hatch overlap ‘Δx’

(Figure Source: Chen and Li, 2019)

13-09-2024 41 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 42 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Hatch Spacing/Scan Spacing/Hatch distance Hatch Spacing/Scan Spacing/Hatch distance

• Scan or hatch spacing is directly proportional to the production speed • For processing with larger scan spacing, higher laser power is required to supply
necessary laser energy
• If scan spacing is high, it will take less time for laser to scan the layer
• This implies that in a given LPBF/LDED system, the maximum scan spacing that can
• If hatch spacing is low, the number of scans needed to deposit a layer increase be set is limited

• Smaller scan spacing is required for making thin features • In order to avoid any porosity formation at the boundaries of scans, some overlap as
shown below is made
• In order to have large scan spacing, larger laser spot size is required

• Otherwise, there remains gap between two consecutive scans resulting in porous
products

(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

13-09-2024 43 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 44 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Hatch Spacing/Scan Spacing/Hatch distance Transverse Traverse Index/Degree of Overlap
• Scanning a large surface – Needs a number of tracks laid adjacent to
• Overlap is necessary because in a typical Gaussian beam, laser power at the center of
each other
the scan is higher than at the boundary of the scan resulting in higher energy being
applied at the center when compared to the boundary • Good metallurgical bonding requires an overlap between adjacent
bonds
• Creating the overlap compensates this lower heat input at the boundary
• The overlap between two tracks is known as transverse traverse index or (Figure source: Paul et. al., 2019)

overlap rate

• Transverse traverse index (i) = x/w

x = Hatch spacing; w= width of the single track

• Higher transverse traverse index => higher overlap rate => improved
surface roughness

• Higher transverse traverse index => higher overlap rate => Low
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)
porosity => good mechanical properties => build time increases
13-09-2024 45 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 46 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Layer Thickness Layer Thickness

• Layer thickness – Thickness of a slice of 3-D CAD model • Thinner layers need low energy density

• This slice is translated into physical layer by laser processing • For fabricating a thin layer, small powder size is required

• Layer thickness is directly proportional to production speed • Thin layers not only increases the production time but also the
production cost
• Higher layer thickness => Higher production speed
• Selection of thickness of layers depends also upon the geometry
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

• Smaller layer thickness => higher precision can be achieved of the product to be fabricated

• Higher energy density is required for processing thicker layer • Layers are rectangular in nature
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

• Higher laser power => higher energy density • Hence when approximating a curved object with rectangular layers
– issues with layers coinciding with the contour of the curved
• Higher energy density can cause vaporization of material object

• Hence there will be a limit to which laser power can be increased • It leads to a gap on the sides of the object – Staircase effect
13-09-2024 47 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 48 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Layer Thickness Layer Thickness
• The size of the gap depends upon the layer thickness • A thin layer of powder is an essential requirement for LPBF process

• For thinner layers, the gap is smaller • In LPBF process – Substrate is not directly irradiated

• Gap always remain in a layer wise build • For a good metallurgical bond between substrate and first layer => the energy applied to first
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing) layer, must penetrate into the substrate and melt the substrate
• Effort is to minimize this gap so that the resulting contour would be acceptable
• The degree of melting of the substrate depends on laser energy transmitted through the first
• But the gap remains always present in the layerwise built; the effort is to minimize this gap so that layer of powder
the resulting contour would be acceptable
• Smaller layer thickness => better transmission of laser energy into the substrate => good
• Optimum layer thickness should be selected
metallurgical bond between substrate and first layer => high dense component
• To maximum production speed
• Without no loss of precision due to staircase effect

• Generally higher layer thickness is selected for vertical edge sections of the product

• Smaller layer thickness is used for sloped edges

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Scan Strategy Scan Strategy

• Scanning strategy- More important in LPBF process when compared to LDED process • Generally, two types of scan strategies are used
➢ Fill scan and
• Scan strategy - The path that the laser follows during deposition ➢ Contour scan

• In LPBF process scanning strategy is a method of scanning powder bed with laser beam • Fill scan is used to scan across all areas
in order to
• Contour scan is used to do scanning at boundaries
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)
• Increase the fabrication speed and
• Product quality
• In figure - Fill scan is parallel scan and contour scan is done by scanning once at
• Good scanning strategy makes the resultant products free from boundaries
• Distortion
• Anisotropy • Unidirectional - parallel scan in one direction
• Porosity

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Scan Strategy Scan Strategy
• Figure shows shows parallel scan with a change in direction at alternate scan • In the case of bidirectional scan, laser can do continuous scanning
(bidirectional scan strategy)
• Parallel-line scan mode is easy to program/implement

• Parallel line scan is the most commonly used scan mode in PBF processes

• Lines can be parallel to

(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing) • X-axis
• Y-axis
• Scan time in the unidirectional scan > Scan time in bidirectional scan • Making some angle with axis (45°)

• Unidirectional scan – Laser always starts from the same side => laser needs to travel
back to the same side without scanning (dwell time)

• No scanning occurs during dwell time

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Scan Strategy Scan Strategy

• One strategy to avoid heat accumulation • If scan paths are longer and thinner, melt pool can break
• Divide the plan to be scanned into a number of smaller regions into smaller pools (balling effect)
(islands)
• Scan each island with same/different scan strategy • In parallel-line scan mode, if cavity or hole has to be made,
then
• Dividing larger area into small islands => reduce the problem of • Scanning stops at the boundary of the cavity and (Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)
heat buildup from a big area (whole plane) to a small area (island) (Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)
• After traversing through the cavity, the scanning again
starts
• Scan one island at one corner and then scan another island at a
distant corner of the plane => reduce heat buildup in any region • In the figure shown, the laser beam traverses through
=> reduce warpage/distortion elliptical and rectangular cavities without being switched on

• This means that scanner time is wasted in traversing

through the cavities

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Scan Strategy Scan Strategy
• Frequently switching on and off the laser also decreases • Parallel-line scan mode either in big scale or small scale (island
the lifetime of laser strategy) gives rise
➢ Anisotropy and
• These disadvantages are overcome to some extent in ➢ stress evolution
island strategy
• These issues can be avoided by taking Fractal scan mode
• In island strategy, islands are made around the cavities ➢ Fractal scan path or
➢ Spiral path
• Islands are scanned without passing through the cavities
• Fractal scan path strategy suffers from the disadvantages of low
as shown
scan speed as laser beam has to decelerate and accelerate
frequently
• If the cavity has a nonstraight boundary (such as circular Spiral scan mode
or elliptical cavity) => smaller islands would be required • Spiral scan mode does not give any disadvantage of parallel-line
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

to approximate the shape of the cavity (Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)
scan mode but it gives problem in filling up whole surface
uniformly
13-09-2024 57 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 58 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Scanning Pattern Scanning Pattern

(Source: Elzaim 2022 [Link])

(Source: Elzaim 2022 [Link])
13-09-2024 59 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 60 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Scan Orientation Effect of Scan Orientation
• Scan orientation (θ) or infill rotation is the scan difference between two successive
layers Process Variable

Infill Rotation (0°, 45°, 67°, 90°)

• Scanning pattern is the same on each layer (θ is same)
Characterization
• Scanning pattern is different on successive layers (θ is different) • Surface Roughness
• Phase Analysis
• Microstructural Studies
• In the figure, the lower layer has an orientation • Crystallographic Studies
difference of 90° with respect to the top layer
Properties
• Microhardness
• Tensile Properties

(Source: Additive Manufacturing Advanced Materials and Design Techniques

Edited By Pulak Mohan Pandey, Nishant K. Singh, Yashvir Singh)

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Scan Orientation Scan Orientation

• Surface roughness measurement by 3D

noncontact profilometer
16.21 µm 9.24 µm

16.21 µm 9.24 µm

• No infill rotation (0°) exhibits higher surface

roughness 10.12 µm 11.74 µm

• This is because of the overlapping of crest and 10.12 µm 11.74 µm

trough of every layer – creating a sinusoidal

surface
13-09-2024 63 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 64 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Scan Orientation Scan Orientation
• With other infill patterns - 45°, 67° • When there is no fill rotation (0°), the
and 90°, there is no significant overlapping of melt pools can be seen
variation of surface roughness (thermal profiles are similar for every
layer)
• This is because of non-overlapping of
crests and troughs across the layers • For 90° infill, overlap happens after every
two layers (thermal profiles are similar for
layers 1 and 3)

• For 45° infill, overlap happens after every

four layers (thermal profiles are similar for
layers 1 and 5)

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Scan Orientation Epitaxial Growth

• For 67° infill, overlap happens after every • The spatial distribution of temperature in the melt pool is not linear
180 layers (67*180 = 12060)
• This is due to the complex nature of heat flow in the melt pool
• For 67° infill, thermal profiles are similar
for layers 1 and 181 • The parameters, ϵ (Cooling Rate), R (Solidification Velocity) and G (Thermal
Gradient) are a function of space and time
• If thermal profiles are similar, heat
dissipation profiles are similar, resulting in
• G and ϵ decrease with increasing heat input
epitaxial growth

• If thermal profiles are different, grain • The base metal provides the nucleation sites for the solidification of the metal
fragmentation happens as heat extraction in the fusion zone
direction changes
• In Metal AM, grains grow directly from the pre-existing substrate grains
14-09-2024 67 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 68
Epitaxial Growth Epitaxial Growth
• Heterogenous nucleation off a solid substrate is called • When the composition of the base metal substrate and liquid
epitaxial nucleation are similar
• The solidification front that grows from a given grain on that substrate
will retain the same crystallographic orientation
• In epitaxial nucleation there is no barrier to the formation of
the solid • Since grain orientation of the substrate is generally random, this
results in a continuation of the crystallographic misorientation of
the base metal grains across the fusion boundary into the
• This condition is referred to as epitaxial growth because
Example of epitaxial growth from the fusion line
in an electron beam weld of alloy C103 solidifying solid
growth occurs from the preexisting solid without the need for (Figure Source: Brien, 1997)
nucleation • Hence grain boundaries are continuous across the original
fusion boundary where epitaxial nucleation occurred
(Figure source: Lippold, J.C, 2015)
• Epitaxial nucleation is the dominant form of heterogenous
nucleation during Metal AM solidification • In metals/alloys with BCC and FCC structure, solidification
growth occurs along the cube edge or <100> crystallographic
directions

69 70

Scan Orientation (Image Quality Maps) Scan Orientation

• For 0° long columnar grains that grow • For 45° grain fragmentation happens
uninterrupted can be seen because of change in thermal profile

• Layer thickness – 250 – 300 microns • Layer thickness – 250 – 300 microns

• Maximum grain size ~ 550 microns • Maximum grain size ~ 200 microns

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Scan Orientation Scan Orientation
• For 67° grain fragmentation happens • Generally prime numbers (67° or 83°) are
because of change in thermal profile used as infill rotation angles

• Layer thickness – 250 – 300 microns • This is because the frequently change in
thermal profile (randomness of thermal
• Maximum grain size ~ 250 microns profile increases)

• Hence thermal gradients decrease leading

to a decrease in residual stress

• Conduction into substrate is the dominant

mode of heat transfer in Metal AM

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Scan Orientation Scan Orientation (Orientational Imaging Maps)

• For 90° grain fragmentation happens
because of change in thermal profile

• Layer thickness – 250 – 300 microns

• Maximum grain size ~ 350 microns

• Texture – Orientation of crystals (unit cells) within a grain

• Strong texture => orientation of crystals along a particular direction
• Strong texture generally tends to result in anisotropic properties
• Weak texture => no preferred orientation or random orientation
• Weak texture generally results in isotropic properties

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Scan Orientation (Orientational Imaging Maps) Scan Orientation (Orientational Imaging Maps)

• 0° has a strong texture (~11.1) – Long columnar grains

• Infill rotation of 67° has weak texture (~3.9) – small columnar grains and possible equiaxed grains
• The crystallographic texture intensities are in the order of samples with 0◦ > 90◦ >
45◦ > 67◦ infill rotation. • Shorter the rotation period, higher the possibility for epitaxial growth

• Rotation period are in the order of samples with 67°(180) > 45°(4) > 90°(2) > 0°(1) infill angles
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Scan Orientation (Tensile Properties) Scan Orientation (Tensile Properties)

• 67° infill rotation exhibited lower ductility (39 ± 3.07 %)

• 67° infill rotation exhibits highest UTS and YS • The higher strength of samples with 67° infill rotation can be attributed
• To the presence of fine grain structures and
• 0° infill rotation exhibits lowest UTS and YS • Secondary laves phase concentration (Brittle and can lead to localized stress concentration)

• 0° infill rotation exhibited higher ductility (54 ± 2.82 %)

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Scan Orientation (Tensile Properties) Scan Orientation (Radar Chart)
• Radar chart

• Comparing different properties of samples

fabricated with different infill rotation angles

• The conditions for superior properties are

➢ Higher strength
➢ Higher ductility
➢ Weaker texture
• This variation in tensile strength and ductility for infill rotation can be attributed ➢ Lower roughness
• To the variation in microstructure and
• Crystallographic texture
• 0° infill rotation
➢ High ductility
• Laves phases can act as a site for crack initiation, thus decreasing the ductility of the component but
➢ Lower strength and hardness
acts as barrier to dislocation motion thus improving the strength of the material
➢ Strong texture (Anisotropy)
➢ High surface roughness
14-09-2024 81 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 14-09-2024 82 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Scan Orientation (Radar Chart) Scan Orientation (Radar Chart)

• 45° infill rotation • 45° infill rotation exhibits optimum strength
➢ Moderate ductility and ductility with lower surface roughness and
➢ High strength and Moderate hardness texture
➢ Moderate texture
➢ Lowest roughness
• Samples with 67° infill rotation exhibited lower
• 67° infill rotation ductility, which could deteriorate the
➢ Low ductility (because of laves phases) mechanical performance
➢ High strength and High hardness
➢ Low texture • Similarly, samples built at 0° and 90° infill
➢ Moderate roughness rotation exhibited very strong texture along the
build direction, which could potentially cause
• 90° infill rotation anisotropic tensile properties.
➢ High ductility (because of laves phases)
➢ Moderate strength and Low hardness
➢ Moderate to high texture • Hence optimum infill rotation angle - 45°
➢ Moderate to high roughness
14-09-2024 83 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 14-09-2024 84 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Test Orientation Build Strategy
• Test orientation (θʹ), on the other hand, is the orientation of the loading axis with • Choosing correct build orientation for part and support structures to ensure that part
respect to the build direction can be built
• Efficiently
• Economically

• Orient the part in such a way that a minimum number of layers would be required to
build the part

• This helps decrease the time of fabrication and maintains uniform

heat buildup

Preferred Orientation
(Source: Additive Manufacturing Advanced Materials and Design Techniques
Edited By Pulak Mohan Pandey, Nishant K. Singh, Yashvir Singh) Non-Preferred Orientation
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

13-09-2024 85 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 86 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Build Strategy Build Strategy

• In some LPBF systems, heater is attached below the base plate (substrate) in a build • Figure below shows preferred and nonpreferred orientations for making overhangs
platform

• When parts are built in nonpreferred orientation – some section of the part would be
far away from the heater => difficult to maintain uniform temperature along the
build

(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

• Preference – Fabricate new layer over fabricated layer

• In this way, the new layer does not need to be fabricated on a heap of powder

• If a layer is built on a heap of powder, then heat transfer rate is different, which
Non-Preferred Orientation
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)
causes increased roughness on the underside of overhang
13-09-2024 87 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 88 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Build Strategy Build Strategy
• To fabricate overhang parts, support structures are required • In LPBF processes, powders generally act as a support

• The role of a support structure is to prevent • However, but for some complex structures containing large slopey surfaces of ‘V’ or
• The build from falling and displacing ‘U’ shape, support structures are required
• Dissipate the heat developed in the part
• Support structure needs to be removed after the fabrication of the part so they are
generally made porous and weak

• Their contact area with the deposited part is also minimal so that minimum finishing
needs to be required after removal of the structure

• The processing parameters used for fabricating support structures are different from
those used for fabricating the main part
(Figure source: Comprehensive Materials Processing)

13-09-2024 89 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 90 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Atmospheric Control Atmospheric Control

• Controlling the atmosphere in a process chamber has two aims • During processing, material gets melted and possibly vaporized
• To make the deposit free from any contamination
• To prevent oxidation of the deposit • It leads to the contamination of the process chamber

• Nitrogen gas is used for most engineering materials to prevent oxidation reaction, • The vaporized particles also stick to the optics and decrease the transmission of laser
but in case of titanium, argon gas is used beam through the optics

• Nitrogen gas is not used for titanium because it forms nitride at high temperatures • It interferes with the laser beam and decreases the transfer of laser energy to powder
bed
• Oxidized (layer, substrate, or powders) have decreased tendency for wetting with
molten metal • The vaporized particles become condensates of micron size and settle at the ongoing
underbuilt parts
• It results in an increased porosity and decreased density

13-09-2024 91 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 92 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Atmospheric Control Gas Flow Rate
• If a powder mixture or prealloyed powder having components of various vapor • The gas flow rate is another important LDED process parameter
pressures is processed, then there is a chance that material of lower vapor pressure
would be ablated • It is the powder carrier gas flow rate

• This will change the final composition of the product • The powder is delivered through the carrier gas which are inert gases that are used
to protect the powder from the environmental attack especially reactive materials

• Too low a gas flow rate could result in improper protection of the material being
deposited if it is a highly reactive material

• Also, too high a gas flow rate could be detrimental to the LDED process because it
could result in the blowing away of the powder from the point where the powder will
be melted (melt pool area)

13-09-2024 93 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 13-09-2024 94 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Laser Energy Density Laser Energy Density

• Volumetric Energy Density (Joules/mm3)
• There are different ways in laser energy density is quantified
➢ Volumetric Energy Density
𝑃
➢ Linear Input Energy Density 𝐸𝑉 =
➢ Surface Energy Density 𝑉ℎ𝑡
P = Laser power
➢ Linear Energy density
V = Scan speed
t = Layer thickness
h = hatching space
• Another parameter is power density
• Volumetric Energy Density is the amount of energy supplied to the powder
• Power density = Laser power/Area of focused laser spot
particles per unit volume

14-09-2024 95 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 14-09-2024 96 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes
Laser Energy Density Laser Energy Density
• Surface Energy Density is the is the energy density applied to the surface of the • VED can be used to compare processing parameters between different LPBF and
powder bed (Joules/mm2) LDED machines

𝑃 • However, there are some limitations when using VED as the sole-design parameter
𝐸𝑆 =
𝑉𝑑
• In the literature it has been shown that same VED has resulted in noticeable
differences in process stability of the melt pool
• Liner energy density (LED) is the power input per unit speed (Joules/mm)

𝑃
𝐸𝐿 =
𝑉

14-09-2024 97 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes 14-09-2024 98 Process Parameters in Laser Addtive Manufacturing Processes

Laser Energy Density Laser Energy Density

• The reason for this is because the volumetric energy density is unable to describe
how the input energy affects
• Shape of the melt pool
• Stability of the melt pool

• This is because, VED does not consider the fluid dynamics effects in the melt pool
caused by
• Buoyancy force
• Marangoni flow

• The fluid dynamics effects drive the

• Heat and mass transfer within different regions of the melt pool

Single melt track morphology at consistent volumetric energy density with different sets of parameters
(Figure source: Scipioni et. al., 2017)

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Powder Feedstock in AM Powder Feedstock in AM
• Quality of the deposited part in AM strongly depends on the quality of the feedstock • A component fabricated using PBF technique may consist of many thousands of finely spread
powder layers
• Inconsistent material properties of input feedstock material will translate directly into
inconsistent properties of finished component • The quality of metal powder used will have an influence on
➢ Mechanical properties
• The different types of feedstock used in AM include ➢ The build-to-build consistency,
• Powder ➢ The reproducibility between AM machines,
• Wire ➢ The production of defect-free components,
• Thin sheets of metal
• Filament • Research has shown that metal powder costs will be the biggest continuous expense through
• Resin the life of an AM machine

• The two main forms of feedstock for metal AM are • Controlling and understanding the quality of powder both in as-supplied and resused
• Wire feedstock (EBF3, WAAM) condition is essential to achieve desired mechanical properties in deposited components
• Powder feedstocks (LPBF, EB-PBF, LDED, BJ)

• In Metal AM processes, the most widely used feedstock is powder (92.6%)

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 3 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 4

Powder Feedstock in Metal AM Manufacturing Processes for Metal Powders

• The supply chain for metal powders used in additive manufacturing (AM) is currently • The most important considerations when it comes to powder selection for metal AM is
experiencing exponential growth • Chemical composition
• Powder cleanliness (i.e., free of contaminates and surface oxides),
• With this growth come new powder suppliers, new powder manufacturing methods and • Powder uniformity (consistent particle size distribution results in uniform melting and
increased competition minimized porosity in the final product) and
• Powder consistency (Batch-to-batch variation during production can lead to variations in
• The powder procurement options are categorized into three main groups, namely: the end performance of the printed component). These variations are traditionally very
➢ Procuring powders from AM equipment suppliers, difficult to track down and eliminate
➢ Procuring powders from third party suppliers and
➢ Procuring powders directly from powder atomizers

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 5 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 6
Key Characteristics of Powder Feedstock Particle Size
• Key characteristics of powder feedstock, which influence quality of AM Parts: • In AM, powder particle size determines
➢ Minimum layer thickness of the part being deposited,
➢ Minimum feature size that can be built
➢ Particle size and distribution, ➢ Surface finish in as-built condition,
➢ Morphology,
➢ Chemical composition • In general, smaller powder particles permit
➢ Flowability ➢ Smaller layer thickness
➢ Powder density ➢ Finer minimum feature size
➢ Powder handling and contamination ➢ Better surface finish
➢ Effect of humidity
➢ Effect of powder recycling • Fine powder particles below 10 or 20 microns are avoided as they are detrimental to powder
flowability
➢ Laser absorptivity of the powder particles (for Laser-based Metal AM processes)
• As powder particle size decreases
• Generally, the manufacturer/supplier of these powders provides a certificate of ➢ Interparticle friction increases
analysis, which contains information regarding the key characteristics of powder ➢ Electrostatic forces increases
feedstock This results in a situation where powder can lose its flowability
Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 7 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 8

Particle Size Particle Size

• As the powder particle size decreases, the surface area to volume ratio of the particle • Therefore, the goal of a powder delivery system is feed the smallest possible powder
increases, its surface energy increases and the particle becomes more reactive particle sizes while minimizing negative effects of
➢ Flowability,
• In summary, powders with small particle size result in ➢ Reactivity,
• Better surface finish (due to reduction in the size of satellites) ➢ Airborne tendency and
• Higher accuracy ➢ Tendencies to form a powder cloud
• Thinner layers
• Higher cost (due to lower yields for smaller particles in the powder production process) • Particle size is a measurement of a specific dimension of the powder
• Poor flowability (because of tendency for particle agglomeration)
• Being more reactive (due to increase in surface area) • Most techniques used for measurement of particle size measure a single geometric
• Tendency to become airborne and float as a powder cloud parameter from which an equivalent circular diameter is calculated
• Increased absorption of laser energy increase in melt pool temperature
• Increase in gap in powder bed may lead to high porosity if the gap is too large • Therefore, different methods of particle size analysis do not generally agree, therefore the
end user needs to be aware of the method used for particle size measurement

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 9 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 10
Particle Size Particle Size Distribution
• The size of powder particles used in powder-based metal AM processes is as follows: • Particle size distribution plays an important role in determining packing density of
➢ LPBF processes: 20 – 50 microns powder-bed in PBF processes
➢ EBM process: 45 – 105 microns
➢ LDED processes: 45 – 150 microns
• In general, particle size distribution is a typical report of measurement with a graph
• Powders of different size behave differently during laser processing and tables with values of particle sizes and their volume
➢ Large size particles melt slowly than smaller size
• Particle size distribution (PSD): PSD is an index indicating what sizes of particles are
• If all powders are of the same size which implies they will generally melt at similar present in what proportion
times
• The frequency distribution indicates in percentage the amounts of particles existing
• Therefore, in case of wider size distribution, more attention is required for optimizing in respective particle size intervals
the process parameters to achieve best properties
• Cumulative distribution expresses the % of the amount of particles below a certain
• To obtain a dense product, there is a need for
➢ Spherical powders
size
➢ Suitable size distribution
Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 11 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 12

Particle Size Distribution Particle Size Distribution

• The most widely used method of describing particle size • For example, if D10=10 um, then 10% of the particles
distributions are D values in the sample are smaller than 10 um, and 90% greater
than 10 um
• The D10, D50 and D90 mean that volume of 10, 50 and
90% particles have a size smaller than respective values

• D represents the diameter of powder particles,

and D50 means a cumulative 50% point of diameter (Figure source: Zhou and Han, 2023) (Figure source: Zhou and Han, 2023)

• For example, if D50=30 um, then 50% of the particles in

the sample are larger than 30 um, and 50% smaller than
30 um

• If D90=50 um, then 90% of the particles are smaller than

50 um and 10% of the particles are greater than 50 um Example of Particle Size Distribution curve for IN625 powders
Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 13 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 14
Determination of Powder Size Distribution Determination of Powder Size Distribution
• The PSD of powder feedstock has a significant influence on • Powder size distribution can be determined using
• The layer thickness and ➢ Microscopy
• Packing density ➢ Sieving etc.,

• Higher packing of powder bed implies higher powder bed density • Microscopy techniques allow one
• Directly see the powder particles
• High powder bed density can be achieved by having a wider distribution of particle • Measure the dimensions of the powder particles
size
• Different microscopy techniques include
• Wider distribution of particle size can result in gaps between large particles being • Optical Microscope
filled by smaller particles • Scanning Electron Microscope
• Transmission Electron Microscope

• Presence of satellites i.e, Satellites are smaller diameter particles that become
attached to the larger particles
Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 15 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 16

Microscopy Particle Size Distribution

• Microscopy technique is used for
➢ Size analysis
➢ Shape/morphology
➢ Color

• Microscopy enables to examine each particle individually

• Therefore, microscopy is a popular technique for measurement of particle size

• Microscopy can distinguish aggregates from single particles

• Microscopy can be used to study distribution of powder sizes ranging from

nanometer to millimeter scale
SEM image of IN625 at (a) 600 X (b)
• Measurement of PSD via microscopy can be time consuming 1000 X (c) 2000 x magnification

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 17 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 18
Particle Size Distribution Particle Size
Bin
Limit Count
(Particle Size, µm)
15-30 30 0
30-45 45 19
45-60 60 172
60-75 75 83
75-90 90 21
90-105 105 6

Min. 30.70
Max. 99.0

Average 58.79

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) image of B4C Powder at 250 X magnification

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 19 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 20

Particle Size Particle Size Distribution

Bin
Particle Size Distribution (B4C) Limit Count
(Particle Size, µm)
35
0-40 40 12
30 40-80 80 26

25 80-120 120 29

Count
120-160 160 29
20
160-200 200 25
15
200-240 240 8
10
240-280 280 6
5 280-320 320 1

0
320-360 360 1
40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360
Min. 13.45
Particle Size (µm)
Max. 327.7
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of B4C Powder at 500 X and 1000 X magnification
Average 124.81

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 21 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 22
Case Study: IN625 + B4C Powders Case Study: IN625 + B4C Powders
IN625 + 1 wt% B4C ⮚ To address issues of non-agglomeration, smaller size B4C particles (20-45 µm) were mixed

IN625

After Tumbler
Boron Carbide (B4C)
milling
After Tumbler
milling
(B4C)

• Particle size of IN625 is in the range of 45-106 µm. D50 = 59 µm

• Particle size of B4C is in the range of 40- 225 µm. D50 = 130 µm
• Large particles of B4C resulted in no agglomeration with IN625 particles

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 23 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 24

Laser Absorptivity of IN625 + B4C Powders Case Study: IN718 + B4C Powders

Laser Energy input during

Absorptivity LDED process

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 25 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 26
Case Study: IN718 + B4C Powders Sieving
• Sieving is a technique where separation is based on size

• Dry sieve analysis of metal powders are carried out using sieves with size range of 125 mm to 20 μm

• The sieves are stacked from top to bottom in order of decreasing mesh opening (decreasing mesh
size)

• Sieves are made of metal, polymer or cloth wire which have to defined opening size (μm)

• A collection pan is placed below the entire series of sieves

• A shaker is attached to the entire sieve setup and is run for 15 minutes which induces the sieving
action

• Sieving can be used over a very broad size range (100 mm to 20 μm)

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 27 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 28

Sieving Sieving
• The sieves are used to screen and separate the powder into various • The weight retained on each screen represents a particle size larger than the maximum opening in that
size fractions screen

• A test sieve is a measuring device designed to retain particles larger • Sieves are typically classified as coarse, medium and fine based on the size of the mesh or aperture opening
than a designated size while allowing smaller particles to pass through
• Coarse sieves: 100 mm to 4 mm
• The mesh with the largest aperture is at the top
• Medium sieves: 4 mm to 200 μm
• The mesh with the smallest aperture is at the bottom
• Fine sieves: < 200 μm
(Figure source: Hashemi, 2014)

• The finest powder is collected in a pan at the bottom of the sieve set • The ease of operation is relatively simple in sieving and is also applicable over a broad size range

• Size distribution is reported as the mass of the material retained on a • The capital investment of sieving is low
mesh of a given size
• In sieving the extent of automation and computerization is relatively limited
• It may also be reported as the cumulative mass retained on all sieves
above a mesh size • Mechanical motion during sieving affects repeatability and reproducibility of results

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 29 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 30
Particle Size and Distribution Powder Morphology
• Powder with a consistent particle size and distribution promotes even spreading of the • The morphology/shape of powder particles affects its
material in the powder bed ➢ Flowability
➢ Packing of powder particles
• This ensures a uniform layer thickness in each pass of the laser, which is crucial for creating
accurate and high-quality parts • Poor flowability implies the powder may not spread evenly in PBF processes

• Powder particles with consistent size and distribution melt and solidify more predictably • Irregularly shaped particles with low packing density could lead to low part density in
PBF processes.
• This helps avoid defects like balling or incomplete fusion, which can result from variations in
particle size and distribution, leading to poor part quality
• Higher powder bed density implies higher part density
• Irregular particle sizes leads to nonhomogenous layers
• Packing density will eventually determine layer thickness in AM processes
• Nonhomogenous layer on top a printed surface can result in voids within the printed part
• Spherical, equiaxed particles will arrange and pack more efficiently than irregular
particles
Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 31 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 32

Powder Morphology Powder Morphology

• Spherical shape gives rise to • Even with case of spherical particles, when they are tightly
• Maximum powder bed density implying maximum part density fitted there remains a gap
• Flowability
• For example, if three spherical particles are placed adjacent to
• In case of non-spherical shapes, the flow of powder is obstructed because each other, the gap or unfilled space made by the three
• Powders tend to interlock mechanically spherical shapes is of triangular shape
• Entangle with each other
• In order to fill this gap, another smaller powder particle is (Figure source: Hashemi, 2014)

• For powder morphology other than spherical, a nonhomogenous layer of varying needed
packing density exists on top of previously built solid surface
• Consequently, total density could be increased by mixing
• Nonhomogenous layers can result in porosity/incomplete melting powders of two different sizes

• This is bimodal distribution

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 33 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 34
Powder Morphology Powder Morphology
• But there still remains a gap at the intersecting space of one • To obtain a fully dense material, the outer layer of the powder should deform/flow to
small and two big powders fill in the infinitesimal gaps

• For filling this gap another powder particle is needed. This • This is possible by melting of powders which will then flow and fill the gap
powder particle should be smaller than the two already used
• This discussion assumes that powders are perfectly spherical
• Hence if a powder mixture of three powder sizes is used, this
may fill the required gaps powder bed density increases • Another way of increasing the density of powder bed is by compacting the powder
bed
• This is trimodal powder size distribution
• But compacting is not preferred used
• Even though different powder sizes are used and density is ➢ It is detrimental to the small features of the builtup layer
increased, it is still not possible to get a fully dense material ➢ Compacting increases number of steps in LPBF and consequently the time of
production
(Figure source: Hashemi, 2014)
Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 35 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 36

Powder Morphology Powder Morphology

• Depending upon the powder production process, powders can have various • Spherical, equiaxed particles are likely to arrange and pack more efficiently than
morphologies including irregular particles
➢ Acicular (needle-shaped)
➢ Dendritic (branched), • The packing density will eventually determine the layer thickness and shrinkage in AM
➢ Granular (equidimensional but irregularly shaped) processes
➢ Irregular (lacking symmetry),
➢ Fibrous (regularly or irregularly thread-like)
➢ Spherical (globular-shaped)
➢ Angular (sharp-edged or roughly polyhedral-shaped),

• Particle morphology will have a significant impact on the bulk packing and flow
properties of a powder batch

Micrographs of powder particles exhibiting various surface features and defects

(Figure source: Zhou and Han, 2023)

Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 37 Characteristics of Powder Feedstock for Metal Additive Manufacturing 38