FUNDAMENTALS

OF LIGHTING:
MODULE 3
DAYLIGHTING

Illuminating Engineering Society

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IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 1

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IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 2

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IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 3

 FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING

Module 1: Introduction to Light and Lighting

Module 2: Electric Light Sources
Module 3: Daylighting
Module 4: Luminaires
Module 5: Controls
Module 6: Photometry and Calculations
Module 7: Codes, Standards, and Design Process
Module 8: Lighting for Interior Applications
Module 9: Lighting for Exterior Applications
Module 10: Review

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IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 4

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

PARTICIPANTS WILL BE ABLE TO:

• Describe the characteristics of daylight

• Identify the primary methods of delivering and distributing daylight

• Analyze the basic metrics of daylight illuminance

• Compare approaches to integrating daylight and electric lighting.

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IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 5

 INTRODUCTION TO DAYLIGHTING

• Introduction to daylighting
• Characteristics of daylight
• Delivering daylight
• Integrating daylight and electric light
• View
• Modeling daylight

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IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 6

 DAYLIGHTING: THEN AND NOW

2 4

1 3
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Before the advent of fluorescent lighting, most workspaces depended on daylight for high levels (and
quality) of illumination. Gas and incandescent lighting didn’t produce enough illumination and posed
indoor environmental issues, as well. As a result, daylight was a preoccupation of architectural
designers, from the sawtooth skylights of factories, to the skylighted atria of department stores, to the
“finger” designs of office buildings. And, has been true for millennia, the affluent could afford daylight
and views, whether in private homes or luxurious high-rise towers; the urban poor were stuck in dark
tenements.

1. Note the effective positioning of the desks so daylight washes across the worksurface and
minimizes glare (to a degree). Also, patterns of light on the back wall and column suggest daylight
penetration.

2. The economy of fluorescent lighting freed factories and offices from the need to use daylight (or so
designers may have thought!). Pretty grim in that picture.

3. Daylight regains importance with the emergence of (new) energy concerns in the 1970s. Note the
patterns brightness and shadow created by the unshaded windows. You can imagine how
uncomfortable that would be.

4. Contemporary daylighting deploys more effective techniques for controlling daylight, such as the
exterior/interior shelves that shade the the lower portion of the window and reflect light from the
upper portion into the space. We will look at these techniques in depth.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 7

 Note the favorable location of desks in images (1) and (3), roughly perpendicular to the windows. This
way daylight washes the work surface from the side, avoiding veiling reflections, while the person
working at the desk neither faces glare nor creates a large body shadow.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 7

 THE VALUE OF DAYLIGHT

ENERGY REDUCTION
WELLNESS
SUSTAINABILITY

VALUE

VISUAL
AESTHETICS
PERFORMANCE

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Say “daylight” and virtually everyone has many positive associations. Mostly, they are well founded.

• Daylight and views contribute to wellness, both physiologically (covered in Module 1) and
psychologically. The changing quality of daylight offers stimulation and relaxation, something static
environments struggle to do well.

• The qualities of daylight contribute to visual performance and have proved beneficial in healthcare,
education, and retail applications.

• Daylight delivers illumination without (direct) energy consumption; daylighting provides a major
strategy for energy conservation and environmental sustainability.

• Daylighted spaces attract people. People overwhelmingly prefer to be in daylighted spaces, making
such spaces more valuable.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 8

 THE CHALLENGES OF DAYLIGHT

SOLAR HEAT GAIN

GLARE

SITE LIMITATIONS

COST AND COMPLEXITY

VARIABILITY

CHALLENGES
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At the same time, daylighting faces several challenges:

• The windows and skylights that admit visible wavelengths also admit infrared radiation, both
transmitted and conducted through the glass. Cold also passes through fenestration more readily
than it does through insulated wall and ceiling materials.

• The sunlight component of daylight can be very glary if it is not well shielded, far worse than most
electric lighting. The contrast between bright windows and darker surrounding walls (as in the photo)
is another problem.

• Daylight varies during the day, predictably and unpredictably. That’s one of its charms, but it also
means that electric lighting needs to be at the ready.

• Daylight availability is also limited by the building site and architecture. Much design aims to
minimize this challenge.

• All of these challenges amount to ”added” cost and complexity in building design and construction. In
most cases, the initial and operating costs attributable to daylighting exceed the direct initial and
operating savings. It’s the human and environmental benefits that make daylighting overwhelmingly
valuable!

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 9

 DAYLIGHT IN CODES AND STANDARDS

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Codes and standards drive adoption of daylighting, as they do in so much else in lighting practice.

• Energy codes, such as those based on Standard 90.1 or the IECC, or those developed
independently, such as California’s Title 24 all include provisions requiring the control of electric light
where daylight is available, known colloquially as daylight harvesting. We will address these in
Module 7.

• State building codes also include requirements for fenestration (windows and skylights), which affect
daylight availability, of course, but those requirements are not discussed in Fundamentals of Lighting.

• Design standards, notably LEED and WELL (covered in Module 7), prioritize daylighting and views
highly in their various “menus” of lighting design elements.

• The Recommended Practices, Lighting Practices, as well as Lighting Science components in the IES
Library cover daylighting extensively.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 10

 CHARACTERISTICS OF DAYLIGHT

• Introduction to daylighting
• Characteristics of daylight
• Delivering daylight
• Integrating daylight and electric light
• View
• Modeling daylight

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IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 11

 CHANGING DAYLIGHT

Motions of the Earth Apparent Motion of the Sun

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Daylight changes over the course of a day and a year, both regularly and irregularly. This dynamic
fundamentally determines daylight availability, although many factors are involved:

• Rotation of the earth around its axis (day or night)

• Orbit of the earth around the sun (season).

Recall that it’s the tilt of the earth’s polar axis – not the distance from the sun – that distinguishes
winter from summer and northern from southern hemisphere. (See illustration at left. Illustration at
the right shows how the seasonal apparent sun path results in different angles and duration of
exposure.

• Weather conditions, particularly cloud cover.

• Foliage and buildings that block sunlight to fenestration.

• Building orientation (siting) which determines where sunlight falls on the building.

• Fenestration – location, size and quantity, shading, and material – all of which influence how much
enters a building, where, and at what angles

• Interior design – ceiling heights, finishes, and other reflected surfaces – all of which influence how
much and how deeply light penetrates.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 12

 SUN ANGLES

Solar Azimuth Solar Altitude

S S

E W E W

N N
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The position of the sun is defined by two angles, which vary with the position of the viewer and the time
of day.

Solar Azimuth is the angle from North, effectively a horizontal angle. Solar Azimuth may also refer to the
angle to a perpendicular to a building façade (irrespective of compass angle).

Solar Altitude is the angle to the horizontal, a vertical angle.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 13

 COMPONENTS OF DAYLIGHT

Direct sun light

Collimated

Sky light
Raleigh Scattering

Reflected light

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In architectural lighting design, the term “daylight” describes three different natural light sources: direct
sunlight, skylight, and reflected light. Each of these sources has distinct characteristics that involve a
separate set of consideration for each daylighting application.

• Direct Sunlight is essentially a point source, whose intensity depends on the solar altitude, season, and
local atmospheric conditions. Direct sunlight produces very high luminance and illuminance. It is
generally not recommended in works spaces as it produces glare, sharp shadows, and thermal
discomfort. Direct sunlight may be desired and beneficial in transitional spaces, such as lobbies and
circulation areas.

• Skylight is made luminous through the Rayleigh scattering of sunlight by air molecules, small particles of
water vapor, and particulate matter in the atmosphere. Shorter wavelengths scatter more than longer
wavelengths, giving the sky its blue color. Skylight is considered diffuse and produces useful
illumination, especially for workspaces, with soft shadows and more uniform illuminance and luminance
than direct sunlight.

• Reflected light may come up from the ground or balconies, particularly snow-covered, and down from
buildings. Like all reflection, it is affected by the properties of the reflecting surface. Reflected sunlight
reaches a target from a significantly different direction than direct sunlight, creating glare and shadows
in unexpected directions.

The fisheye photograph illustrates the presence of each of these sources in an urban setting from a
selected viewpoint. Note how half the buildings are in sun and half in shadow due to the position of the sun

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 14

 in the sky dome.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 14

 COMPONENTS OF DAYLIGHT

Skylight

Sunlight

Reflected Light

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In this photo

Examples of Sunlight, Skylight, and reflected light. Observe the shadows and identify the location of the
sun.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 15

 ENERGY AND DAYLIGHT

Luminous Efficacy of Daylight

Visible Energy
45%
UV 5%

Infrared Energy
50%

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The diagram on the left shows that visible light represents less than half of the energy in sunlight. As the
chart on right shows, use of high performance glass windows significantly improves the delivered result.
It’s worth noting that, for LED, the share of radiant energy represented by visible wavelengths is also less
than 50%

The chart on the right compares the luminous efficacy of daylight under different conditions.

• The orange bars show efficacy before entering a building. Note that clear sky can enjoy significantly
higher efficacy than either a combination of sun and sky or an overcast sky.

• The yellow bars show the effect of high performance (HP) glass on efficacy measured inside a space.
HP glass, by limiting interior heat gain (slides 40-41), improves efficacy by 40% or more.

• Particularly with HP glass, daylight enjoys a considerable advantage in efficacy than the best electric
sources, provided of course, the daylight is available.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 16

 SPECTRUM OF DAYLIGHT

Minneapolis, MN

Monthly Horizontal Illuminance (1/1000 lux)

Relative Power for Equal Lumens

Hour of Day

~Peak circadian Peak visual response

response (475 nm) (555nm)
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This chart shows the spectrum of skylight (10,000 K), sunlight (5,300 K), and the combination (6,000 K).
The SPD and CCT represent specific temporal, environmental and geographic conditions.
The spectra of daylight in its different compositions encompasses the full range of wavelengths present
in the photopic (daytime) luminous response function of the human eye (peak centered at 555 nm
monochromatic green light) as well as the circadian response curve (peak centered at around 466 - 477
nm blue-green light), which regulates sleep.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 17

 SKY CONDITIONS: LOOKING UP

Clear Sky Partly Cloudy Overcast

(0-30%) (30-70%) (70-100%)
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The climate at a site affects the amount of usable daylight that will be available because of the amount of
cloud cover and other atmospheric conditions present. Building designs should logically target those
conditions that are most common at a building site.

Weather statistics identify conditions as follows:

Clear sky: generally considered to be one that is nearly or completely void of clouds, 0-30 percent cloud
cover

Overcast Sky: essentially complete cloud cover that direct sunshine cannot penetrate, 70 to 100 percent
cloud cover

Partly Cloudy Sky: between the two extremes, clear and overcast, and difficult to describe and quantify
because of the wide variety of conditions that fit this general description.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 18

 SKY CONDITIONS: LUMINANCE MAP

Clear Sky Partly Cloudy Overcast

(0-30%) (30-70%) (70-100%)

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Note the solar circumsolar luminance and variation under clear and partly cloudy sky conditions and the
uniformity under overcast conditions

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 19

 AVERAGE SKY CONDITIONS ACROSS THE U.S.

Clear Sky Cloudy Sky

Mean number of days per year Mean number of days per year

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The image above shows the average number of clear and cloudy days that would typically occur for
locations across the U.S. Specific weather data is also available for select cities in the U.S., Canada, and
Mexico.

While these maps clearly show the variation across regions of the U.S., they don’t show the daily
variation from the averages shown.

From these data, you can determine whether a design should target a specific type of sky, clear or
overcast, or whether it must be designed to perform under a wide range of sky conditions.

Given the variability of daylight, lighting always needs to be designed to supply 100% of the illumination
for a space. Using daylight provides opportunities for electric light to be run at less than 100% power.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 20

 DAYLIGHT ILLUMINANCE

• Daylight Illuminance: (1) direct sunlight (2) skylight and (3) reflected light
• Varies by time of year, location, conditions
• Models for specific point, average, date/time, and over time
Direct sun/clear sky

Modeled horizontal illuminance

Direct sun/part cloudy

Sky/part cloudy

Sky/overcast
Sky/clear
100,000 lux 60,000 lux 45,000 lux 20,000 lux 15,000 lux
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The graph shows direct solar and sky horizontal illuminance under various conditions based on standard
sky models. These values are measured with the source overhead, and they diminish as the light
becomes more oblique to the surface. In this model, direct sunlight includes illuminance from the sky.

Lux is the metric unit of illuminance, equal to one lumen incident over one square meter. Footcandle is
one lumen incident over one square foot. 10.76 lux equals 1 footcandle. So, 100,000 lux is roughly
10,000 footcandles, which is a lot of light falling on the ground! We cover photometric terms,
relationships, and formulae in Module 6.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 21

 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DAYLIGHT: SUMMARY

• Dynamic in quantity, intensity, color,

and direction
• 45% is visible; 50% is infrared
• Spectrum is continuous
• Skylight, sun light, and
reflected light comprise daylight
• Daylight varies! Sky can be clear,
partly cloudy, or overcast.

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IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 22

 DELIVERING DAYLIGHT

• Introduction to daylighting
• Characteristics of daylight
• Delivering daylight
• Integrating daylight and electric light
• View
• Modeling daylight

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IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 23

 DESIGNING FOR DAYLIGHT DELIVERY

• Site, orientation, and building mass

• Openings
• Glazing
• Shading
• Interior transmission

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Here are five key variables in the delivery of daylight, which we discuss in detail in this section:
• Building site, orientation, and mass influence how much daylight reaches the building and where.
• Openings in the walls and roof provide the apertures through which daylight passes to the interior.
Openings in the walls (fenestration) generally create what is called side lighting; and openings in
the roof create top lighting
• Glazing and shading modify the quantity and quality of the transmitted daylight
• Elements of interior design, such as light shelves, skylight wells, ceiling height and reflectance
affect the quantity and distribution of light. We cover these elements as part side and top lighting.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 24

 SITE, ORIENTATION AND BUILDING MASS

Best

Good

Acceptable

Worst
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• Besides geographical location, site considerations include shadowing from adjacent buildings,
mountains, and trees, as well as the quality of views.
• Orientation is illustrated in the center illustration: the best orientation favors North and South
exposure. This minimizes exposure to sunlight at low angles (solar altitude), which creates glare
and strong and long shadows with side lighting. The worst orientation exposes most of the building
to the East and West. See slide 27 for detail.
• Narrow building exposes more of the interior to daylight than a square footprint (central illustration).
A square form with a large footprint leaves much of the floor area without daylight from windows.
• Tall buildings are less vulnerable to shadowing from adjacent structures (at least on the upper
floors).
• Single story buildings (and the top floors of multi-story buildings) offer the opportunity for top
lighting throughout the interior.
• A generous central atrium permits top lighting to reach down into interiors that may not enjoy any
side lighting.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 25

 ORIENTATION

N S E W
• Less shading means • Overhangs control • Afternoon façade • Morning façade
sustained daylight high-angle summer shaded: conditions shaded: conditions
delivery annually sunlight similar to North similar to North
• Easiest to control • Blinds and shades • High solar loads
• No direct (except high control low-angle occur late afternoon
altitudes early/late winter sunlight during peak temp; high
summer) • High latitudes have cooling loads

• Lowest available lower sun angles • Blinds and shades control low-angle morning
incident daylight • High solar loads sunlight in work areas
• Most stable occur during the • Vertical shading devices control morning
coldest time of year winter solar angles at higher latitudes
• Quality diffuse daylight

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These notes are copied directly from the IES Lighting Practice LP 3-20 Designing and Specifying
Daylighting for Buildings. They capture the important differences, benefits, and disadvantages in
daylight experience according to the cardinal orientation of a façade.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 26

 OPTIONS FOR ADMITTING DAYLIGHT

Combination Top Lighting Side Lighting

4 3

1
5 2

N
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This drawing illustrates different options for admitting daylight into a building.

1. Side lighting (at right) exploits a favorable North exposure to skylight with tall windows

2. Top lighting (center) provides daylight to the deep inner core of the building

3. A roof monitor to provide additional daylight to the interior

4. Top lighting from the monitor and side light form a combination (left) on the South exposure.

5. Light shelves to block sunlight and redirect it into the space

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 27

 MULTIPLE MODES OF DAYLIGHT DELIVERY

N
Skylights with conical wells
Crescent-shaped
roof monitor
Clerestory

Window

Window +
overhang

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Here’s a real world example.

This is a library designed by Alvar Aalto, built in the 1970s. This design balances more intense southern
sunlight, as it comes in through the entrance and skylights, with large banks of northern facing windows
and clerestories.

A clerestory is a window (or section of a window) above eye level.

One of the reasons this design is successful is the general overcast skies in the region and the siting into
the landscape: it is built into the side of a hill, and its fan shape overlooks the countryside to the north.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 28

 SIDELIGHTING CHARACTERISTICS

• Daylight enters from side through glazed

vertical apertures
o Unilateral: enters from one side
o Bilateral: enters from two sides
• Light follows mostly lateral path to task
• High daylight levels around perimeter
• Effective strategy for buildings with limited
depth and articulated plan forms
• Daylight controls are mandated by most
commercial energy codes
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• Sidelighting is a perimeter daylighting strategy that collects light along a buildings facade and
distributes it inward. Once admitted, the lateral flow of daylight is directed by means of room
geometry, surface reflectance and finish, and interior partitions and furniture.

• As the distance from the window to a horizontal work plane is increased there is a significant drop off
of daylight level. The average depth of a primary side lighted daylight zone is about 1X the window
head height, or about 10-15’. Glare from sunlight, especially at low angles, is an issue that must be
carefully controlled

• It is important to match the illuminance requirements of various space functions with the spatial
distribution of daylight. The high daylight levels present at the perimeter are more efficiently used by
regularly occupied spaces with critical task light levels, e.g., open offices, private offices and
conference rooms.

• The typical depth of the secondary sidelight daylight zone extends from 1X to 2X the window height,
continuing from the boundary of the primary daylight zone another 15’. Here daylight levels alone are
more suitable for secondary task areas such as circulation, copy rooms, etc. Beyond the secondary
daylight zone are located low use spaces such as storage, mechanical and core elements.

• Side lighting is a by-product of windows, which may be more valued for view. Side lighting is most
effective where buildings have limited depth (including articulated forms, such as a “finger plan”), are
appropriate oriented, and the daylight is well controlled.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 29

 • Most energy codes require daylight-responsive lighting controls in primary, and in some cases
secondary, daylight zones.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 29

 FENESTRATION FOR SIDE LIGHTING

Window Clerestory Light Shelf

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• Here are the three primary configurations of glazed vertical fenestration (as opposed to the horizontal
openings in a roof).

• Windows deliver both daylight and views, offering benefits of wellness as well as illumination.
Windows are the predominant daylight experience in most office, government, and institutional
buildings, as well as residences.

• Clerestories – windows above eye level – only provide light, no views.

• Light shelves can be mounted on the exterior or the interior of a window. The shelf both shields the
space from direct sunlight and reflects light deeper into the room. Light shelves are a typical
configuration for the south side of a building. Exterior shelves are generally not provided on the north
face of a building, but interior shelves can still be helpful.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 30

 DAYLIGHT PENETRATION FROM SIDE LIGHTING

1 2 3
Daylight
Daylight zone
h Daylight h
h zone zone

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• Daylight penetration is largely determined by the window head height (often shortened to window
height), which is the distance from the floor to the top of the window (not the height of the opening).
Note the impact of increasing the window height from drawing (1) to (2).

• In these illustrations, the daylight zone consists of both primary and secondary zones, so it extends
2h the window head height (h)

• Notice the significant decline in illuminance (dotted red line) as daylight penetrates deeper into the
space in both (1) and (2)

• Since side lighting creates high brightness near the window and high contrast with the interior,
achieving a degree of daylight uniformity is an important consideration. The light shelf (3) does this
by diminishing illuminance near the window and increasing it further away. Note both the higher level
and more uniform distribution at the desk in (3) compared to either (1) or (2) and the higher level
(blue dotted line) deep into the space.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 31

 DIRECT AND REFLECTED INTERIOR LIGHT

Primary Secondary
daylight daylight
zone zone

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This drawing shows the contribution of reflected daylight to overall daylight illuminance based on a clear
sky model.
• The yellow line is total daylight illuminance.
• The straight black line at the bottom is the baseline.
• The orange line shows the contribution of direct daylight (above the orange line) and reflected daylight
(below the orange line).
• The thick, black curved line shows the first bounce of daylight off the ceiling. Note the pattern on the
ceiling. Daylight can reach the ceiling directly or by reflecting from the ground outside.
• Near the window, direct light dominates. The first bounce off the ceiling represents most of the
reflected component.
• As you move deeper into the room, the reflected component becomes more important.
• In the secondary daylight zone, daylight illuminance results almost entirely from multiple reflections.
• Clearly, room surface reflectances play an important role in the quantity, penetration, and uniformity.
Recommended reflectances (higher preferred)
Ceilings ≥90%
Walls ≥60%
Floor ≥20%

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 32

 Partitions≥40%

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 32

 SINGLE AND BI-LATERAL SIDE LIGHTING

S N S N S N

1 4

2 5

3 6 8

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As the variation in these alternatives indicates, designers need to consider building orientation and sky
conditions in choosing how to configure and shade side lighting schemes. These illustrations show the
impact of different side lighting configurations and shading under clear skies (yellow line) and overcast
black line).

1. North facing windows do not require shading for direct sunlight. Overcast conditions provide slightly
higher illuminance in the perimeter zone.

2. South facing windows need shading, which cuts down sunlight so that illuminance is actually less
than the unshaded daylight on an overcast sky

3. Overhang protects against glare without reducing illuminance with clear skies.

4. Interior light shelf with shade on the upper window to control glare

5. Exterior shelf with shades on the lower window to control glare. Note the reduction of illuminance
with overcast skies, compared to (4) above, due to the shelf.

6. Interior and Exterior light shelves improves illuminance on clear days but not on overcast due to the
effect of the exterior shelf.

7. The bilateral design with south-facing windows, similar to (2) and a north-facing clerestory improves

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 33

 illuminance over a single window wall.

8. With the clerestory on the south side and window on the north, clear sky illuminance is high and
uniform. Overcast performance is oriented to the north.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 33

 TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS FOR SIDE LIGHTING

2 5
1

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1. Office with interior and exterior light shelves

2. Office with bilateral side lighting

3. School library with bilateral side lighting including clerestory

4. Circulation space with a combination of side and top lighting

5. Classroom with window and clerestories

6. Hospital patient room with river view

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 34

 TOPLIGHTING CHARACTERISTICS

• Daylight enters interior from above, typically at

or near the ceiling, travels vertically to task
surfaces
• Single or multiple apertures
• High daylight levels at core
• Effective for low buildings and large footprints
• Roof penetrations may be an issue
• Deep core strategies
• Mandated by most energy codes

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-35

• Toplighting is a core type of daylighting strategy that collects sunlight and skylight at a building’s roof.
In a room directly below a roof, daylight collected at roof level may be distributed uniformly through an
entire floor.

• Using single or multiple apertures, top lighting can cover large areas.

• Top lighting can deliver high levels of daylight in core areas that are hard to side light.

• Top lighting is particularly effective for low-rise buildings and large footprints.

• Roof penetration, particularly when skylights are added to existing structures, requires careful
construction to assure the water-tight integrity of the roof. Horizontal surfaces (skylights) also collect
more dirt, dust, and debris than vertical surfaces (clerestories and monitors

• Deep core lighting strategies provide a solution when light must be transmitted a large distance from
collection to distribution point. In a multistory building, a deep core strategy may provide a solution
for transmitting light down multiple floors (via open light shafts or solar tubes) to illuminate central
areas of a building that exceed the daylight penetration depths attained by side lighting, where side
lighting is not possible or is obstructed.

• Top lighting, and its electrical lighting controls, are mandated by several energy codes for single story
buildings and the top floor of multi-story buildings. Some of the qualifying criteria include spaces
directly below a roof that exceed a certain size area and with ceiling above a certain height.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 35

 OPTIONS FOR TOP LIGHTING

South North

Skylights Clerestory/Sawtooth Roof Monitor

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-36

Skylights, clerestories, and monitors are the primary options for delivering light from the top of the building
into the interior. Skylights admit sunlight and skylight from all around. Clerestories and monitors essentially
admit light from the side.

Skylights are the most prevalent top lighting device, appearing in many forms. They are typically small
elements, commonly used in multiples (where roof area permits). Domed, pyramidal, or flat transmitting
material is commonly made of plastic and may be clear or diffuse. A skylight well is the passage through
the ceiling (Circled highlight). Its contour, depth and finish affect the quantity, uniformity and visual comfort
of the delivered light.

Clerestories for top lighting are vertical windows located near the ceiling of a space, often projecting above
the roof. Clerestories can be applied high on the walls along the perimeter of a building or can be applied
on the roof of a building as individual units or in a saw tooth pattern. In the case of a sawtooth arrangement,
the roof again becomes an important contributor of daylight to the interior space through reflection of both
direct sunlight and skylight. They provide a more uniform distribution of light within a space than occurs
with a typical full-height window. Because a clerestory is a single-sided construction, it can be arranged to
face north and limit direct sunlight.

As the illustration on the monitor shows, a roof monitor is a raised portion of the roof with glazed walls,
typically on several of the sides. Light reaches the interior directly and by compound reflection from the
roof and monitor ceiling. Reflective finishes help. Extending the monitor roof (circled) can shield some
direct light (which can be problematic and increase the more comfortable reflected component. Monitors
can be constructed in a variety of sizes and shapes and applied as single or multiple elements. Monitors

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 36

 are an early form of top lighting; because they are multi-sided they have limited ability to exclude direct
sunlight.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 36

 TYPICAL SPACING FOR TOP LIGHTING

0.5 h 1.5 h 1.5 h 0.5 h

2.5 h 2.5 h 2.5 h

0.5 h
h
Skylight Clerestory

Splayed Well Straight Well

63.4% efficient 27.3% efficient
Roof Monitor
[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-37
3
7
These drawings suggest typical guidelines for monitors, skylights, and clerestories. Note that h
refers to ceiling height, not window head height as in the side lighting diagrams.

The well – the passage between the skylight glazing and the ceiling below has a significant impact
of skylight performance. A splayed well (lower left) provides significantly higher efficiency than a
straight-sided well. The splay also contributes to both better uniformity and visual comfort.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 37

 TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS FOR TOP LIGHTING

2
4 6

1
3 7
[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 5 FOL 3-38
3
8
1. Clerestory in a museum

2. Sawtooth clerestories in a school

3. Clerestory and and a daylight “slot” in a bank

4. Skylights in retail

5. Skylights in a gym

6. Skylights in a warehouse

7. Monitor in a residence

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 38

 SOLAR LIGHTING SYSTEMS

Solar Tube Heliostat

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-39

Solar tubes are similar to skylights in that they are architectural features that capture and convey light
through a roof. But they can deliver light further and in a more concentrated distribution. They may be just
as easy to add to an existing structure as skylights. Like any other daylight harvesting architectural feature,
they require occasional cleaning as their efficiency will decrease if their transparent features are obscured
by dirt or dust.

Solar Lighting Systems include a number of toplighting devices designed to steer or redirect direct solar flux
with relatively minor contributions from diffuse sky light.

Tubular Daylighting Devices (TDDs) are simple open-air sunlight piping systems designed to collect sunlight
at roof level, transport it through a high reflectance light duct, and emit it at room level in a controlled
distribution pattern.

Hybrid Solar Lighting (HSL) devices combine a sunlight collection system with various transport systems
such as fiber optics or hollow waveguides. Their ability to collect, concentrate and redirect solar flux allows
them to support “deep core” lighting strategies. Some HSLs incorporate an electrical light source
somewhere in the system that powers on when sunlight is absent. HSL luminaires are typically ceiling
mounted to provide some form of top light. HSL may collect sunlight from a roof, facade, or ground area. A
facade mounted HSL system may allow the lateral transport of sunlight to depths that exceed the daylight
penetration depth of conventional windows.

Heliostats also support deep core lighting strategies. Heliostats are sun-tracking mirror systems, single or
dual-axis, that redirect beam sunlight either directly into a room or outdoor space, or into a light distribution

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 39

 system.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 39

 GLAZING: REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION
Percent

Angle of Incidence
Double Pane Window
[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-40

Glazing has a significant impact on the side lighting delivery. Light may be transmitted, reflected, or
absorbed. The graph on the left shows how transmission is affected by the angle of incidence of light.
Here an angle of 0 degrees is perpendicular to the window, as in early morning sunlight. As the sun
rises in the sky, transmission (as a percentage) declines, falling off sharply after about 65 degrees.

The diagram on the right illustrates how a double pane window reduces transmitted thermal radiation,
reflecting from the external and internal edge of each glass sheet and re-radiating some of the absorbed
radiation. The air gap provides additional insulation.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 40

 GLAZING: MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Visual Transmittance and Solar Heat Gain Coefficient Spectral Transmittance

6 5

1 2 3

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-41

Windows may be clear glass or treated with different spectrally tuned coatings. These can significantly
reduce interior heat gain, lowering cooling cost and increasing occupant comfort.

In the left-hand chart, VT stands for Visual Light Transmittance. Higher VT means more light passes
through the glazing. SHGC stands for Solar Heat Gain Coefficient. Higher SHGC means more heat
(infrared radiation) reaches the interior. Optimal design maximizes VT and minimizes SHGC.

Notice that with single-glazed and many double-glazed windows, VT and SHG percentages are pretty
close. However, with Low SHGC (2), Low-E glass, a 55% drop in SHGC is achieved with only a 21%
loss in VT, compared to clear glass (1). This appears better than a triple-glazed window (3), where the
(lowest) SHGC comes that expense of a 38% loss of VT.

The graph on the right compares visible light (VT) to transmitted wavelengths, note that scale runs past
the range of visible wavelengths (4) and well into the infrared range. Clear glass (5) shows little filtering
of long wavelengths. VNE 1-63 and VE1-2M (6) – those are the coating manufacturer’s product codes –
appear to optimize infrared filtering and light transmission.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 41

 SHADING

Solar radiation Solar radiation Solar

rejected before rejected radiation
Shade Location hitting the between rejected after
glazing glazing panes passing
1 2 through
glazing

Cut off Angle

3 4

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-42

Shading acts to control direct sunlight with the benefits of reduced glare and excessive illuminance
contrast, as well as reduced solar heat gain. Shading is particularly important on the East and West
facades, which are exposed to direct sun that penetrates at low angles. Shading is also valuable on
South facades, especially in winter when the solar altitude is lower and sunlight is more likely to
penetrate.

The top drawing compares the effect of shade location on interior heat gain. As the drawing suggests,
these shades can be adjusted to increase light transmission and view when direct sun is no longer a
problem.

1. External shading rejects thermal radiation before the glazing, reducing both transmitted and
radiated heat gain.

2. Interior shading rejects thermal radiation only after it is in the space.

The lower drawing compares fixed shading overhangs and demonstrates that cut off can be achieved
with overhands of any size with the appropriate spacing.

3. Note that the large overhang (an external light shelf) provides a more open view

4. While the narrow shades might largely obstruct the view. Architectural considerations may also
affect the choice.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 42

 EXTERIOR SHADING CONTROL

1 2 3 4

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-43

4
3
1. Overhangs are the principal method for eliminating direct sunlight from striking a vertical window.
They are particularly effective on the south face of a building, where higher solar profile angles are
found. An overhang can be designed to block off sunlight above a given profile angle

2. Overhands can be louvered, reducing but not eliminating sunlhgt.

3. Louvers alone work like the shades pictured in (4) on the previous slide.

4. Fins are the vertical equivalent to an overhang or louver. They are positioned alongside a window to
block direct sunlight arriving from high angles at the side of the window, relative to the building
elevation.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 43

 INTERIOR SHADING CONTROL

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-44

Interior shades or blinds can also control daylight – either to avoid glare or to conserve energy or both –
although glare avoidance is the primary application (see slide 42 on heat transmission from interior
shades).

Shades can use manual, motorized, or automatic (daylight, occupancy, or activity based) control.
Occupants will generally lower shades manually when direct sunlight proves uncomfortable. Experience
indicates, however, that they are less likely to raise the shades back up when the sun no longer creates
glare. This affects the energy savings from daylight harvesting.

The left-hand photo shows interior shading with two different fabric patterns that darken the room to
different degrees.

The right-hand photo shows vertical blinds (adjustable vertical louvers) covering the clerestory window
above a perforated light shelf.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 44

 DELIVERING DAYLIGHT: SUMMARY

• Orientation, fenestration, shading,

interior transmission
• Side lighting and top lighting
• Windows, clerestories,
monitors, skylights, wells
• Glazing can balance Visual
Transmittance and Solar Heat Gain
• Overhangs, light shelves, shades
• Daylight penetration

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-45

This slide provides a summary of daylighting techniques.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 45

 INTEGRATING DAYLIGHT AND ELECTRIC LIGHT

• Introduction to daylighting
• Characteristics of daylight
• Delivering daylight
• Integrating daylight and electric light
• View
• Modeling daylight

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-46

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 46

 DAYLIGHT HARVESTING

• Provide appropriate illumination with a

combination of daylight and electric light.
Daylighted office space
• Automatically dim and increase electric
lighting in response to available daylight.
• Works with both side and top lighting.
• Code requirement in most commercial spaces
• Most daylight harvesting controls follow a
closed-loop design.

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-47

Daylight harvesting is the colloquial term for automatic daylight-responsive electric lighting control.
“Harvesting” implies the intent to supplant electric lighting with daylight for net energy savings.

Daylight harvesting is highly suitable for lighting zones adjacent to windows and clerestories and under
skylights and roof monitors—anywhere daylight is consistent and plentiful. Once favored as a stretch
option for LEED and other green projects, daylight harvesting is now required by the latest generation of
energy codes and may be adopted in support of sustainability and cost reduction strategies, as well. Note
the orientation of the workstation, which is perpendicular to wall and provides good task contrast, few
shadows, and comfort for the person who does not need to face the bright window continuously.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 47

 ADJUSTING TO CHANGING DAYLIGHT
3

Example: dark clouds

Available↓daylight 2 4

Artificial
light level 1
100% Time of Day (minutes)

Electric light

10%

Dawn Dusk
[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-48

Combined illumination ranges between the target level (at the low end) and the level of daylight (plus any
undimmable electric light) at the upper end. Energy consumption ranges from 100% of that required for
electric lighting (at the high end) to that required for the minimum level of electric light (0-10% for
example). We provide more detail on daylight controls in Module 5.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 48

 DAYLIGHT COMPENSATION

• Adjacent spaces often feel dark and gloomy

due to brightness contrast
o Higher electric light levels may be needed
to counteract the effect of bright daylight.
o Aesthetic and psychological benefits

o Not energy-saving

• Hotel lobbies and store windows may need:

o More electric light during the day

o Less electric light at night

• Open-loop controls are typical

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-49

Daylight compensation adjusts electric light to balance the brightness of daylight and diminish the effect
of extreme brightness contrast.

While the benefits of daylight compensation are aesthetic and psychological (not energy savings), they
can enhance the productivity of the space with bottom-line benefits, particularly for luxury hospitality
properties and retailers with exterior window displays. An open-loop control system measures daylight
(alone) and trigger specific levels of electric light based on the sensor reading. When daylight is strong,
the system dims up the electric light in the affected area. When daylight falls (and day turns to night),
electric light is dimmed. The settings are programmed. The light measurement and signal are not
affected by the level of electric light.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 49

 EXPECTATIONS AND DAYLIGHT EMULATION

• Daylight inconsistency is expected,

desirable
o Inconsistency in electric light may be
distracting.
o Changes in electric light level should
be inconspicuous.
• Color and direction of daylight rarely
match those of electric light.
o Spaces rarely appear the same
under daylight and electric light.

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-50

People have very different expectations of daylight and electric light. This suggests that a strategy to
emulate daylight with electric light may disappoint occupants of the space in several ways.

Most daylighted buildings will be used when daylight is not available and also may have spaces where
daylight is not available. These spaces will be lighted by electric light alone, with color and consistency
that provides comfort to the occupants. Maintaining consistent electric lighting in daylighted spaces
should be considered, rather than trying to match the varying dynamic of daylight.

Even large differences in color temperature (electric to daylight) may be comfortable if occupants
recognize the sources as fundamentally different and well organized.

It’s important to recognize that the pleasant experience of the colors of sunlight and skylight are
intimately connected to the broader luminous and visual experiences of high illuminance and exterior
activities and views. Indoors - and with much lower brightness – the cool color of daylight often feels
gloomy.

These remarks do not invalidate strategies to support circadian rhythms with electric light that mimic
aspects of daylight (spectrum, intensity, direction, duration, and timing). They do suggest that any
strategy should consider psychological as well as physiological response.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 50

 INTEGRATING DAYLIGHT: SUMMARY

• Almost all spaces need both daylight

and electric light
• Daylight harvesting saves energy
• Daylight compensation improves
comfort
• Transitions should be inconspicuous
• Respect the fundamental differences
between daylight and electric light

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-51

This slide provides a summary of daylight integration strategies.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 51

 VIEW

• Introduction to daylighting
• Characteristics of daylight
• Delivering daylight
• Integrating daylight and electric light
• View
• Modeling daylight

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-52

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 52

 THE QUALITY OF VIEW

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-53

The quality of view depends on both what occupants see and how many have access to views.

Research appears to indicate fundamental human preferences for views of nature, including healthy
vegetation, varying topography, and clean water (both running and still). A degree of mystery (but not
risk or vulnerability) also appears favorable.

Here, the two wings of the building frame a pleasantly landscaped entry, increasing view access despite
limited natural expanse.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 53

 WINDOWS FRAME THE VIEW

Sky
above eye-level background

Horizon
at eye-level mid-ground

Earth
below eye-level foreground

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-54

The appreciation of view is a highly subjective phenomenon. One method of view analysis is how it
frames three basic elements: sky, horizon, and ground.

The placement of window aperture determines which one of these elements is framed. The sky located
toward the upper part of the wall, above eye-level, shows distant background. The Horizon located
midlevel at eye-level, shows mid-ground. The Earth located toward the bottom of the wall, below eye-
level, shows foreground. A view frame may incorporate all three elements, or any combination.

Not all view frames incorporate all three elements. For example. some windows may include just one of
these characteristics. The interpretation of view is a subjective phenomenon, but a compelling visual
conclusion, illustrated in the example shown, is that views with all three layers, or at least two, may be
the most satisfying for the occupant.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 54

 SPLIT WINDOW FUNCTIONALITY

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-55

Fenestration serves two distinct functions. One is to allow light in and the other is to allow view out.
Often these two functions come into conflict when sunlight creates glare or the view is undesirable.

A “split window” design separates these two functions to bring daylight in from above and allow view out
from below. Shading can be applied separately to control the unwanted effects. The functional division
occurs just above a standing persons field of view so view occurs low in the wall at eye height, and
daylight is admitted high up in the wall near the ceiling.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 55

 WINDOW SIZE AND VIEWING POSITION

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-56

The design of fenestration with access to view requires consideration of a number of variables such as
size, location and luminance.

Window size may be measured in relation to wall area and described by the Window-to-Wall Ratio
(WWR). There is a minimum size for a window to provide adequate view, just as there is a minimum size
for a window to provide adequate light. The main difference is that the threshold size for view is based on
apparent size, so it must also consider the distance of the window to the viewer rather than the wall.

To maintain a certain apparent, or angular, area, the aperture needs to increase in size as the viewer
moves further from the window wall.

In this example, an occupant that is 25 feet from a 20% WWR wall has a view with the same apparent
size as a 35% WWR wall that is 50 feet away

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 56

 VIEW: SUMMARY

• A paramount reason for windows

• View vs. daylight
Image looking out at greenery
• Structuring the view HB 14.3
• Quality of view

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-57

This slide provides a summary of view techniques.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 57

 MODELING DAYLIGHT

• Introduction to daylighting
• Characteristics of daylight
• Delivering daylight
• Integrating daylight and electric light
• View
• Modeling daylight

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-58

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 58

 DAYLIGHT METRICS

• Daylight Factor (DF):

Interior illuminance1 ÷ Exterior illuminance2
• Daylight Autonomy (DA):
% of time that daylight exceeds a specified level
• Spatial Daylight Autonomy (sDA):
% of area that receives a level of daylight for a given amount of time3
• Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI):
Number of hours (or %) that daylight falls in a useful range4
1. Horizontal illuminance at a specified point or points
2. Horizontal illuminance from a cloudy sky
3. In hours or % of a year
4. Middle of three defined ranges: too little (<) – Useful – too much (>)
[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-59

Here are four commonly used metrics for daylight analysis:

• Daylight Factor expresses the efficiency of a building (or space) in delivering daylight (modeled by
horizontal illuminance from a cloudy sky) to the interior (measured by horizontal illuminance at one or
more points).

• Daylight Autonomy express the effectiveness of daylight in terms of the % of time daylight exceeds a
specified level. DA is calculated at a point or calculated over an area/

• Spatial Daylight Autonomy is another measure of effectiveness, measured by % of an area that

meets specified daylight illuminance over a specified period of time. Both LEED and WELL
standards use sDA metrics. (Earlier versions of LEED used DF.)

• Useful Daylight Autonomy only counts the amount of time that daylight falls within a useful range (as
specified) and eliminates daylight that is too dim or too glary.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 59

 MODELING DAYLIGHT ILLUMINANCE

Daylight Factor (DF) Daylight Autonomy (DA500)

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-60

The graphs show iso-contour plots, which means that all points on the line have the same value. The
shaded colors indicate values between the two lines.

The left–hand graph plots Daylight Factor (interior daylight illuminance ÷ exterior daylight illuminance)
expressed in percentage. DF is a relationship and does not indicate a level of illuminance. DF at the
window is 7%. Since the exterior daylight illuminance in this DF calculation is the same for any point in
the space, DF not only indicates where the space satisfies a minimum DF specification as well as the
uniformity of daylight illuminance. In this example, horizontal illuminance at the window is 7 X that at the
back of the room. Uniformity of 2:1 is only achieved in less than half the floor area.

The right-hand graph plots Daylight Autonomy for a level of 500 lux. Each iso-contour line shows the
percentage of time that daylight illuminance exceeds the target of 500 lux. If we wanted to deliver 500
lux, this graph says that daylight alone would be adequate 60% of the time (and over 80% of the time in
the center of the room.

Later in the course, you will see iso-lux graphs, which show lines of equal illuminance and are a common
method of analyzing electric illuminance.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 60

 VISUALIZING DAYLIGHT PENETRATION

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-61

For some people and applications, visualization works better than numerical graphs. Here daylight
penetration is modelled over the course of twelve hours in three renderings, which show how the quality
and quantity of daylight changes during the day. Like similar renderings, these combine a moderately
detailed computer model of the architecture together with calculations of incident daylight on the glazed
surfaces of the façade.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 61

 MODELING DAYLIGHT LUMINANCE

Camera Display Rendering False-Color Luminance

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-62

These renderings model daylight luminance – the light transmitted by the window and reflected from
surfaces, all in the direction of the viewer.

The “camera display” rendering attempts to express the brightness of the daylighted space as an
occupant (relatively adapted to the lighting condition) might experience it. So-called photo-realistic
renderings are often used to suggest how a lighting design will make a space appear. Unless the
renderings are well done and carefully detailed, they can mislead inexperienced viewers . . . like many
clients.

The false-color rendering, on the other hand, makes no pretense to a realistic visual experience. But, it
can be the more useful tool in terms of analysis. For example, you can calculate the contrast between
the bright window and desk at 95 cd/m2 and the wall immediately adjacent at 35 cd/m2.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 62

 MODULE 3: DAYLIGHT SUMMARY

• Daylight is dynamic
• Value wellness, visual performance, energy conservation, aesthetics
• Challenges heat gain, glare, cost and complexity, variability

• Delivery orientation, fenestration, shading, interior transmission

• Fenestration windows, clerestories, monitors, skylights, glazing
• Daylight harvesting vs. daylight compensation
• View is important

• Metrics: Daylight Factor, Daylight Autonomy, Useful Daylight Illuminance

[Link] | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 3-63

Instructor notes

The slide summarizes the Module

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 63

 FUNDAMENTALS
OF LIGHTING:
MODULE 3
DAYLIGHTING

Illuminating Engineering Society

[Link]

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 3 64