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FUNDAMENTALS
OF LIGHTING:
MODULE 2
ELECTRIC LIGHT
SOURCES

Illuminating Engineering Society

www.ies.org

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CONTINUING EDUCATION: AIA

The IES is a Registered Provider with The American Institute of

Architects Continuing Education System. Credit earned on
completion of this program will be reported to CES Records for AIA
HSW-LU approved courses.

This program is registered with the AIA/CES for HSW continuing

professional education. As such, it does not include content that
may be deemed or construed to be an approval or endorsement by
the IES or AIA of any material or product.

Partial attendance will not be eligible for the IES CEU certificate of
completion. Individuals are responsible for their respective
credential maintenance reporting requirements.

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CONTINUING EDUCATION: GBCI APPROVED

The IES is a Registered Provider of GBCI Approved Courses for

Continuing Education.

This program is registered with GBCI for continuing professional

education. As such, it does not include content that may be
deemed or construed to be an approval or endorsement of GBCI of
any materials or product.

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-3

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FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING

Module 1: Introduction to Light and Lighting

Module 2: Electric Light Sources
Module 3: Daylighting
Module 4: Luminaires
Module 5: Controls
Module 6: Metrics, Photometry, Calculations, and Rendering
Module 7: Codes, Standards, and Economics
Module 8: Lighting for Interiors
Module 9: Lighting for Exteriors
Module 10: Review

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

PARTICIPANTS WILL BE ABLE TO:

• Describe the basic operation of electric light sources used in most

building systems

• Identify auxiliary gear such as ballasts and drivers

• Analyze the primary performance characteristics of the major light sources

• Compare nomenclature of different types of light sources.

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-5

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC SOURCES

• Introduction to electric
light sources
• Legacy sources
o Incandescent
o Fluorescent
o High Intensity Discharge
• Solid state

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Incandescent lamps, the oldest of the electric lamps, is still the most widely used, particularly in
homes. Commercial use has largely ceased due to the economics of short lamp life and high
energy consumption.

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A BRIEF HISTORY OF LIGHT SOURCES

1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020

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www.ies.org FOL 2-7
Image 1911, ‘Grand Elm Street Illumination’. George W. Cook
Dallas/Texas image collection

The bare flame served as a light source over the majority of the history of mankind.

Arc lights were shown to be a means of providing exterior lighting in the 1800s. These lamps “burned
down” like candles, however, and had to be maintained as such.

Practical electric light was invented around 1900, with the advent of the incandescent lamp and suitable
means of power generation and distribution.

Electric light enabled multiple shifts in factories, increasing the potential production capacity of existing
facilities.

Fluorescent was adopted over incandescent as a more energy efficient lighting solution during WWII,
and became the predominant means of lighting commercial buildings.

The first LEDs that emitted light in the visible spectrum were invented in 1962. It wasn’t until 1993 that
the first bright blue LEDs were invented, permitting the creation of white light in combination with red and
green LEDs .

With new energy legislation, incandescent lamps are being phased out in favor of high efficacy compact
fluorescent lamps and LED luminaires.

Energy efficient LED luminaires consisting of integrated driver and LED chips are available as
replacements for filament lamps, fluorescent tubes, and many other configurations.

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LIGHT SOURCE REGULATION

• Authorized by Congress
• Regulations by DOE
• 1992 EPACT
• 2007 EISA
• 2012 EPACT

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-8

• Federal regulation of light sources is thirty years old in the United States

• Regulations are authorized by acts of Congress and implemented by regulations issued by the US
Department of Energy. Generally, the regulations create efficacy standards (LPW or maximum
wattage), rather than prohibiting specific technologies (although the effect may be the same)>

• Enacted in 1992, the Energy Policy Act (EPACT) established efficacy regulations for R, PAR, and
T12 lamps (among many other non-lighting actions). Standard incandescent PAR lamps were
replaced by halogen versions with wattage reductions of 33%; R lamps were replaced by BR lamps
(more efficient optics) with 13% wattage reduction; 40W T12 lamps were replaced by 34W lamps
(better internal chemistry and lower output ballasts) with about 25% wattage reduction.

• In 2007 the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) established efficacy regulations for typical
household lamps from 40-100W, which required use of halogen technology, resulting in 28% wattage
reduction.

• In 2012, DOE regulations (under EPACT), raised the efficacy (and CRI requirements) for fluorescent
lamps, leading to the elimination of most T12 lamps. HID lamps and ballasts were also affected.

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LIGHT SOURCES, LAMPS, AND LUMINAIRES

Source Lamp Luminaires

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Light source: the device (lamp, LED board or module, or luminaire) that emits light. Light source can
also refer to the technology that produces the light.

Lamp: a replaceable light source that connects to a holder (think, socket) and a source of electricity.
LED boards are not generally described as lamps. A table or floor lamp is properly known as a portable
luminaire.

Luminaire: a complete lighting device, including the source, mechanical and electrical connections,
optics (optional) and any auxiliary devices required to operate the source.

Fixture: a luminaire without a light source. Many people use fixture and luminaire interchangeably.

Bulb: the outer glass enclosure of a lamp. Many consumers use bulb to mean lamp.

Conventional light sources are lamps that install in light fixtures.

LED light sources may be lamps that install in (previously conventional) light fixtures. Or they may be
the LED components – boards and modules – that are wired into LED luminaires. As we will see, this is
an important difference between LEDs and conventional sources.

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ATTRIBUTES OF ELECTRIC LIGHT SOURCES

LIGHT FORM Performance

Shape Power
Color
Base Efficacy
Output
Size Life
Distribution
Intensity

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All light sources share these ten attributes. Of course the specifics vary by source as we will see.

Attributes of Light (dark blue):Color: Color Temperature, CRI, and more sophisticated qualities of
consistency

Intensity: the strength of a beam of light

Distribution: where the light goes, all around or in a specific direction (as from a flashlight). A beam of
light is described by how far it spreads.

Light output: the quantity of light emitted. Output is measured in lumens, not in watts!

Attributes of Form (orange):Shape: generally, a word or letter that describes the outline of a lamp.

Size: there are several meaningful dimensions depending on the shape including length (or height),
diameter (or width), or thickness

Base: the part of the lamp that makes electrical (and typically mechanical) contact
Attributes of Performance (green):Life: measured and rated in hours of operation, according to
standards that vary by light source. Lamp life is not uniform, so it is rated as an average, the median or
middle value of a large sample of lamps. That is, statistically, half of lamps do not last as long as the
rated average life, and half last longer. Since the shortest life would be 0 hours and the longest might
stretch on for a long time, the simple average, or mean value, suggests a longer life than is likely to be
experienced. The median or middle value provides a more representative expectation.
Power: the wattage of the source. Power does not indicate light output.

Efficacy: relates light output to power and is shown in lumens per watt or LPW. Lumens per watt
(efficacy) is the most common measure of how well a light source uses energy.

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EFFICIENCY AND EFFICACY

Efficiency Efficacy

600 600
Lumens Lumens

75%

800 800
Lumens 60 LPW Lumens
(luminaire)
80 LPW
(source)

10
Watts
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-11

Efficiency compares two similar items. Efficacy compares two different items.

The diagram on the left show a light source that emits 800 lumens (typical for a household lamp), of
which 600 lumens exit the luminaire. The input to the luminaire is 800 lumens; the output is 600 lumens.
The efficiency of the luminaire is 600 divided by 800 or 75%

The diagram on the right adds the input power of 10 watts for the lamp, an LED source. Now we can
consider how effective the lamp is at converting power (watts) into light (lumens). The efficacy of the
source is 800 lumens divided by 10 watts, or 80 lumens per watt (LPW).

We can also calculate the efficacy of the luminaire: 600 lumens divided by 10 watts, or 60 lumens per
watt.

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EFFICACY OF LIGHT SOURCES

Luminaire

Approximate Efficacy (Lumens/Watt)

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This chart compares the range of efficacy for different lighting technologies in lumens per watt. Lamps or
modules are shown in black outline; luminaires are in the colored bands. Since some light is lost in all
luminaires, their efficacies are lower than the light sources in the luminaires.

LED clearly offers the highest efficacy among common electric light sources. We will learn more about
efficacy and the performance of light sources in the following sections.

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INCANDESCENT SOURCES

• Introduction to electric
light sources
• Legacy sources
o Incandescent
o Fluorescent
o High Intensity Discharge
• Solid state

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-13

Incandescent lamps, the oldest of the electric lamps, is still the most widely used, particularly in
homes. Commercial use has largely ceased due to the economics of short lamp life and high energy
consumption.

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INCANDESCENCE AND FILAMENT SOURCES

• Tungsten filament heated by electrical circuit,

incandesces (glows) Envelope (Bulb)
• Filament provides resistance to current
Tungsten Filament
• Thinner filament= more resistance, heat
• Longer filament= more light. Fill Gas
• Filament evaporates over time. Weakened Fuse
filament breaks, ending life
• Internal chemistry affects temperature, output,
and evaporation (life). Base

General Service ”A” lamp

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The tungsten filament was introduced around 1910. Tungsten both withstands temperature and is
ductile (easily drawn and coiled).

Longer filaments are coiled twice and wrapped so that they can maintain a compact form.

Incandescent lamps generally do not fail due heat, although heat trapped in a luminaire can damage
adhesive seals on the base and possibly scorch wiring.

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Low initial cost • Lowest efficacy (10-20 LPW)
• Familiar color and high CRI • High infrared output from a small area:
lamps become extremely hot
• “Instant” on
• Point source for optical control • Short life (500-5000 hours)

• Not ambient temperature-sensitive • Voltage sensitivity

• No ballast or driver required • Environmental impact (energy, disposal)

• Flexible
• Ease of dimming

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-15

While incandescent lamps are familiar to us all, they are quickly phasing out in favor of lighting sources
with higher efficacies.

The wattage interchangeability refers to the fact that different wattages (and lamp shapes) can fit in the
same socket. This is not the case for discharge lamps.

Current lighting technologies emphasize lamps having higher efficacies than incandescent.

January 1, 2014, in accordance with the Energy Independence and Security Act, EISA, of 2007,
tungsten-filament 40- and 60-watt incandescent lamps can no longer be manufactured in the U.S.,
because they do not meet federal energy-efficiency standards.

This is part of a gradual phase-out that began in 2012 with 100-watt lamps, continued with the
discontinuation of the 75-watt.

Many European countries, as well as Canada and Mexico, have scheduled phase-outs of certain types
of incandescent light sources.

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SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS

• “Continuous” spectrum
• CRI of ~100 (by definition)
• Strong in red/orange
• Weak in blue
• Significant IR (heat)
• Limited UV

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-16

The large graph reveals the significant infrared energy (heat) in incandescent light. The smaller graph –
the more familiar image – shows only the visible spectrum. Which better represents the technology?
The spectra of incandescent sources is continuous, that is there are no gaps or “holes” in the ability to
show color in objects. But this is not the entire story!
Despite the near-perfect CRI, incandescent lamps do NOT provide perfect color rendering. Colors rich in
reds and oranges are rendered very well; those with blues do not fare well at all. Looking at the SPD,
dominated by long wavelengths (red) and notably weak .in short wavelengths (blue), tells you why this is
so.

Note that there is no definition of “full spectrum” so it is not meaningful to interpret a continuous spectrum
as “full”, especially one as “lopsided” as incandescent. Most daylight has a basically level spectrum,
which can be measured as so is a more technically sound expression.

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NOMENCLATURE

60A19CL

R20 R30
CL = Descriptor
(clear)
19 = Diameter (1/8”)
A = Shape
60 = Wattage T3 T4

Also used for LED

replacement lamps
Typical Halogen Typical low voltage lamps
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Note that the lamp code shows watts but does NOT show lumen output. Output and other information
not used in the lamp code must be looked up in a lamp catalog or specification sheet.

A Arbitrary

AR Aluminum Reflector

B Bent Tip

BR Bulge Reflector (not shown)

F Flame

G Globe

MR Multi-Reflector

PAR Parabolic Aluminized Reflector

R Reflector

T Tubular

Diameter is dimensioned in 1/8’s of an inch. Other dimensions, such as length, are not part of the lamp
code. Descriptors for general service lamps typically designate the finish of the envelope. Descriptors for
reflectorized lamps designate the beam.

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INCANDESCENT BASES

Typical bases for low voltage lamps

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Bases must be compatible with the lamp holder in the fixture. Identifying the base is particularly
important when replacing a lamp because the lamp holder maybe difficult to identify.

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TUNGSTEN HALOGEN

• Higher efficacy (15-30 LPW) Lens

• Longer life (2-3 times) Reflector

• Whiter Light (3000K)
Quartz Halogen Gas
• Halogen cycle redeposits Capsule
evaporated tungsten onto filament. Tungsten Filament
• Required by federal regulations for
most A and PAR lamps
Base
• Dimmable

PAR lamp

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-19

Halogen lamps have various advantages over standard incandescent; ease of dimming and good optical
control being among them.

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LOW VOLTAGE INCANDESCENT

• Operate at less than 30V 12V out to

• 12V is most common 120V light source
in from building
• Halogen ≠ low voltage
• Remote or integral transformer MR16 lamp
Integral
• Smaller lamps Transformer
• Smaller filaments improve Remote
optical control Transformer Landscape lighting
• MR16 lamps, landscape lighting,
linear strip luminaires

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-20

Low voltage lighting operates at less than 30 volts (as opposed to line voltage at 120 or 277 volts). A
transformer reduces the voltage from the building supply (120V or 277V) to the voltage required by the
lamp (typically 12V), Transformers may be electronic (pictured), which is common today, or magnetic, an
older technology. They may be either integral to the luminaire, or remote and connected to luminaires by
cable.

Reduced voltage permits a smaller filament to carry the current, leading to smaller light sources, such as
the popular MR16, and consequently smaller luminaires. While many low voltage lamps use halogen
technology, and many halogen lamps operate at low voltage, low voltage does not equal halogen. The
two technologies are completely independent.

Low voltage rose in popularity in the 1980’s.

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MR-16 LOW VOLTAGE LAMPS

• Halogen source
Bi-pin base
• Compact form
IR Radiation Dichroic coating
• Dichroic coating passes IR radiation (Heat)
out the back of the lamp and reflects
light out the front
• Low voltage operation permits
smaller filament and good optical control Faceted Glass substrate
reflector
• Many variations and levels of quality
Cover glass
Light
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Most MR-16 lamps have a dichroic coating which passes most of the IR energy to the rear of the lamp
but reflects light out the front. As many as 19 layers of optical coatings that reflect or transmit specific
wavelengths. The MR16 was originally developed for use in portable slide projectors, where the dichroic
coating kept the film from melting. Designers adopted the lamp for architectural lighting in the 1970’s
and 80’s, while manufacturers standardized the lamp and transformer for general application.

The crisp halogen color and compact form have made MR16 lamps very popular despite several
problems. Lamp quality (capsule and reflector coating) can vary and can shorten the useful life, degrade
the color of the light, and produce unwanted light out the back of the lamp. Heat from the back of the
lamp (while achieving a cool beam) can damage lamp holders and nearby electronic components,
making small MR16 luminaires less resilient than many other types.

Small physical differences in the lamps (for example, glass covering the aperture of the lamp) limit also
compatibility with some fixtures.

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LIFE AND DEATH OF INCANDESCENT LAMPS

• Short lamp life (500-5000 hr)

Operation vs. Voltage
o Over-voltage operation
%
o Shock
\
o Heat

• Filament evaporates

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Incandescent lamps suffer from short lamp life. Typical rated life for an A lamp is 1000 hours; for
reflectorized R, PAR, and MR lamps, typical life is 2000 hours. Remember this is a medium value: on
average 50% of lamps do not reach rated life (and 50% enjoy longer than rated life).

The evaporating filament coats the inside of the envelope (bulb) diminishing light output as the lamp
ages. The ”regenerative” cycle in halogen lamps redeposits tungsten on the filament, which extends life
and increases light output. The halogen cycle doesn’t prolong life indefinitely because the tungsten
redeposits unevenly, leaving weak areas, which ultimately fail.

The principal causes of short lamp life are over voltage operation and thermal shock. Most incandescent
lamps are rated for operation at 120 volts; higher voltage makes the lamp burn brighter and accelerates
the evaporation of the filament. Under voltage operation dims the light and extends life. Lamps rated at
130V to extend life when operated at 120V (commonly used to reduce maintenance) are no longer
permitted by federal regulation. The chart shows how voltage variation affects various aspects of lamp
operation. Life and light output show the most dramatic changes.

Although incandescent lamps produce far more heat than light, heat generally does not affect lamp life.

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INCANDESCENT LAMPS: SUMMARY

• Tungsten filament heated by electrical circuit, incandesces (glows)

• <10% of energy becomes light; rest becomes heat
• Short life (500-5000 hr); commonly 1000 hr
• Halogen is incandescent, up to 50% more efficient, whiter
• Low voltage requires transformer; smaller size & optical benefits
• Chief benefits: familiar; flexible size, shape, base, and output/wattage;
easy to dim
• Chief drawbacks: costly, unsustainable, source of heat
• Incandescent nomenclature used for LED lamps of similar shape

cheap product
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Incandescent lamps are rapidly being replaced with more efficacious technologies such as LEDs. They
generate large quantities of heat, are more costly to operate, and are an unsustainable light source.
However, they are still widely used in some ornamental and special purpose lighting applications due to
their versatility, smooth dimming curve and their innate ability to function as a point source.

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FLUORESCENT SOURCES

• Introduction to electric
light sources
• Legacy sources
o Incandescent
o Fluorescent
o High Intensity Discharge
• Solid state

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-24

Since World War II, fluorescent has been the dominant lighting technology in commercial, institutional,
and (to a lesser extent) industrial applications, due largely to its lower cost compared to other
technologies except LED (at least recently). Fluorescent has largely disappeared from new construction
and is rapidly being replace in existing installations as well.

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HOW A FLUORESCENT LAMP WORKS

To line
visible radiation

ultraviolet radiation

To
lamps
phosphors mercury electric arc cathode
filament heats the gas
to light up.
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Fluorescent lamps operate in a 4-step process:

1. A ballast converts line current to the appropriate voltage and current to start the lamp
2. The current heats the lamp cathodes (also called filaments), which emit electrons into the
interior of the lamp
3. The electrons energize mercury, which emits ultraviolet radiation
4. The UV radiation stimulates the phosphor coating on the inside of the lamp, which emits
light. White coated

Light output depends on the input current from the ballast, the fill gas, the phosphor coating,
and the length of the tube.
Color depends on the phosphor mixture that coats the interior of the lamp.
Lamp life depends primarily on how the ballast starts the lamp, the composition of the cathode,
the fill gas and internal pressure.

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Good efficacy (60-100 LPW) • Requires a ballast
• Long life (10-80,000 hours) • Flat quality of light
• Good CRI (80+) but dull reds • Large luminaires
• Choice of color temperature • Temperature sensitivity
• Low cost per lumen (and lm-hr) • Life affected by switching cycles
• Diffuse source • Mercury
• Dimmable • Bad popular image

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-26

lm-hr measures output over time, which favors both high output and long life. A lamp providing 3000
lumens with a rated life of 30,000 hours would provide 900 MM lumen-hours.

Diffuse source is an advantage because it provides relatively comfortable and widespread illumination for
working spaces.

Fluorescent lamps require special dimming ballasts (and dmmers) to dim. The expense limited the use
of fluorescent dimming (LED’s are dimmable without significant cost)

Ballasts add cost and limit the flexibility of fluorescent lamps

The flat quality of light is the “downside” of a diffuse source and is noted in contrast to incandescent
sources.

Fluorescent lamp output is optimized at roughly room temperature. Higher and – especially – cooler
temperatures diminish output (more on slide 35).

Switch cycles = how frequently the lamp is started (more on slide 33)

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FLUORESCENT LAMP TYPES

T12 T8 T5 Slimline CFL pin-base CFL screw-base

Circline

U-bent

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Fluorescent lamps are grouped in several ways, including lamp diameter (next slide), shape or electrical
characteristics. These are some of the most common types.

• T12: From post WW II to 2014. Operate on rapid start ballasts, mostly magnetic.

• T8: From 1980’s to current. Originally on RS magnetic ballasts, now all electronic. Mechanically
interchangeable (same length and base) with T12 but need T8 ballast. T8 lamps are most common
type in commercial, institutional, industrial and recent residential applications

• T5: From 1990’s to current (undercabinet types older). Available as High Output (HO) and High
Efficiency (HE) types, which are not interchangeable. T5 originated in Europe and has a metric
length (46” vs. 48” for T8/T12). Base and length prevent T5 interchangeability with T8/T12. T5 lamps
operate well at higher temperatures; the smaller diameter improves optical performance

• Slimline or single-pin lamps are typically 96” long.

• U-bent lamps are designated by a suffix (next slide) that also indicates the spacing of each leg of the
U.

• CFL 2-pin bases operate on magnetic ballasts. CFL 4-pin operate on electronic ballasts and are
dimmable (with dimming ballast and compatible dimmer).

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인광물질

PHOSPHOR COATINGS

PHOSPHOR (a mineral)
• Converts one wavelength to another longer one
• Typically inorganic compounds
• Fluoresce when exposed to 254nm radiation
• Different phosphor mixtures create different
CCT’s and CRI
• Phosphor – coating inside of glass or lens.

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-28

Rare earths are family of minerals used in phosphors, batteries, and other technological applications.

Modern fluorescent lamps use tri-phosphor technology: three rare earth compounds creating red, green,
and blue light that mix to white in different CCT’s and color rending. Tri-phosphor design produces a
characteristic three-peak spectrum (see next slide), aimed at the three cone photosensors in our eyes.
Developed in the late 1970’s, tri-phosphor lamps provide both better efficacy and better color than older
fluorescent lamps with halophosphors.

Warm White and Cool White are names for different halophosphor lamps.

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SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS

Tri-Phosphor 830 Tri-Phosphor 841 Tri-Phosphor 865

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-29

Remember these SPD curves show relative power. Comparing the curves shows the balance within
each mixture but not the actual power in each formulation.

Where is red the dominant color? Where blue? Where green?

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FLUORESCENT LAMP IDENTIFICATION

F32T8/835 - XX

XX = Suffix for long life, reduced wattage, etc.

35 = 3500K CCT
8 = 800 series phosphor (CRI 80-89)
FLUORESCENT
8 = Bulb diameter in eighths of an inch F32T8/841/ALTO
800 Series
T = Tubular 32 WATT 4100K

32 = Nominal lamp wattage

F = Fluorescent
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Manufacturers generally adhere to the core of standard fluorescent lamp nomenclature. Although, as you
might expect, distinguishing features of a manufacturer’s product tend to have proprietary descriptors,
most of which are found in the suffix.

Nominal lamp wattage for any type (T8, T5 etc) also denotes the length of the lamp, but it is a bit
complicated. A sampling:

F32T8 48” (also F28T8)

F25T8 36”

F17T8 24”

F54T5HO 46” (also F49T5HO or F44T5HO)

F35T5 58”

F28T5 46”

The suffix may indicate long life, of which there may be several levels, reduced wattage, reduced
mercury content, or other distinctive features.

To assure that you use the proper identification, use a lamp catalog!

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LAMP LIFE

Fluorescent lamp life is rated LAMP TYPE LIFE (hours)

on a “service cycle” of 3 hours
CFL Screw base 8-12,000
on and 20 minutes off. Longer
cycles extend life CFL Pin base 10-20,000

F32T8 (instant start) 24-60,000

As with incandescent, average
rated life is based on 50% F32T8 (programmed start) 30-80,000
survivors of a large sample
F96T8 24,000
size
F28T5HE & F54T5HO 25-50,000

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-31

The table shows the wide range of life ratings (at 3 hours per start) among and within lamp types.
Manufacturers often provide life ratings at 12 hours per start, which are longer and, at least in many
applications, more representative of actual operating conditions. It is important to identify the service
cycle used for any life rating.

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FACTORS AFFECTING LAMP LIFE

Effect of Ballast Type and Service Cycle on Lamp Life

Programmed Start
Rapid Start

Instant Start

Continuous
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-32

How a ballast starts a lamp and the frequency of starting (operating or service cycle) significantly affect
fluorescent lamp life. The data shown are indicative and do not represent specific products or
manufacturers. Long life lamps, whose ratings are reflected in the table on slide 32, are not included in
the graph.

Importantly, note how fluorescent lamps operating on Programmed Start ballasts (slide 37) experience
significantly longer life under short operating cycles than lamps do operating on other ballast types. As a
result, Programmed Start ballasts are recommended for applications with occupancy sensing switches,
which typically shorten the operating cycle.

Continuous operation does not extend lamp life indefinitely. Eventually, cathodes degrade and the lamp
no longer operates. Mercury depletion through absorption into the lamp wall can also lead to failure.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 2 32

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LIGHT OUTPUT OVER TIME

Percent of Initial Luminous Flux (%)

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-33

All light sources lose output as they age. This is usually described by the % of initial light output that
remains after a period of time, as shown in this graph, and is called Lumen Maintenance in everyday
conversation..

Initial luminous flux (light output) is light output measured when the lamp has operated for 100 hours.

The graph clearly shows the longer life of T8 lamps on a 12-hour service cycle and the superior
performance of lamps with 80 CRI (including T5HO). As the graph shows all of these types maintain at
least 90% of initial light output at rated life. For the best lamps, the graph suggests that light output will
still be above 90% at the point of actual failure (beyond the graph itself).

Mean lumen output (mean lumens) is the light output at 40% of rated life (which varies according to the
design of the lamp).

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TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

T12
T5HO
T12HO T5
T8 T5HE

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-34

This graph shows how light output varies with ambient temperature (unlike incandescent and HID
sources). At cold temperatures, output is low. It rises to a maximum point and then diminishes as
temperature continues to rise.

Light output in this graph is relative and indicates the ambient temperature at which the lamp delivers
maximum output.

T8 lamps peak at 25 C ambient (77F, roughly room temperature); T5 lamps peak at 35-40C, providing
better output at higher temperatures, typical in small, enclosed luminaires and higher ceilings.

Cold temperatures have more impact than warm temperatures (as you can see by the slope of the
curves). Enclosed luminaires can mitigate this effect by trapping heat from the lamp and warming the
ambient temperature inside the luminaire.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 2 34

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FLUORESCENT LAMP BALLASTS

• Provide necessary electrical conditions

to start and operate lamps
Magnetic T12
• Today’s electronic ballasts are more
efficient, quieter, smaller and lighter than
old magnetic ballasts. Electronic T8

• Typically operate one type of lamp.

Limited interchangeability. Electronic T8

• Electronic ballast life affected by heat.

Electronic T5HO
Electronic CFL (NTS)

Electronic T5HO

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-35

안정기

The ballast serves two functions: it provides the required voltage to start the lamp, then it limits the
amount of current supplied to the lamp during operation. Without a ballast, lamp current would rise and
eventually overwhelm the lamp. This explains why simple ballasts are called “choke ballasts”.

Electronic ballasts were introduced in the 1980’s, and early generations failed entirely. Today, electronic
ballasts are highly reliable. Magnetic ballasts are technologically obsolete, prohibited (in new
luminaires), and have been replaced in virtually all existing non-residential installations.

Electronic ballasts convert 60 Hertz (Hz) line current to high frequency lamp current at 20-40,000 Hz
(KHz). Hz is the unit of measure for the cycles per second of alternating current. Electronic ballasts are
sometimes called HF (high frequency) ballasts.

As the electrons in alternating current reverse direction, their motion ceases momentarily, turning the
current off. At 60 Hz, typical of magnetic ballasts, this produces noticeable flicker and output diminishes
slightly. HF operation eliminates the noticeable flicker caused by magnetic ballasts and maintains the
brightness of the lamp. Combined with reduced heat losses, HF operation increases the efficiency of
electronic ballasts.

Ballasts typically are mounted in the luminaire for new construction and redesign projects, although the
ballast may be mounted remotely if desired, within certain distance limitations.

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LAMP/BALLAST OPERATION

• Preheat
Oldest, few in use
• Rapid Start
Mostly magnetic, used in T12s
• Instant Start Electronic IS Parallel PS/RS Series

Low energy use, low cost; common for T8 Typical Ballast Wiring
• Programmed Start Electronic
“Soft starting” for longer lamp life; typical for
T5, CFL; occupancy sensors & dimming Instant Start Programmed Start (Typ. 2 lamps)

• Parallel circuit PSP Parallel

Series/Parallel

Electrical loads operate independently

• Series circuit
All lamps operate or none operates
Parallel Programmed Start Programmed Start (3 & 4 lamps)
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-36

Rapid Start ballasts, introduced in the 1950’s, operate one or two lamps with a series circuit. RS was the
dominant ballast for T12 lamps and early T8 lamps. RS ballasts provide continuous heat to the lamp
cathodes, which improved lamp life, compared to older ballast types, by reducing the depletion of
emission material from the cathodes.

Instant Start circuits became the dominant approach to electronic ballasts for T8 lamps, primarily due to
reduced energy usage (no cathode heating) and lower material cost. IS use parallel circuits, which
continue to operate lamps after a lamp fails.

Programmed Start electronic ballasts improve on RS circuits by ramping up cathode heating and shutting
it off after the lamp starts. PS ballasts provide longer lamp life than do IS ballasts, particularly with
occupancy sensors that shorten the lamp’s operating cycle. They also support dimming, which IS do
not.

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BALLAST FACTOR

lamp lumens on commercial ballast

Ballast Factor =
lamp lumens on reference ballast

• Roughly proportional to current to the lamp

• Typical range 0.60 to 1.4, depending on ballast design and specific lamp
• BF outside range may shorten life; BF within range does NOT affect lamp life
• Typical BF’s: 0.78 (“Low”), 0.88 (“Normal”), and 1.20 (“High”)
• System efficacy is largely independent of BF for a given ballast design
• BF permits ”fine tuning” the output and power of a given fluorescent luminaire
• BF affects retrofit LED linear lamps operated on fluorescent ballasts

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-37

Fluorescent lamps are rated on calibrated reference ballasts. Output on a commercial ballast depends
on the design of the ballast as well as the lamp. BF tells you what the light output will be on a given
ballast. You simply multiply the BF by the rated light output (lumens) of the lamp.

BF is reported in ballast specifications and manufacturer’s literature; it is not typically shown on the
ballast label.

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SYSTEM EFFICACY

total lamp lumens (𝐁𝐅)

System Efficacy =
ballast input watts
Example 1:

3000 lumens
F32𝐓𝟖 𝐥𝐚𝐦𝐩 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐜𝐲 = = 93.8 LPW
32 watts
(2)(3000 lm)(.87)
𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐜𝐲 = = 96.7 LPW; 5220 lm
54 watts
Example 2:

2900 lumens
28𝐓𝟓 𝐥𝐚𝐦𝐩 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐜𝐲 = = 101 LPW
28 watts
(2)(2900 lm)(1.0)
𝐒𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐞𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐜𝐲 = = 95.1 LPW; 5800 lm
61 watts
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-38

System efficacy compares the light output of fluorescent lamps on a commercial ballast (including BF!) to
the power drawn by that ballast. Note that the calculation requires the output of the number of lamps
operated by the ballast, in this example it’s two.

System efficacy provides a more realistic indication of the “energy efficiency” than lamp efficacy.

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COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS

• Developed in the 1980’s

• Pin-based with CFL ballast for new luminaires
• Screw-based with integral ballast for retrofits
• Limited interchangeability in pin-based CFL’s –
base and ballast
• Not an optical point source
• Confusing nomenclature
• Limited dimming
• Issues with color
Pin-based CFL in
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023
downlight FOL 2-39

The fluorescent technology discussed earlier largely applies to CFLs as well as linear fluorescent. In
practice, interest in CFLs focuses on how to identify installed lamps and appropriate LED replacements!

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 2 39

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GERMICIDAL LAMPS

• Low pressure Mercury discharge without phosphor

• Fused quartz glass passes UV outside lamp
• UV-C (254 nm) “kills” many bacteria and viruses
• Protection for humans
o Optical control to aim at surfaces not people

o Power control to turn off when space is

occupied
• High pressure mercury for water treatment
• Excimer (non-mercury) for low UV-C (222)

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-40

Although LED GUV products are available, mercury lamps are more efficient and provide more light
output today. Life is 6,000-8,000 hours (about a year of continuous use).

With an effective dose level, GUV interacts with the RNA and DNA molecules in a virus or bacterium,
thus preventing replication and rendering these microbes non-infectious.

GUV can pose workplace safety and health hazards to the eyes and skin if lamps are improperly used or
installed. However, they can be used safely if workers follow appropriate precautions, specifically
avoiding direct eye exposure to UV-C.

Compared to the UV-A and UV-B in sunlight, UV-C is more fully absorbed in the outer protective layer of
dead skin.

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ELECTRODELESS FLUORESCENT LAMPS

• Developed in the 1990’s

Phosphor coating
• Cathode is eliminated
(a failure mode of standard fluorescent lamps)

• Stimulates mercury discharge (UV) via induction

• System life < 60,000 hours
Magnetic
based on lumen maintenance and/or generator life coil
• Large physical size limits optical performance
Mercury amalgam
• Largely used (and misapplied) in (internal)
high bay and street lighting applications
HF Generator
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-41

Electrodeless or induction lighting induces an electron flow to stimulate UV discharge from mercury an
activate a phosphor coating. Amalgam is not required for induction lighting, but the temperature stability
it provides makes the lamp useful in cold temperatures.

An HF generator induces current so electrodes are not required. Since the electrode degradation is an
important source of fluorescent lamp failure, eliminating the electrodes enables a longer life lamp. The
life of an induction lighting system is thus limited by the failure of the HF generator or phosphors.

Induction lamps did not offer advantages in efficacy compared to fluorescent and HID sources (or LED),
but long life did reduce maintenance costs, leading to use in street lighting and high bay industrial
applications. As the illustration shows, the large size of the lamp blocked light from the luminaire and
limits the ability of luminaire optics to direct light effectively.

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COLD CATHODE AND NEON

• Cold cathodes are not heated by electric current

• High voltage stimulates low pressure discharge

• Can be pure gas discharge (neon or others) or

phosphor-coated with mercury discharge

• Color from gas or phosphors

• Requires transformer instead of ballast

• Virtually all installations are custom. Small

diameter tubes are easily bent for signs and
curvilinear coves

• Less efficient than fluorescent and LED!

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-42

As discussed, fluorescent lighting uses “hot” cathodes. Cold cathode and neon lighting do not; high
voltage stimulates a low pressure discharge in the tube. The color of the light can be created by specific
gases (eg neon)

Or phosphor coating.

Most projects are customized to the installation. New installations of LED are replacing cold cathode and
neon in both new and existing construction; retrofits are not possible.

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FLUORESCENT LAMPS: SUMMARY

• Create light by stimulating phosphors with a UV discharge from

mercury contained in the lamp
• Compatible ballast is needed to start and operate lamp properly
• Phosphor mixture dictates color
• Light output depends on lamp length and chemistry and varies
with ambient temperature (best at room temperature)
• Widespread and diffuse light distribution is
• Different lamp types generally cannot be interchanged
• Lamp life depends on the switching (duty) cycles
• Ballast Factor compares output on a commercial ballast to output
on a reference ballast

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-43

Fluorescent fixtures have been displaced by LED sources in new construction. However, many existing
offices, institutions and commercial space continue to utilize existing fluorescent fixtures.

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HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE SOURCES

• Introduction to electric
light sources
• Legacy sources
o Incandescent
o Fluorescent
o High Intensity
Discharge
• Solid state

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-44

High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamps emit light when electric current heats, pressurizes, and ultimately
causes a discharge of photons.

Beginning with mercury vapor lamps in the 1930’s , a range of HID technologies developed, including
High Pressure Sodium (HPS) and Metal Halide in th e 1960’s. Unappealing color generally limited HID
to industrial, athletic and exterior applications, where the quantity of light and insensitivity to temperature
outweighed color.

In the 1990’s, ceramic metal halide (CMH) delivered high quality color, and HID moved into retail,
satisfying energy codes, lowering operating costs, and replacing halogen in many specialty stores.

By 2012, LED was replacing HID in both new and existing installations. Today, HID is virtually unknown
in new construction and a much diminished presence in existing installations.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 2 44

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used for stadium, high ceiling

area etc.
(not used in street light due to too

HOW HID MAKES LIGHT

much glare)

• Ballast starts lamp

Metal Halide Lamp
• Current flows between electrodes; heats ED56
metallic ”salts” 1500 watts
• Heat in the arc tube increases pressure 170,000 lumens
o Lamp must start at low pressure
o Warm up: 2-15 minutes
o At high pressure, chemicals
discharge photons of light.
o Lamp must maintain pressure
• Chemicals and temperature
determine color of light Ballast
• Lamp orientation affect output and life
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-45

Metallic salts are chemicals such as mercury, sodium, halides.

Internal temperature in the arc tube approaches 1000F.

There are several types of ballasts, which are generally specific to the type and wattage of HID lamp.

A magnetic ballast is shown.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 2 45

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Not affected by ambient temperature • Requires a ballast (+15% to lamp watts)
• Very high light output • Long warm-up and re-strike
• Poor (HPS) to mediocre color rendering
• Limited range of CCT

Average CCT • Rapid lumen depreciation (MH)

- HID: 4000-5000K
- HPS: 1800K • Not practically dimmable
• Mediocre lamp life
• Very limited flexibility
• Mercury
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-46

The high internal temperature means that HID lamps can operate in a wide range of ambient conditions.
The ability of the compact arc tube to operate at high wattage, withstanding high pressure and corrosive
salts, enables HID lamps to provide very high light output.

In many outdoor, industrial, and athletic applications, the numerous disadvantages of HID are less
important, and the two advantages can be significant.

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LAMP TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION

High Pressure Mercury Metal Halide Metal Halide Ceramic

Sodium (switch start) (pulse start) Metal Halide
Mercury Mercury Rare
Sodium Other Metals
Mercury Earths

Ceramic Quartz Quartz Ceramic

arc tube arc tube arc tube arc tube

Pulse Switch or Switch or Pulse Pulse

Start Probe Start Probe Start Start Start
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-47

Three aspects of construction distinguish various HID lamp types: metallic salts, arc tube, and starting
method.

The metallic salts in red determine output and color of light output. HPS is distinctive yellow. Metal
halide significantly improves simple mercury, which is greenish; rare earths bring ceramic metal halide
CRI from 65 to 90.

Metal halides include sodium iodide and scandium iodide, as well as mercury.

Rare Earths include thallium, cerium, dysprosium, holmium, and thulium.

Ceramic arc tubes can withstand higher internal pressure and temperature than quartz arc tubes and
better resist erosion from the salts inside them. This improves ceramic metal halide lamp performance,
particularly in terms of color and lumen maintenance – two key problems with quartz metal halide lamps.

Switch (or probe) start lamps initiate the arc using a separate starting electrode that switches off when
the lamp starts to heat up. Pulse start lamps initiate the arc using a high voltage pulse through the
operating electrode. The two electrodes in a switch start lamp tend to weaken the arc tube leading to
more rapid deterioration of the quartz enclosure and lumen depreciation. Switch start and pulse start
ballasts are different, and the two lamp types are NOT electrically compatible.

Pulse Start MH was introduced in the 1980’s and offers some improvement in efficacy compared to the
earlier switch/probe start technology. The two types require different ballasts, so most quartz MH
installations have remained that way, rather than upgrading to Pulse Start.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 2 47

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TYPICAL APPLICATIONS

High Pressure Mercury Metal Halide Metal Halide Ceramic

Sodium (switch start) (pulse start) Metal Halide

Street/Roadway Landscape/rural Industrial, athletic, parking, park, campus, Retail, architectural

floodlighting
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-48

HID lamps are still commonly found in a variety of applications, particularly in exterior and commercial
environments.

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LAMP SHAPES AND BASES

LED Chip OLED

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-49

HPS lamps most commonly come ED17, ED18, ED25 and ED 23½ shapes.

Quartz metal halide lamps most commonly come in BD17, BT37. BT56, ED28, and ED37.

CMH lamps most commonly come in the reflectorized and tubular lamps in the bottom row.

Higher wattage lamps in the top row (250W and higher) use the larger mogul base. Lower wattage
lamps use medium base or the pin bases.

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only 90% of light there's two glass layer
fixtures still work after inside and outside to
9600hrs protect people against
glass break

HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM VS. METAL HALIDE

HPS Metal Halide (Quartz)

Efficacy Up to 140 LPW Up to 125 LPW
Range 35-1000W 20-2000W Protected
Metal Halide Lamps
Life (10 hrs/start) 24,000 hrs (typ) 10-20,000 hrs
Flux Maintenance 90% @ 9600 hrs 65% @ 8000 hrs

Color 2200K & 21 CRI 3000-5000K & 65-90 CRI

Warm up/Restrike 2/2 minutes 7/15 minutes

Other issues Cycling at EOL Non-passive EOL Standard socket Exclusionary socket
accepts both lamps accepts Protected
Color shift lamp

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-50

Bold type indicates which source is superior.

Efficacy is based on initial lumens. The difference in initial LPW is not nearly as significant as in flux
maintenance. Maintained (mean) output is 126 LPW (calculated) for HPS and 81 LPW for MH. Flux
maintenance for CMH is higher than for quartz MH.

EOL = End of Life. A non-passive EOL might include an explosive fracturing of the arc tube and if the
outer glass fractures, the exposure to fragments of hot glass and UV radiation. An enclosed luminaire
should contain fragments from a non-passive failure. An open luminaire, on the other hand, requires a
protected lamp, which generally includes a shroud around the arc tube to dissipate the force of the
fracturing arc tube. To prevent the use of cheaper unprotected lamps, open MH fixtures are supplied
with an exclusionary socket (at right), which energizes the extended base on a protected lamp and
excludes the flat base of an unprotected lamp.

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HID BALLASTS

Magnetic metal halide ballast (400W)

Electronic metal halide ballast (70W)

Capacitor Ignitor
for
Pulse
Start
Multiple voltage input “taps”

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-51

There are several types of HID ballasts. Most CMH lamps operate on electronic ballasts; other MH and
HPS lamps operate on magnetic ballasts, of which there are several types.

The electronic ballast shown is encapsulated and does not require installation in a enclosed
compartment in a luminaire. The magnetic ballast shown is called a core and coil type. It is not
encapsulated and so must be enclosed in a suitable luminaire compartment. There are also
encapsulated magnetic ballasts.

Magnetic ballasts often have wiring for connection to different supply voltages.

Capacitors, often a separate component, provide high power factor (for more effective electrical
operation). Pulse start lamps require an ignitor to supply the high voltage “pulse” that ignites the lamp.
Ignitors may be separate components as shown or incorporated into the ballast itself.

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more efficient for wild lives than
LED (similar to natural moon
light) ---> used to use SOX for
heritage project.

LOW PRESSURE SODIUM LAMP (SOX)

• Not an HID lamp but shares some applications

• Highest efficacy lamp: up to 200 LPW
• Monochromatic yellow light @ 589nm
• Used where white light is not wanted or needed
• Commercialized in 1932; phased out in 2020

due to mercury
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-52

Low Pressure Sodium lamps achieve high efficacy by concentrating light monochromatically at the peak
of the human sensitivity curve (combining the sensitivities of all three cone receptors). But, high LPW
come at the expense of a dull, yellow light that renders all object colors as yellow or dark gray/black.

Although unsuitable for most applications, LPS found use around astronomical observatories, where the
monochromatic light could be easily filtered to reduce sky brightness and enhance telescopic
observation. A second application was around seashores, notably in Florida and Hawaii, where the
yellow color did not attract sea creatures to roadways where they could be easily killed. Yellow LED
luminaires have replaced LPS in these applications, and the lamp is no longer available.

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 2 52

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HID LAMPS: SUMMARY

• Create light by stimulating gases under high pressure

until they discharge photons of light
• Compatible ballast is needed to start and operate lamp
properly
• Chemical mixture dictates light source color
• Two basic families: HPS and Metal Halide
(and several families within MH)
• Chief advantages are high light output and insensitivity to
ambient temperature
• Many disadvantages
• LED is rapidly replacing HID; generally a new luminaire
is required.

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-53

HID lamps are capable of very high light output and can operate in extreme environmental temperatures,
but advances in LED lighting systems are beginning to displace HID lamps across many portions of the
industry.

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SOLID STATE LIGHT SOURCES

• Introduction to electric
light sources
• Legacy sources
o Incandescent
o Fluorescent
o High Intensity Discharge
• Solid state

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-54

Solid state light sources are semiconductors (diodes) that emit light, that is Light Emitting Diodes or
LEDs, the focus of this section. At the end, we will touch on Organic LEDs (OLEDS), a different solid
state technology.

The first practical LED was invented b Nick Holonyak in 1962. Initially LEDs were used as indicator
lights and later, with improved colors and brightness, for displays and traffic signals. In the 1990’s Shuji
Nakamura, Isamu Akasaki, and Hirorshi Amano invented high brightness blue LEDs, which led to LEDs
as a source of white light.

Advances in white light color quality, controls for color mixing, light output and luminous efficacy spurred
the development of LED lighting products (lamps and luminaires). Increases in light output and
improvements in manufacturing lowered the cost of LEDs and enhanced their appeal. In the 2010’s,
LEDs began replacing conventional light sources, starting in the applications with the greatest economic
benefits. Today, LED is the dominant light source technology in new construction and continues to
replace the diminishing installations of conventional sources.

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CREATING LIGHT WITH SOLID STATE PHYSICS

• Multi-layer, semiconductor material

o Layers are “doped” to create excess (N/-) and
shortage (P/+) of electrons (electron holes).
o DC voltage drives electrons and holes to
combine at active layer (junction of P and N).
• Light is released as photons when electrons fill
“holes” in the active layer
• Incomplete combinations release energy as heat.
• Driver provides correct voltage. when + and -
combine, it strikes
upside.
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-55

LEDs are low voltage, direct current semiconductor devices. They create light by stimulating solid state
(electronic) material to release visible energy (as opposed to stimulating gases as in fluorescent or HID
technologies or heating a filament).

Various semiconductor materials (slide 58) are “doped” with impurities that create either an excess or
shortage of electrons.

The material with an excess of electrons is called “n-type”, the “n” meaning it has a net negative charge
due to the excess electrons; material with a shortage of electrons is called “p-type”, the “p” meaning it
has a net positive charge.

An Active Layer or junction sits between the ”n-type” and “p-type” layers. As current flows and crosses
the junction, electrons continuously fill the holes. They lose energy in doing so, and this energy is lost as
photons which are then extracted from the junction. Incomplete combinations release energy as heat.

A driver provides the correct voltage and current to the LED. A driver may be a separate device (like a
ballast) or integrated into an LED array or module (slide 62).

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• High efficacy (>150 LPW) • Sensitive to heat
• Long life • Flicker (some)
• Wide range of color • Color shift (some)
• No mercury • Unreliable life (some)
• Small size • Low lumen output (most)
• Flexible form factor • Requires a driver
• Dimmable
why LED is more efficient?
No need heat to pump the
power.

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-56

LED enjoys numerous benefits that give LED advantages over conventional sources in economy,
performance, and flexibility. Heat is a major threat to LEDs and therefore an important factor in the
design of LED products and one of the few limitations to their use. Nevertheless, poor design or
manufacturing can lead to disappointing performance in areas such as flicker, color shift, and life.

The disadvantage of low light output can be offset by using multiple (small size) LEDs in a lamp or
luminaire. The light output of most conventional luminaires can be supplied by today’s LED luminaires;
LED lamps, however, are more limited.

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LEDS TAKE SEVERAL FORMS

Chip or die Package Array or Module Lamp or Luminaire

(on wafer)

6” .14” 3” 2⅜”
.04”

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-57

This slide illustrates the progress of an LED from a die on a wafer to a package with electrical
components to assembly on array or module and eventually inclusion with a driver in a lamp or luminaire.
An array is an assembly of LEDs on a circuit board, typically customized for a particular product and hard
wired into a lamp or luminaire. A module generally refers to an assembly that may include a heat sink
and may plug into the lamp or luminaire. Engine is another term for module.

images are not to scale.

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BUILDING AN LED

Epitaxial Reactor

LED dies on 6” wafer

www.ies.org
58

The reactor shown to the right is used to manufacture LED dies on a wafer. Using a method called
MOCVD (metal organic chemical vapor deposition), the atomic layers in the LED die are produced in a
process called “epitaxial growth”. The epitaxial chamber operates at very high temperatures.

The wafer is then measured instantaneously for electrical and radiometric properties, divided into
individual LED dies, and separated into consistent bins (binning) according to various attributes.

The individual LED’s are subsequently packaged with other electrical and thermal components and
ultimately assembled onto a circuit board.

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All LED lamps has a
driver inside

INSIDE AN LED LAMP

Secondary Optics

LED Array
Heat Sink
Driver

Medium base
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-59

This slide deconstructs an LED A lamp.

Heat sink is a thermal management device that conducts heat away from the vulnerable LEDs and driver
and convects that heat into the surrounding air. (Conduction = heat moving through solid materials in
direct contact. Convection = heat transferred to moving air (or fluid). Note that the lamp on the left is
more recent. Improvements in LED efficacy (less heat) and driver efficiency (less heat) have eliminated
the die-cast aluminum heat sink that once distinguished LED lamps.

Besides the use of thermally conductive materials in the construction of the product (the heat sink is also
the housing of the lamp), other thermal management techniques include venting and miniature fans.

The driver is a circuit board. In a replacement lamp, it is designed for the specific LED array, light output,
and physical space.

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CREATING WHITE LIGHT WITH LEDS

Phosphor-converted Phosphor-converted PC LEDs enhanced

Mixed color LEDs (PC) blue LEDs UV LEDs with added LED(s)

R+Y R+G+B
Phosphors Phosphors
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-60

Mixed-color LEDs may be the familiar RGB (red-green-blue), RGBA (RGB+amber), or other
combinations that serve to enhance aspects of the spectrum. Mixed-color LED arrays can produce a
range of “static” white colors or, adjusted by a multi-channel control, produce dynamic colors (tunable
color). As different colored LEDs lose output at different rates, continuous control is often required to
maintain consistent CCT over the life of the array.

Phosphor-converted (PC) LEDs use a blue LED (called a “pump”) to stimulate a phosphor mixture that
emits green-to-red light, which mixed with the blue of the LED produces white. PC LEDs are the least
costly option and the most widely used. Color quality, efficacy, and output have improved significantly
over the last 12 years. By modifying the phosphor mixture, PC LEDs reach CCT’s from 2000 to 6500K.
Of course, each “recipe” produces a static color.

Phosphor-converted LEDs can also use a UV emitter and a tri-phosphor coating (similar to fluorescent).

Combining a PC LED and a supplemental LED (or LEDs) can enhance color quality and provide simple
color effects. This is the basis for some spectrally enhanced or so-called “dim to warm” products
mentioned in Module 5.

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PHOSPHOR COATED LEDS

SPDs from Philips TLEDs

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-61

These LED SPDs are from 48” fluorescent replacement lamps and show the different balance between
the blue “pump” and the phosphor conversion can shift the CCT. The “twin peak” profile is characteristic
of phosphor coated LEDs.

The composition and amount of the phosphor coating determines whether the LED color will be warm or
cool. Because phosphor conversion is not perfectly efficient and longer wavelengths of light have less
energy than short wavelengths, warm white LED’s with more “red” phosphor are less efficient than cool
white ones.

Most LED’s are direct coated with the phosphor applied directly to the LED die, producing a white LED.
Some products use remote phosphor (sometimes called “cold phosphor”), where a lens is phosphor
coated and mounted several millimeters from blue die itself.

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LED CONFIGURATIONS

potlight
involved
here

High Power Array Mid Flux Array Chip-on-Board (COB)

from an exterior luminaire from a troffer from an accent light

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-62

Until the 1990’s, LEDs were low power (fraction of a watt) devices suitable for indicator lights. The
advent of high power LEDs (1 watt and higher) enabled LED lamps and luminaires to deliver sufficient
light to be practical. As high power LEDs improved in efficacy and output, LED products became more
useful. High power LEDs, especially when concentrated in an array, pose thermal challenges,
necessitating heavy heat sinks, such as those seen in exterior luminaires.

Mid-flux LEDs with reduced light and heat have replaced high power LEDs in applications where the size
and design of the lamp or luminaire permit the use of more emitters. Even using more mid-flux types,
they enjoy a cost advantage and the product often eliminates a costly heat sink. Mid-flux LEDs dominate
general interior lighting today, in both lamps and luminaires.

Chip-On-Board (COB) LEDs combine multiple dies on a single circuit board with a common phosphor
coating. COBs provide a compact luminous surface that is idea for optical control in accent luminaires
and miniature lamps, where this configuration is widely used.

Manufacturers of LED lamps and luminaires choose the LED configuration that best serves the
performance, physical, and cost parameters of their particular products.

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DRIVERS

Integral drivers for LED lamps Enclosed drivers for LED Luminaires

RIP

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-63

Drivers are an electronic device that provides direct current to LEDs at the appropriate voltage and
current. As the illustrations show, drivers contain many components, including some magnetic ones.
The large number of components, wiring connections, and vulnerability to heat make drivers a likely
failure point in LED systems. An important aspect of driver quality is efficiency, the percentage of input
power that is transmitted to the LEDs (the rest is lost as heat). Good drivers are 85-90% efficient.

Drivers for LED lamps are integrated into the product. The driver is sized to the power and light output of
the lamp and limited by the available space. Driver failure is often the cause of catastrophic lamp failure
(inability to light).

Drivers for LED luminaires are typically enclosed devices mounted within a luminaire or wired to the
luminaire from a remote location. Some luminaires incorporate driver components directly on the LED
circuit board. Luminaire driver life is typically listed as 50,000 hours but can be shortened significantly if
ambient temperature exceeds the maximum rating for the driver.

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계량의 cf.계량한복

LED RETROFIT LAMPS

A A B B C C

“Plug and “Direct Wire” “New

Play” System”

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-64

Among conventional lamps, most common and many specialty versions have LED replacements. This slide
illustrates a small portion of the range and omits the many variations in color, size, shape, and output that
are available.

LED lamps are generally named for the conventional lamps they replace, although the nomenclature is not
as standardized. Care should be taken to identify an appropriate LED replacement carefully. To be
compatible, the replacement lamp must be able to operate suitably on the conventional electrical system
(line voltage, low voltage, or ballasted); the LED lamp must use the same lampholder; and the LED lamp
must fit into the same luminaire. Comparable light output, color, and beam spread are generally desirable.

Compact and linear fluorescent replacements (three photos at the left) and incandescent replacements are
recognized by their shape. The three HID replacements (right) are less obvious.

Incandescent replacements can typically deliver comparable light output with 70-80% less power than
conventional sources. Lamp life can be 10-13 times as long (although calculated differently). LEDs are
available at 2700K and 90CRI (compared to 2700K and 100CRi), which is reasonably close. A dimmed LED
does not change color as an incandescent does, nor does it dim quite as well. To approximate the dimming
behavior of an incandescent lamp, a special “dim to warm” or “warm dim” LED lamp is needed.

Linear fluorescent replacements are available in three versions, identified by UL as Type A (operated on a
fluorescent ballast), Type B (operated without a ballast, and Type C (operated with a separate LED driver).
Popular street names are shown below the diagrams (upper left). LED replacements for pin-based CFLs are
less available and less effective than replacements for linear lamps, but options are increasing.

LED replacements for HID lamps face several challenges, most notably providing comparable light
distribution from the existing HID fixture. The variety of HID lamps further complicates LED replacement.
For many installations, one-for-one luminaire replacement serves.

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LED IN DIFFERENT END PRODUCTS

LED Retrofit Lamps LED Luminaires

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-65

LED sources are built into both lamps and luminaires. New construction generally uses LED luminaires;
conventional luminaires (fixtures + lamps) are used very rarely.

Renovations of existing buildings may use LED luminaires, particularly where the renovations include
changes to the design of the space. New LED luminaires offer the greatest choice of performance and
aesthetics. Long term economics generally favor new luminaires as well.

On the other hand, if existing conventional luminaires are still serviceable and energy cost savings are
the primary objective, retrofit lamps typically offer a lower cost (and higher ROI) approach to lower
operating cost (energy consumption and maintenance expense).

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LIFE AND LUMINOUS FLUX DEPRECIATION

LED chips last a long time (life)

Light output declines during operation (luminous flux)
L70* = hours of operation until output reaches 70% of initial output
L70 values range from 10,000 to more than 100,000 hours (extrapolation of test)
Parametric failure: output <70% of initial
Catastrophic failure: electronics fail before L70

* L70 was based on fluorescent technology – after 30% decrease in illumination, the lamp would "fail" (cease to emit any
light)

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-66

Catastrophic failure of a light source refers to the lamp’s inability to provide any light (lamp ceases to
operate or fails to ignite).

Parametric failure refers to lamp’s failure to meet a performance parameter such as a minimum quantity
of light or color.

The L70 approach to rating LED life addresses parametric failure (no longer providing at least 70% of
initial light output).

The long time to failure of LEDs (both parametric and catastrophic) explains why life is estimated in most
cases. Measuring to failure takes so long that technology may have changed before failure occurs
(50,000 hours is more than five years.

Slide 66 explains the technique for estimating L70.

Importantly, life ratings for LED are quite different from those of conventional sources.

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PROJECTING L70

100 %

Tj @ 63C
90 %
Tj @ 83C
Extrapolated curve
Luminous Flux

Chip data is correlated to

80 % expected luminaire
temperature
70 %

60 %

Tests every 1000 hours

50 %
1,000 hours 6000 hrs 10,000 hours 100,000 hours
Minimum test period L70 @ 30,000 hrs L70 @ 60,000 hrs
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-67

LED’s need to be cool for effective operation. Excessive internal heat leads to reduced output,
reduced life, degraded color. Drive current, total power, ambient temperature, and emitter/product
design all affect temperature.
LED’s are a product ”chain” where the weakest component can cause failure: emitter, electronics,
optics, connections, etc.
L70 – the hours needed to reach 70% lumen maintenance is estimated by collecting data over a period
of 6-10,000 hours (9-14 months), smoothing the data into a curve and then extrapolating (forecasting)
the curve into the future.
LM-80 specifies how luminous flux is measured over time for purposes of measuring the depreciation of
the flux.
TM-21 specifies how the LM-80 data may be extrapolated for an L70 prediction, requires a minimum of
6000 of testing, and limits the extrapolation to six times the test period (36000 max for 6000 hours of
testing). Some luminaire manufacturers provide L70 data (eg 150,000 hours) that does not follow the
6X rule (a “calculated L70” vs. a proper or “reported” L70).
TM-21 also requires LED lamp and luminaire manufacturers to correlate temperatures in their products
(in a typical application) with junction temperatures of the LED’s used. This is called InSitu Temperature
Measurement (ISTM).

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COLOR BINS FOR LEDS

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

standard for describing CCT
Differences within ANSI bins are noticeable
Color consistency can be assessed by
measuring the variation in chromaticity
between bins

ANSI C78.377-2017 Chromaticity bins

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-68

Chromaticity (CCT) is measured and reported to a single digit (eg 3017K). A ”round number” (eg 3000K)
is more practical for commercial purposes. The ANSI Standard establishes the range or bin for each
”round number” CCT.

Note that the bins reflect the popular colors of commercial LEDs: 2700, 3000, 3500, 4000, 4500, 5000,
5700, 6500; the bins are neither evenly spaced nor equal in area (as expressed in the 1931 CIE
Chromaticity Diagram).

Importantly, each bin provides a generous range that hardly constrains manufacturers’ design options.
On the other hand, differences in color within a bin can be noticeable, which can lead to inconsistent
appearance of light sources and illuminated surfaces.

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ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

• Carbon-based compounds
• Uniformly luminous surface
• Capable of 3D construction
• Requires driver
• Mostly in decorative luminaires
(for now)
• Efficacy < LED
• Life < LED
• Luminous density < LED

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-69

OLEDs are part of the same family of light sources as LEDs, solid state, semiconductor-based light
sources.

They differ from LEDs in that the light-emitting portion consists of a flat layer of an organic material,
usually a polymer, rather than a small crystalline semiconductor chip.

Today, OLEDs serve mostly in decorative, specialty and non-lighting applications, that value the delivery
of light from a relatively large luminous surface. Improvements in efficacy, output, life, and cost may
ultimately open general lighting applications.

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SOLID STATE SOURCES: SUMMARY

• LEDs are specially “doped” semiconductors

• Different materials generate different colors of light
• White light only from phosphor conversion or RGB color mixing
• DC Driver provides input current at low voltage.
• Output increases with current; efficacy decreases.
• Rated life is defined by lumen maintenance (L70, eg). Most LEDs
operate after light output has dropped significantly
• Elevated temperature shortens the life of LEDs and drivers
• LEDs can be integrated into a a wide assortment of lamp or luminaires
• Considerable variability among products today

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-70

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MODULE 2: SOURCE WRAP-UP

Incandescent (1910): familiar color and dimming, flexible use,

low efficacy, short life
Fluorescent (1940): diffuse light, good efficacy and life (until
LED), wide application
HID (1965): bright light, moderate efficacy and life, many
limitations
LED (2010): highest efficacy, long life, choice of color and form
factor; rapidly replacing other sources in most applications

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-71

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MODULE 2: ATTRIBUTES WRAP-UP

Key attributes of light:

• Light output (lumen)
• Color (CCT and CRI)
• Distribution & Intensity
• Power
• Efficacy
• Life
Key physical characteristics of light sources:
• Base
• Shape
• Size
• Auxiliary devices (ballasts, drivers, etc.)
www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-72

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MODULE 2: LED WRAP-UP

LED: highest efficacy, long life, choice of color and form factor;
rapidly replacing other sources in most applications

Prior to LED:
• application determined source
• luminaires depended on the source and were
characteristically different.
Today & foreseeable future:
• application determines luminaire (source is LED)

www.ies.org | © Illuminating Engineering Society, 2023 FOL 2-73

Next light source is

Quantum dot.

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FUNDAMENTALS
OF LIGHTING:
MODULE 2
ELECTRIC LIGHT
SOURCES

Illuminating Engineering Society

www.ies.org

IES Fundamentals of Lighting, Module 2 74