BHI-09: HISTORY OF INDIA -V (c.

1526 1750)

Brief Contents

Block Unit
Block Unit
No No

1 India on the eve of advent of the Mughals

Establishment of
Mughal rule:
2 Military Technology: FireArms,
1

3 Sher Shah: Administrative

Sher Shah: RevenueReforms

4

Block Unit
Block Unit
No No

5
Incorporation of Rajputs and other Indigenous Groups in

Consolidation Mughal Nobility

of Mughal
rule: Evolution of Administrative Institutions: zabti, mansab,
jagir, madad-i-maash

2 6

Emergence of the Marathas; Shivaji

8 Expansion of Maratha under thePeshwas

Block Block Unit
Unit
No No

9
Land rights and Revenue system: Zamindars and Peasants

Society and Trade Routes and patterns of Internal Commerce; over-

Economy seas trade
10
3

11 Urban Centres,

12
Craft andTechnology

Block Unit
No Block No Unit

Religious tolerance and sulh-i-kul; Sufi

13 mystical and

Intellectual Interventions

Cultural
4 ideals
Art and Architecture
14
15 Mughal Paintings: Themes and Perspectives

16
Rajput Paintings: Themes and Perspectives
 ODISHA STATE OPEN UNIVERSITY, SAMBALPUR

Programme Name: Bachelor of Arts (History) Programme Code:BAHI

Course Name: HISTORY OF INDIA -V Course Code-BHI-09

Semester: IV Credit:6 Block No. 1to 4 Unit No. 1to16 Pages:1-183

This study material has been developed by Odisha State Open University as per the State Model
Syllabus for Under Graduate Course in History (Bachelor of Arts Examinations) under Choice
Based Credit System (CBCS).

COURSE WRITER

Ms. Sanjukta Panigrahi

Assistant Professor, History (OSOU, Sambalpur)

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Mr. Khitish Bhoi Dr. Nakhat Shaheen
Assistant Professor Academic Consultant
Odisha State Open University Odisha State Open University

Material Production

Registrar
Odisha State Open University Sambalpur

(cc) OSOU, 2023. HISTORY OF INDIA -V

under a CreativeCommons Attribution-ShareAlike
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 CONTENTS

Block-1: Establishment of Mughal rule: (Page No:1-36)

Unit-1 India on the eve of advent of the Mughals

Unit-2 Military Technology: FireArms,

Unit-3 Sher Shah: Administrative
Unit-4 Sher Shah: RevenueReforms

Block- 2: Consolidation of Mughal rule: (Page No:37-90)

Unit-5 Incorporation of Rajputs and other Indigenous Groups in Mughal

Nobility
Unit-6 Evolution of Administrative Institutions: zabti, mansab, jagir, madad-
i-maash
Unit-7 Emergence of the Marathas; Shivaji
Unit -8 Expansion of Maratha under thePeshwas

BLOCK 3: S o c i e t y a n d E c o n o m y : (Page No:91- 133)

Unit-9 Land rights and Revenue system: Zamindars and Peasants

Unit-10 Trade Routes and patterns of Internal Commerce;
over-seas trade

Unit-11 Urban Centres,

Unit-12 Craft andTechnology

BLOCK: 4: Cultural ideals: (Page No:134-183 )

Unit-13 Religious tolerance and sulh-i-kul; Sufi mystical and Intellectual Interventions
Unit-14 Art and Architecture
Unit-15 Mughal Paintings: Themes and Perspectives
Unit-16 Rajput Paintings: Themes and Perspectives
BHI-09/OSOU

BLOCK-01

HISTORY OF INDIA -V (c. 1526 - 1750)

Unit-1: India on the eve of advent of the Mughals

Unit-2: Military Technology: Fire Arms

Unit-3: Sher Shah: Administrative

Unit-4: Sher Shah: Revenue Reforms

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UNIT-1: INDIA ON THE EVE OF ADVENT OF THE

MUGHALS:

Lrarning Objectives

After reading the unit you will be able to understand

 Babur’s regime in India

 His military structure
 Causes of his success

Unit Structure

1.1: Introduction

1.2: Babur’s Rule in India

1.3: Military Conditions

1.4: Causes of Success

1.5: Conclusion

1.6: Sample Questions

1.1: INTRODUCTION:

On the eve of Babur’s invasion India had no paramount power .A struggle for
supremacy was going on .India was not able to present a united front to the
enemies .According to Iswari Prasad, “India was a congeries of states at the
opening of the 16th century and likely to be early prey of an invader who had the
strength and will to attempt her conquest.”

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1.2: BABUR’S RULE IN INDIA (1526-1530):

Babur belonged to Fergana a small kingdom of Central Asia .From

1519 to 1524 he had four expedition to India with no signifant
results .His fifth invasion was successful and he laid the foundation of Mughal
ruler in India after the battle of Panipat at 1526A.D.

Political condition of India on the eve of Babur’s invasion –

The political condition of India was chaotic on the eve of Babur’s invasion
.India was divided into a number of small states who were hostile to each other
and involved in warfare .These states were Delhi,Punjab,Bengal ,Jaunpur
,Mewar,Malwa ,Sindh,Gujarat,Kashmir,Khandeshand Odisha .The same
condition prevailed in South India .

The downfall of Delhi began during the period of Muhammad Tughlaq, the
invasion of Timur, he came in 1398A.D. During the period of sultan Nasir –ud-
din Muhammad Shah Tughlaq of the Tughlaq dynasty also caused the downfall
of Delhi sultanate which resulted in the emergence of numerous small kingdom
s.In the absence of paramount power ,these kingdoms were involved in warfare
.This because the cause of India failure in fighting any invader .Timur
conquered Multan after defeating the army of Delhi where he appointed Khizr
Khan as the ruler .Khizr Khan became successful in defeating sultan Daulat
Khan ,occupied Delhi and founded Sayyid dynasty .

In 1451, Bahlol Lodi declared himself as the sultan of Delhi. After ousting the
Sayyids.

Thus India came under the grip of Afghan rule. Bahlol Lodi ruled from 1451 to
1489A.D. and was succeded by his son Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517A.D.).But the
kingdom was not extensive and confined to Delhi and adjacent places like
Agra,Delhi,Jaunpur a part of Bihar, Bayan ,Chanderi.

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Ibrahim Lodi was the son of Sikandar Lodi and last ruler of Lodi
dynasty .Later on Alam khan Lodi who was supported by many
displeased nobles claimed the throne of Delhi .But Daulat khan
Lodi was the governor of Punjab who resisted the authority of the
sultan and behaved like a defacto ruler .The sultan lost his prestige .Babur
defeated Ibrahim Lodi in 1520 A.D. and established Mughal empire.

Mewar-

Mewar was an extensive kingdom ruled by the descendants of Guhil who had
excercised their power over this territory since since 6th century A.D.The capital
of Mewar was Chittor .A group of prominent rulers belonged to this dynasty
like Rana Kumbha who ruled from 1433 to 1468A.D.and Rana Sangram Singh
who was a contemporary of Babur .He was determined to establish Hindu rule
over Delhi .He promised Babur to invade Ibrahim Lodi territory from Agra
when Babur invaded from north.

Sindh-Sindh was ruled by the Sumra dynasty since the middle of fourteenth
century .It was invaded but the ruler of Kandahar ,Shah Beg who occupied
Sindh after defeating the Sumras .Shah Husain was the ruler of Sindh on the eve
of Babur’s invasion He was the son of Shah Beg.

Bengal-Bengal was a part of Delhi kingdom. It declared its independence during

the reign of Firoz Shah Tughluq .The first independent ruler of Bengal was
Alauddin Hussain (1493A.D. TO 1518A.D.).He laid the foundation of Hussain
dynasty.

Kashmir-

Shah Mirza had established the independent of Kashmir in 1539A.D.Zain-ul-

Abidin was the most important ruler (1420A.D.-1470A.D.) who was known as
the Akbar of Kashmir .After his death Mirza Haider, a relative of Humayun
conquered Kashmir.
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Orissa-

Orissa was a Hindu state .It did not owe allegiance to the Muslim
ruler .It did not exercise any great influence in the politics of
northern India.

Gujarat-Gujarat got independent under Zafar Khan in 1401.Mahmud Begarha

(1458-1511) was one of the famous rulers .He had captured Champanir,
Junagarh and Kutch .He tried to defeat the Portuguese by joining with the sultan
of Turkeye. He was succeded by Muzaffar Shah II and who was defeated by
Rana Sanga of Mewar.

Vijayanagar-

Vijayanagar was a Hindu empire which was carved as a bulwark against the
spread of Muslims in South .Krishnadeva raya was the contemporary king .He
was greatest of the south Indian kings.Apart from being an able administrator,
he was known for his kindness his benevolence and also as a patron of art,
literature and culture.

But there was always a constant fighting with Bahamani Kingdom. After the
death of Mahmud Gawan,the Prime minister in 1481A.D.Bahamani broke into
five independent kingdoms .Kingdom of Ahmad Nagar(1481-
1635)Bijapur(1489-1686)Golkunda(1512-1687)Berar(1484-1527)and
Bidar(1490-1574)

Khandesh-

Situated in the valley of river Tapti Khandesh was emerged as in independent

kingdom since 14th century .Khandesh and Gujarat were almost perpetually at
war as the rulers of the later tried to establish their hold over Khandesh .on
account of struggle for success to the throne, there was political chaos in
Khandesh after 1508.Adil Khan III ascended the throne ultimately .He was

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succeeded by Muhammad I. But the politics of Khandesh had no

effect on Delhi due to long distance.

Delhi-

Ibrahim Lodi was the ruler of Delhi who was not strong .He had incurred the
hostility of Afghans and Turk nobles .Rana Sanga of Mewar was one of his
enemy.

Punjab-

Daulat Khan Lodi who was the governor of Punjab, distrusted sultan Ibrahim
Lodi and invited Babur from Kabul to invade India.

Deccan-

During the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq, Deccan also became independent.

Internal trade as well as external trade flourished on the eve of Mughal

administration .India was connected with Central Asia, Afghanistan and Iran
.Through land route and had sea borne commerce with Malay, China and other
countries .Textile industries flourished .Manufacture of woolen,silken,cotton
clothes ,were found .Sugar, paper and metal industries were also found in
different parts of the countries .

1.3: MILITARY CONDITIONS:

India was weak militarily .There was no well organized army .The rulers
maintained huge army .The military organization was based on feudalism .The
rulers had no direct control over the troops .The feudal nobility supplied the
fighting men so they were loyal to their immediate masters .

There was no uniformity ,the training and military skills deferred from
contingent to contingent .The artillery skills was not known to them and the
central Asian rulers were advanced in artillery skills .

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The use of elephants ,lack of reserve force were the defeats of

Indian military organization .The Lodis organized themselves on an
ancestral basis instead of commanding as a national force .They
failed to establish their empire in the north western frontier so
Babur got a free hand .

Establishment of Mughal rule in India:

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur ,commonly known as Babur established the

Mughal empire in India in 1528A.D.He is credited for his ideas of common
quests .He was born in 14th February 1483A.D. His father was the ruler of
Farghana,Umar Sheikh Mirza .His mother was Qutlug Nigar Khanum Begum
the daughter of Yunus khan .His mother tongue was chagtai language but he
embraced Turkey and Persian culture .Sultan Ibrahim Lodi ,who was the
youngest son of Sikandar Lodi was a great military leader .But despite his
attempts to keep out the opposition ,he was defeated by Babur in the first battle
of Panipat in 1526A.D.,Which marked the end of sultanate of Delhi .

1.4:CAUSES OF SUCCESS:

Various causes are assigned to success of Babur to establish Mughal rule in

India .

Political condition of India –

There was no tough ruler who could resist an enemy .So Babur achieved victory
easily.

Ibrahim’s unpopularity-

Khan, Ibrahim’s uncle joined hands with his enemies taking advantage of the
hostility of amirs and Wazirs which Ibrahim incurred due to his oppressive

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policies .Babur took advantage of the discontentment among the

general masses.

Mutual dissensions and quarrel among the Rajput’s-

Although the Rajput’s were not inferior to Mughals, due to internal dissension,
they became powerful.

1.5: CONCLUSION:

The political condition of India offered Babur to carve his vast empire. The
innumerable small independent kingdoms having no united front failed to resist
Babur. He was attracted by the fabulous wealth of India .Since Timurs conquest
in 1398 he thought to establish his kingdom in India as his legal right.The
limited income of from Kabul also was not sufficient to bear the administrative
expenses. Ultimately he founded the Mughal rule in India after the 1st battle of
Panipat in 1526A.D.

1.6: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Discuss the political condition of India on the eve of Babur’s invasion.

B- What was the military condition of India prior to the Mughal rule?

C- Write a note on the crucial reasons responsible for Babur’s success.

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UNIT -2 : MILITARY TECHNOLOGY: FIRE ARMS

Learning Objectives

After reading the unit you will be able to comprehend

 The distinctiveness of Mughal military structure

 Usage of diverse arms and weapons
 The innovation found in weapons of that time

Unit Structure

2.1: Introduction

2.2: Mughal Military Structure

2.3: Weaponaries

2.4: Conclusion

2.5: Sample Questions

2.1: INTRODUCTION

Mughals from central Asia ruled India for more than three hundred years from 1526 A.D to
1857 A.D. when the last Mughal emperor was overthrown by the British Government. One of
the important factor was that the military underwent many changes.

Babur established himself in Kabul and invaded India from Afghanistan through the Khyber
pass. The battle of Panipat marked the end of Delhi Sultanate. Babur’s next battle was with
Rana Sangha of Mewar and by 1529 A.D. he dismantled the Afghans of Gangetic plains. The
empire was extended from Indus river on the west to Bihar on the east and from Himalayas in
the north to Gwalior in the south.

2.2: MUGHAL MILITARY STRUCTURE

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The Mughals were influenced by central Asian military tradition. With the
arrival of gunpower a new tactic was employed. Earlier only use of horses,
elephant and weapons like bows, arrows, swords and shields were noticed. But
after the advent of Mughals a new phase of military combat was adopted
which witnessed the use of artillery, use of muskets and bombs. The older weapons were not
replaced but artillery was completely new as a result of which there was a change in the battle
field tactic about the deployment of units in the battle. Although artillery held a subordinate
position compared to that of infantry and cavalry, it was extensively used to defeat the animi.
Artillery was also used in the first battle of Panipat in defeating Ibrahim Lodi’s forces.

Indians were not ignorant of gun technology but use of gun power was limited to heavy
weapons. During the second half of 15th century a primitive type of gun power artillery was
used in different parts of India. Kashakanjir was a firearm used in north India in the middle of
the century. It threw balls by the extensive force of combustible substances. In Kashmir also
a weapon was found resembling canon which was known as topa in Muslim language but in
Kashmir it was known as Kanda. The Vijayanagar rulers had also used firearms against
Bahamanis. The use of canon were also found to subdue the internal enemies such as the
powerful chiefs of Tamil regions.

One of the important factors of Mughal warfare was the correct use of gun powder the
Mughal introduced light which were known as Gajnals. When the light weapons were carried
by four to five people, the heavier weapons were lifted by elephants. The light canons could
be used in open battle fields. The Indian canons were heavier than the lighter Mughal
artillery, so they were used in static position. There were also a liability. The metals used by
the Mughal held high resistance and were cheaper. So the guns were more effective on the
battle field. The hand guns were also found to be in use. These were known as Tufan gas and
were run by Tufangchis. The north Indian powers unaware of the Tufangs while Indians of
Decan and Malabar regions learnt the use of Tufangs from the Portuguese.

Akbar introduced the flint gun technology. He also used wrought iron technology in the
manufacture of firearms. The construction consisted of forming a large series of longitudinal
bars into a tube by hammering them around a mound called mandrel and wielding then
together. Otherwise, a single sheet of iron was wrapped around the mandrel and wielded
closed but these were possible in case of small pipes which were then reinforced with a series
of rings or sleeves. These were forged with an inside diameter which was roughly equal to

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the outside diameter of the tube. Then they were heated and sided over cooled
tube and held in place by thermal contraction. The sleeves and rings were
spliced together. The gaps were sealed with a second layer of forging a strong
airtight seal. Hoop and stave construction permitted the fabrication of guns the
Mughals used the available resources.

A Mansabdar was appointed in every subha or providence where a cantonment was there.
Mansabdar was station with his troops and provided allowances to them and also Horses to
those who had not with them. Shoulders were trained to destroy the animy. Shamshir Zani
and Teerandazi were basic exercises for the shoulders. Availability of war animals was
another factors for the success of Moghuls. They continuedly imported horses for imperial
services. Importance of horses engorged the importers to established control over the war
horse trade, Land roads and Sea routes. Horses were procured with the help of horse traders
from long distances caravans trade routes and sea routes. Kabul and Kandahar were the most
important point on the land routes.

Good horses were imported to the Mughal court from Arab, Iran, Turan, Turkey,
Badakhshan, Shirwan, Tibet, Kashmir and other countries. The entry points for the Arabin
horses were the ports of Surat, Cambay, Kutch, Thatta, Lahori, Sonargoan. The Mughal
Empires spent maximum of their revenue on the purchase of Horses. They exported textiles,
spices and herbs in exchange of horses. The Mughal wars were based on local issues. The
maintenance repaired and construction of fortification, training, deployment of soldiers, their
salaries storage and shipping of weaponry were to be borne by the state. Different war
animals were used in different states.

The Mughal emperor waged siege wars like Chittor, Ramthambhora, and Kalinjaar. A group
of specialists were needed for construction of canons supply of foods etc. The professional
camp makers, carpenters, shoulders also contributed a lot. About 200 to 300 shoulders guard
the camps is elephant required 10 to 50 people around. The horses required 3 to 4 people.
These people were known as non combatants who were important part of Mughal army.

The Mughal waged war to achieve equilibrium they legitimized military valance so the whole
Mughal army had cavalry which was the most important unit the infantry made up of
townsmen and peasants and artillery with guns and Navy. It was a mixture of diverse
elements.

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The Mughals were a Gun power empire the army’s employed soldiers who
carried firearms and canons as field artillery to blast through rival enemies’
and their castle walls.

2.3: WEAPONRY

They used swords, bows, arrows, horses, camels, elephants some largest canons, Muskets and
flintlock, blunderbusses. Some of them were: -

Swords

Swords were broad carried either by three straps hanging from a waist belt or worn on a belt
hinging over the shoulder.

Blades

(1) Talwar

Talwar war the principal blade of Mughall infantry

(2) Shamsher
It was a curved weapon similar to a scimitar. It was a cutting weapon due to it shape
and small size of the grip.
(3) Dhup

Dhup was a straight Sword. It was made of steel. It was displayed on state occusasion carried
on a velvet wrapper. This kind of Sword was conferred as a distinction on successful solders,
Nobles and court favourites.

KHANDA

Khanda was also a strata Sword identical to dhup.

SIROHI

Sirohi was a kind of Sword with a slightly curved blade. It was lighter and narrower then the
ordinary Talwar. It was made of Damascus still.
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PATA

Pata was a narrow blade. It was used in performances.

GUPTI

Gupti was a straight Sword concealed in the sheath of a walking stick. It was used by persons
of rank as an emblem of humility.

ZULFIKAR

Zulfikar was mainly used by the Mughals emperor’s and generals to break the opponent
fighters Sword. It was used by Aurangzeb.

SHIELDS

Shields were used by the Sword Men. These were made of steel.

Types of Shields:

Chirwah and Tilwah

These were carried by shamserbaz or gladiators who surrounded the Mughal emperor Akbar
on the march.

Fencing Shields

These were small circular shields of cane or Bamboo and were also known as dal. The
singauta was made from a pair of antelope horns tipped with steel.

Shashbur

It had a single round shaped head. Other varieties were dhara, gargaz, and Khandli, Phansi.

Dhara

It had a bladed head and octagonal steel shaft.

Garjuz

It had eight bladed heads.

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Khandli Phansi

It had a head of open scroll work.

Flait

It was weapon classed as a mace. It was made of steel in the shape of a hand.

Khar – E--Mahi

It was a fees backbone it had steels spikes projecting from each side of a straight head.

Gujbag

It was a common elephant goad or ankus.

Battle axe

1. Zaghnol or Crows Beak

Its head was pointed and had two cutting edges.
2. TABAR ZAGHNOl
It was a double headed axe with a broad blade on one sight of the handle and a
pointed one on the other.
3. TARANGALAH
It was an axe with a longer handle.
4. BASOLAH
It looked like a chisel.
5. SPEARS
Cavalry troops used lance with spears used by foot soldiers and guards who
surrounded the emperor ‘audience hall’
6. NEZAH
A man on horseback had the spear above his had at tall length of his arm. It was made
of bamboo and steel.
7. BARCHHAH
It had a hand shaft made of Iron or steel. Its use was confined to infantry.
8. SANG

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It was made of Iron. It had a long slender three to four sided heads steel
shaft and a grip covered with velvet.
9. SAINTHI
It was a shorter one.
10. SELARAH
Its head an shaft was longer then sinthi.
11. BALLAM
It was a short spear with a broad head used by infantry.
12. PANDIBALAM
It was a spear with an Iron leaf shaped blade at the and of a Bamboo shaft.
13. PANJMUKH
It was a five bladed spear.
14. LANGE
It had a four cornered Iron head and a hollow shaft
15. GARHIYA
It may be pike jailing or spear.
16. ALAM
It was also a spear.
17. KONT
Kont was one type of spear.
18. BANGANDASA
It was used by Chukidar or village watch men. It was kind of hook or pole axe with a
steel chopper attached to a long pole.

Daggers and Knives:

They used daggers and knives of various shapes and kinds named separately.

KATARA OR KATTRI

It had a thick blade with two cutting edges. It was made with a hilt whose two branches
extended along the arm so as to protect the hand part of the arm.

JAMADHAR

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It had the same handle as katra but it had a broad and straight blade.

KHANJAR

It was a poignard type drageer with a hilt like Sword of which had a double
curved.

BICHWWA AND KAHPWAH

Bichwwa was a wavy blade while Kahpwah was a type of dragger.

PESHKAJ

It was a pointed Persian Dragger with a thick straight back to the blade and a straight handle
without a guard.

KARUD

Karud resembled a butchers knife.

SALLABAH-i-QALMAGI

This was a type of knife used by men from Kashgar. It was worn from shoulder belt

MISSILES

The four categories of missile weapons were bows arrows, matchlocks and pistols cannons .

Use of matchlock in effective and pistols were on rare use. The use of artillery led to several
decisive victories. Artilarly was mostly used after defeating Ibrahimlodi and was considered a
prestigious weapon.

ROCKET

The idea of rocket originated in Mughal India.

BOWS

Mughal horse man were armed with bows. They could shoot faster than the Musketeers.
Bows were generally shaped in double curve with a grip covered in a Velvet several strings
give the bows elasticity. The strings where made of strong thread of white silk laid together
to from a cylinder. A bow string holder consists of a broad ring made of presious stone,
Cristal, Jade, Ivory, Horn fees born, gold or Iron, chark, takhsh kamand, kaman-i-gurohah,
gobhan, kamthah, nawak were special types of bows.

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ARROWS

Arrows were of two types those in common use and used against tigers.

MATCHLOCK

Akbar introduced many improvements in manufacture of the matchlock these where mainly
used to the infantry.

Barrels of Akbars match luck were of two length sixty inches and fourth inches they were
made of rolled strips of steel with the two edges wielded together. Flintlock weapon was
introduced after there relation with English and French.

Matchlock barrels were covered with elaborate work and the stocks were adorned with metal
work or with various designs. The Inlays were of different materials. The stocks were
decorated with engraved mounts in gold.

The barrel was attached to the stock by broad bands of metal which were sometimes of
perforated designed.

The set consisted of a powder flask, Bullet Pouches, Priming Horn, Match cord, Flint and
steel. The entire ensemble was attached to a belt which was made of velvet embroidered gold.

Mughal infantry men were sharp shooter some special type of gun were cailletoque, Jazail,
Ghordahan.

Pistols

Pistols where known as tamanchah these were used by higher rank of nobles.

Sherbachah

This was a Muskegon or Blunderbuss this weapon came to India with nadir saha or Ahmad
saha Abdali

Artilaty

Mughal emperor distinguish for the passion of artillery. Mughal artillery proved effective in
frightening the enemies elephant in the battle field.

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2.3: CONCLUSION:

The Mughals used different type of weapons. Babar developed a new military
system. Mughals army consisted of cavalry infantry and artillery. Although
artillery had a sub-ordinate position. The most important element of the Mughals was the use
of gun powder weapons they introduced known as ganjals. They used new and superior
technologies.

2.4: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Write a brief note on Matchlock.

B- Discuss the different styles of shields.

C- Critically examine Mughal military structure.

D- What was the role of a Mansabdar?

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UNIT-3: SHER SHAH: ADMINISTRATIVE:

Learning Objectives:
 After reading the unit you will be able to comprehend
 Central and provincial administration of Sher Shah
 Law and Order of the time
 Structure of the town planning

Unit Structure
3.1: Introduction

3.2: Administration of India Under Sher Shah

3.3: Law and Order, Currency and Town Planning

3.4: Conclusion

3.5: Sample Questions

3.1: INTRODUCTION

Sher Shah Suri, earlier known as Farid Khan, was a Jagirdar under the Jaunpur
kingdom. His achievements as an administrator has ranked him as an
unprecedented one .Elimination of corruption and relation between rulers and
ruled made him immortalized .He joined the service of the governor of Jaunpur
as a soldier.

3.2: ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA UNDER SHER SHAH:

Central Administration-

Sher Shah did not ignore the traditions of Afghans but he realized that Afghan
theory of kingship was not suitable for administration .So he preferred the
Turkish theory of kingship as the right one.
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He concentrated all administrative power in his hands and his

ministers enjoyed less. They were not empowered to take decisions
themselves .The major decisions were taken by Sher Shah and the
ministers only carried them out Sher Shah himself looked after the
working of every department of the state .He focused on the benefits of the
people .He even worked for sixteen hours a day .

Ministers-

The ministers had no power to take final decisions but they were there for the
convenience of administration .The administrative heads of some departments
were also empowered and enjoyed the position of ministers .

Diwan-i-wazirat –

Wazir was the head of the department .He was the finance mnister and looked
after the income and expenditure of the state .He also enjoyed a supervisory
authority over other ministers.

Diwan-i-arz-

Arz-i-mumalik was the army minister .He lloked after the

recruitment,organization,discipline and disbursement of the salaries and
officers and all sorts of supplies to the army .

Diwan-i-rasalat-

The in charge of this department worked as foreign minister of the state .He
received foreign envoys and ambassador’s .He maintained the correspondence
in the foreign state.

Diwan-i-insha-

The head of this department was known as Dahir-i-khan .He looked after the
internal correspondence of the state .He was in charge of sending the royal

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proclamation and dispatches to the governors and other officer’s

.He also received their communication which was finally reported
to the sultan.

There was two other departments known as Diwan –i-qaza and Diwan-i-barid.
The heads were chief qazi and Barid –imamalik.The chief qazi was the head of
the administration of justice .Where as Barid-i-mumalik was the head of the
intelligence department .Barid-i-mumalik also looked after the newswriters and
spies who were posted at all important places in the empire .The news carriers
carried the royal dak under his supervision .Another class of high officials were
there who looked after the royal household and personal safety of the sultan .

Provincial Administration:

1)Suba or Iqta-

No details of provincial administration of Shar Shah is found .historians have

different opinions regarding the provincial administration of Sher Shah
.According to Dr Quanungo there was no administrative unit called Iqta or
Suba during the reign of Sher Shah .But Sarkar was the largest administrative
unit .

Dr Paramatma Saran has the view that military governors were appointed by
Sher Shah in the subas.A.L.Srivastav is also have the opinion that military
governors or subedars were appointed in the iqtas .Subedars were appointed in
Lahore, Malwa and Ajmer.

According to Dr A.B.Pardeep, Hakim, Amin or Faujdar was the head of the

province .Hakim of Panjale was conferred the title of Mansad-i-Allah and
allowed to keep 30,000 soldiers under him .He was also given the right to
distribute jagir among the officers .Khawas Khan,the subedar of Rajputana also
was allowed to keep 20,000 soldiers under him .But, in Bengal where there was
no military governors ,Sher Shah employed another method .
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There was also no other officers commanding a large force which

let it possible for a revolution at any time against the sultan .

The entire Subas was divided into Sarkars .each of which were
looked after by a military officer called the chief Shiqdar there was a civilian
officer called Amin-i-bangala who had a small military force under him to
supervise the administration of province .

Parganas:

Each Sarkar was divided into Parganas and Parganas were further divided into a
number of villages .Like the Sarkars,the two officers here were Shiqdars and
Munsifs .They were assisted by other staff in the discharge of their duties .

Villages:

The village was the smallest self sufficient unit,administered by village

panchayats.Sher Shah,introduced the system of transfers of officers of the
Sarkars and the Parganas every two or three years to prevent corruption .

Sources of Income:

Important sources of Income were

1)Land revenue

2)Taxes on the transportation of raw and finished products

3)The rotal mint

4)Confiscation of the unclaimed property

5)Tribute from the Rajas,nawab and Jagirdars

6)Gift from foreign travelers

7)Salt tax

8)Jaziya on the hindus

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9)One fifth of the Kham(booty)

Land and Revenue Administration:

Sher Shah had introduced a noble administrative system .

1.Land was divide into three categories on the basis of production

.Good,average and bad .

2.Generally land revenue was one third of the produce and was paid both in
cash and kind .

3. The land of each cultivators was measured according to a uniform standards

and its quality was ascertained.

4.Lease deeds were drawn between the farmers and the government.The
area,the type of the soil,the rates of land revenue were recorded on the lease
deeds .The lease deeds were got signed by the farmers and also these confirmed
the rights of the farmers on the land .

In case of poorerr production ,land revenue was remitted .When needed, farmers
were granted financial assistance .

Sher Shah also order for treating the peasants with consideration and generosity
.While fixing the land revenue but revenue was to be paid regulary after the
settlement. In the words of Quanungo, the land revenue administration of Sher
Shah was a valuable heritage for the Mughals .The land revenue was levied in
accordance with the income of the peasants .The British followed this system .

Sher Shah was a benevolent ruler .He was kind to the peasants and against
peasant oppression .He hold the view that peasant oppression will cause desert
of the homeland .

3.3: LAW AND ORDER, CURRENCY, TOWN PLANNING:

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Sher Shah also paid attention to reestablishment of law and order in

the empire .Severe punishment was ordered for theft and robbery
.So people was living fearlessly.

Local responsibility for theft:

The village headman had to look after the safety of the people area of the
traveler’s .The village panchayat or the local people had to find out the culprit
and to pay for the stolen goods. The headman was also given penalty of death in
case the local officers failed to trace the culprit .So on a whole the theft and
robbery was not seen and the subjects lived a fearless life .

Fair judicial administration:

Sher Shah believed that justice is the most excellent of religious rites .Evertyone
was punished for the offence irrespective of status or position .

Sultan was the heighest judicial authority ,in the state who held the court every
Wednesday in the evening .Next to him was the head of the department of
justice the chief Qazi .In every districts and important cities subordinate quazies
were appointed criminal law was severe.Fines,Flogging,amputation and
imprisonment wee the punishment .

Efficient espionage system:

A well-organized espionage system was also one of the feature of Sher Shahs
administration .The king himself was involved in the minute test event of his
kingdom. The nobles were refrained from indulging in activities which caused
harm to the kingdom and hampered the rule of the sultan .The sultan himself
was aware of the rate prevailing in the mandis .Spies were posted at all
important offices and places.

The Saraits worked as Dak chaukis.Two horses were kept at Dak Sarais so that
the news carriers could get horses of high speed.

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Currency:

The ratio of exchange between the Dam and rupee was fixed at 64
to 1 which was later on followed by the British and Mughals .Sher
shah abolished old and mixed metal currency .He issued fine coins of gold
,silver and copper of uniform standard .

Network of roads:

One of the notable achievement of Sher shah was he constructed a network of

road connecting important ports of his empire within his capital .He repaired old
roads also the following four highways were constructed by him –

1.Sadak-i-azam(Grand trunk road)Starting from Sonargaon in Eastern Bengal

passing through Agra,Delhiand Lahore and terminating at Peshwar covering a
distance of 3000 km .

2. From Agra to Jodhpur and the Chittorfort

3. From Agra to Burhanpur

4.From Lahore to Multan

Prosperous trade and commerce –

Sher Shah took major steps for development of trade and commerce like
protection of traders, law and order in the kingdoms. Issue of new currency
,simplification of taxes .Trade taxes were collected at two places where goods
entered the territory and where goods were sold .All other internal trade taxes
were abolished .

Sarais:

About 1700 Sarais were constructed on both sides of the roads where hindus
and muslims were provided with separate rooms. The sarais werved as dak

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chaukis .They were known as the veritable arteries of the empire

for the significant purpose they served .

Beautiful Buildings:

The buildings built by Sher Shah were

1.Mausoleum of Sher Shah at Sasaram in Bihar which ranks among the beutifull
buildings in India .

2.Fort of Rohtasgarh on the bank of the river Jhelum in the north-west

3.Purana quilla at new Delhi

4.Mosque in the purana quilla

Education:

For imparting elementary education and teaching Arabian and Persian a Maktab
was attached to every mosque .Madrassas were set up for higher education
.Provisions were made for to give endowments and grants to the institutions and
awarding scholarship to meritorious students .

3.4: CONCLUSION:

Sher Shah Suri is one of the brave warriors ,great administrators and a reformer
.He had significant contribution to the infrastructure of India as it is evident
from the construction of Grand Trunk road .He also organized new military
administration that helped to develop his practices .The infrastructure was
developed by the implementation of administrative system .The Sher Shah Suri
tomb is also one of the master piece of Indian architecture .The income of their
era were taxes, land revenue ,gift from foreign travelers and tributes from
Jagirdars .

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3.5: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Discuss law and order during Sher Shah’s reign.

B- Write a short note on land and revenue administration.

C- What were the major source of income in Sher Shah’s time?

D- Critically examine the categorization of the ministers.

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UNIT-4: SHER SHAH: REVENUE REFORMS:

Learning Objectives

After reading the unit you will be able to know

 What revenue system implies to

 Land revenue system of Sher Shah
 Defects of revenue policy

Unit Structure

4.1: Introduction

4.2: Land Revenue System of Sher Shah

4.3: Steps Taken

4.4: Defects of Revenue Policy

4.5: Conclusion

4.6: Sample Questions

4.1: INTRODUCTION:

Sher Shah was known as Farid Khan .He was a Just king, the founder of Sur
empire in India .He ruled from 1529-1540.The influence of his innovations and
reforms extended far beyond his region .He introduced the reforms that was the
standardization of land measurement and revenue system was adopted by
Mughals .He got the land measured and fixed the land revenue to one third of
the expected crop .

4.2: LAND REVENUE SYSTEM OF SHER SHAH:

Sher Shah implemented a revenue system which was of profound merit and he
became famous for his remarkable idea in the history of medieval age .As a
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benevolent despot, he treated his subjects kindly .Sher Shah had

gained experience as his father Jagir and he was not unaware of
land revenue problems .

During his rule, he considered there were two chief resources for the income of
the empire.

1) Central revenue

2) Local revenue

The local revenue was realized through various taxes known as Abwabs .Which
were imposed mostly on production and consumption .The traders were
required to pay the same taxes.

But among the resources of central revenue were the unclaimed property, trade,
mint,gifts,salt,octroi,Taziya and khums and land revenue were there.

Realization of import and export tax on raw material and manufactured goods
was also another type of tax .Besides, the royal mint was also a great source of
income of the kingdom. If any trader lost his life without any successor ,his
property was confiscated .The emperor was also offered peasants from the
government officials ,nobles and foreign travelers .which were a significant
source of income of the state .Jaziya,a tax on Hindu’s ,Khams ,the booty were
also enriched the royal exchequer .Despite the collection of these taxes ,land
revenue was the chief source of income .

Land revenue being the primary source of income, Sher Shah had to focuss on
the welfare of the peasants .He was very much conscious of the fact that peasant
must be well treated and the emperor should be kind and generous to them to
make the land a prosperous one.

So he introduced the land revenue reforms.

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1) His first and foremost task was to pay attention to increase the
agricultural production and also to create conducive atmosphere to
improve the living condition of the peasants.

2. The huge produce made it enable for greater revenue tax and enriched the
treasury.

Sher Shah was the first ruler to think of measurement and classification of lands
.Sher Shah also abolished some mal practices .Like the exploitation of peasants
by Muslim soldiers, Hindu Muqaddams and others .Royal share was quite high
in the total produce .Before he introduced a suitable land revenue system he
took into consideration some factors like.

The welfare of the people, liberal attitude while fixing the taxes, taking stern
measures during realization of taxes, to see that a proper average is there
between the produce and tax and to look after the peasants are given ownership
of the land which they used to cultivate.

4.3: STEPS TAKEN:

So he took some steps to achieve his objectives like

In the annals of history, Sher Shah Suri emerges as a visionary ruler whose
administrative acumen revolutionized the land measurement and revenue
system within his vast empire. His commitment to fairness and precision in
taxation endeared him to his subjects and ensured the stability of his realm.
Here's an expansive discourse on the meticulous policies and practices he
implemented:

Land Measurement System:

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Sher Shah Suri instituted a groundbreaking land measurement

system that standardized the evaluation of land across his empire.
Employing a uniform policy, each village meticulously recorded
details about cultivable land. The use of the Zarib—a standardized
rope for measurement—exemplified his commitment to accuracy in land
assessment. This meticulous approach aimed at preventing exploitation of
peasants, ensuring fair taxation based on actual land productivity.

Moreover, to uphold the integrity of this system, Sher Shah Suri meticulously
considered both the precision of measurement and the honesty of revenue
collection. He set fixed salaries for individuals engaged in land measurement
tasks, thus discouraging any malpractices that could harm the peasants' interests.

Revenue Assessment:

The responsibility of surveying and assessing land revenue was entrusted to

Ahmad Khan, a loyal confidant of Sher Shah Suri. Khan categorized land into
three distinct types based on productivity—Good, Medium, and Poor quality.
Though the precise rates of land revenue aren't definitively documented,
historical records suggest that a significant portion, roughly one-third of the
total produce, constituted the land revenue tax.

In addition to the land revenue tax, peasants were obligated to pay 'Jaribana'
(surveyor fees) and 'Mahasilana' (tax collection fees), amounting to
approximately 2.5% of the total produce. This method ensured a balanced
approach to revenue collection, distributing the burden among the cultivators
while accounting for the costs incurred in the process.

Flexible Payment and Support in Hardship:

While land revenue was primarily paid in cash, Sher Shah Suri's administration
offered the flexibility of paying in grain, valued at prevailing market rates. This

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provision eased the financial burden on peasants and ensured that

the revenue system accommodated fluctuations in market
conditions.

During times of famine or distress, the central and provincial governments

extended support to the peasants. The administration directed officials to adopt
a compassionate approach, exhibiting generosity in revenue determination.
However, during the actual collection phase, no concessions were granted,
upholding the integrity of revenue collection.

Protection of Agricultural Resources:

Sher Shah Suri was deeply mindful of preserving agricultural resources. He

strictly instructed soldiers not to harm crops during military expeditions,
threatening punitive actions against violators. Any loss to crops due to
unavoidable circumstances was compensated from the royal treasury, thereby
alleviating the burden on the peasants.

Documentation and Agreements:

To ensure transparency and accountability, Sher Shah Suri introduced two

critical documents—Patta and Qabliat. The Patta outlined the specific land
revenue obligations of the owner, while the Qabliat served as an agreement
from the cultivator, affirming their commitment to pay the specified amount of
land revenue.

In essence, Sher Shah Suri's meticulous land measurement and revenue system
were founded on fairness, precision, and empathy toward the peasantry. His
innovative policies not only ensured efficient revenue collection but also
safeguarded the welfare of his subjects, earning him admiration and leaving an
indelible mark on the annals of administrative history.

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The peasants were required to deposit their revenue direct in the

royal treasury which minimized the importance of Muqaddams and
headman and facilitated direct relation with the government
officials .The practice came to be known as Ryotwari system which
could not be enforced in the iqtas of Multan, Malwa and Rajputana.

The cultivators were allowed to pay their revenue in two installments in a year
according to the crop season and a loan known as Taqawi was also granted to
the peasants at the time of famine or drought. A new scheme of canal irrigation
and digging wells was also introduced for the welfare of the peasants.

Result of revenue policy:

The uniform revenue policy proved beneficial because the public became free
from the burden of illegitimate taxes.

The farmer had no restriction to plough his own field. The revenue was fixed
once for all . And the intermediaries were removed by the emperor .So the
cultivators were free from exploitation .The revenue policy of Sher Shah
encouraged the settlement and Ryotwari system but the Jagirdari system could
not be removed as it was liked by the Afghans.

4.4: DEFECTS OF REVENUE POLICY:

Sher Shah Suri's revenue system, while lauded for its innovations and attempts
at fairness, bore significant flaws that hindered its effectiveness and drew
criticism from various quarters. Despite its notable aspects, several inherent
defects marred its functionality, causing distress among the peasantry and
administrative inefficiencies:

Disparities in Revenue Burden:

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One glaring issue was the disproportionate burden placed on

peasants owning medium or poor-quality lands. The system's
structure led to these peasants bearing a heavier revenue load
compared to those with more fertile, 'good' lands. This imbalance in
taxation perpetuated socioeconomic disparities and created hardships for those
already struggling due to land quality.
Challenges in Revenue Payment:

The requirement of paying land revenue in cash posed significant challenges.

The administrative bureaucracy, coupled with inefficiencies in the local
collection processes, prolonged the revenue collection period. This not only
affected the efficiency of local collectors but also resulted in considerable
inconvenience and distress for the populace.

Inefficacy in Curbing Corruption:

Despite efforts to introduce a system facilitating the transfer of revenue,

corruption remained rampant within the revenue administration. Corruption
persisted among revenue officials, undermining the fairness and integrity of the
system. This flaw hindered the system's intended goal of ensuring transparent
and accountable revenue collection.

Annual Measurement and its Pitfalls:

The practice of annual land measurement, while ostensibly aimed at ensuring

accuracy, inadvertently fostered bribery and harassment of peasants. The
frequent assessments led to bribery as peasants sought to influence
measurements in their favor, while the annual disruptions affected cultivators
and strained the royal treasury.

Jagirdari System and Associated Problems:

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The implementation of the Jagirdari system, intended to delegate

revenue collection to jagirdars, proved futile. Instead of
streamlining the process, jagirdars created additional problems,
exacerbating the challenges faced by the peasants and hindering
efficient revenue collection.

Criticism of Rigorous Revenue Collection:

Sher Shah Suri faced criticism for the stringent and rigorous approach to
revenue collection. While he ordered soldiers not to damage crops during
expeditions and showed generosity toward peasants in times of need, his
insistence on rigorous revenue collection drew censure for the hardships it
imposed on the populace.
In summation, while Sher Shah Suri's revenue system was innovative in various
aspects and showcased intentions of fairness and support for the peasantry, its
inherent flaws, such as unequal taxation, corruption, inefficiencies, and
unintended consequences, detracted from its overall effectiveness. These
drawbacks not only created hardships for the peasants but also undermined the
system's integrity and efficiency, eliciting criticisms despite its commendable
intentions.

4.5: CONCLUSION:

Sher Shah was a benevolent ruler who worked for the welfare of the masses
.Apart from being an able administrator, he is also immortalized for his revenue
reforms. He introduced the measurement system, maintenance of records .His
attempt to eliminate corruption and his liberal attitude towards the peasants rank
him in high repute. His revenue reforms were based on wise and human
principles .So it has unique importance in the administrative history of India.

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4.6: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Discuss the defects of the revenue policies of Sher Shah.

B- What were the major steps taken by Sher Shah for the increase of
revenue?
C- What were the land revenue reforms as taken by Sher Shah?
D- Write a brief note on flexible payment system of Sher Shah.

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BLOCK-2
CONSOLIDATION OF MUGHAL RULE

UNIT-5: Incorporation of Rajputs and other

Indigenous Groups in MughalNobility

UNIT-6: Evolution of Administrative

Institutions: zabti, mansab, jagir, madad-i-
maash

UNIT-7: Emergence of the Marathas; Shivaji

UNIT-8: Expansion of Maratha under the

Peshwas

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UNIT-5: INCORPORATION OF RAJPUTS AND

OTHER INDIGENOUS GROUPS IN MUGHAL NOBILITY:

Learning Objectives

After reading the unit you will be able to know

 What is nobility
 Composition of nobility
 Distribution of methods

Unit Structure

5.1: Introduction

5.2: Causes of Incorporation of Rajputs

5.3: Composition of the Nobility

5.4: Foreign Elements

5.5: Organization of the Nobility

5.6: Distribution of Resources among the Nobility

5.7: Conclusion

5.8: Sample Questions

5.1: INTRODUCTION:

The Mughal nobility comprised mainly the central

Asians(Turanis),Iranians(Iranis)Afghans, Indian Muslims of diverse groups and
Rajputs .They were honourable and courageous .Responsible and capable
officers were chosen .The nobles were governors ,Subedars .They controlled

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revenue and military offices .They had political, economic and

military powers .Mir Bakshi was the head of the nobles .Nobles
were enrolled as Mansabdars .They had high posts in civil and
military departments .

5.2: CAUSES OF INCORPORATION OF RAJPUTS AND

INDIGENOUS IN THE NOBILITY:

1)The Rajput’s were leaders of the Hindus in the military field and were well
known for their bravery .Akbar, the Mughal ruler wanted to found his empire
,which was impossible without their cooperation.

2)Akbar had a forward vision .He executed his visionary policy forming a
policy of god governance .He developed a broad socio cultural view after a
narrow one. He wanted to avoid the crisis by keeping the nobility of different
races together.

Babur was accompanied by Turanis (The central Asian and Iranis) when he
came to Hindustan .These people comprised the nobility of Babur. After the
Battle of Panipat in 1526A.D. some Afghans and Indian nobles of Sikandar
Lodis camp were incorporated in his higher bureaucracy. Very soon they gain
confidence and were placed in higher positions .Many local chieftains also
accepted suzerainty of Babur and became his allies who took his side in the
subsequent battles .So after the battle of Panipat, the ruling class also included
Indians, Afghans and Shaikhzadas.

But Humayun’s reign witnessed the decline in number of Indian nobles and
Afghan nobles who deserted the Mughal service in order to join the Bahadur
Shah of Gujarat .From 1540 to 1555 A.D.The Turani nobles deserted Humayun

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and joined Mirza Kamrah .26 persons accompanied Humayun to

Iran out of whom seven were Iranis.

However during his stay in Iran, many Iranis further joined him
.They accompanied Humayun from Iran to take Kandahar and Kabul .with the
access of Iranis to Kabul and their participation in Humayuns court ,the number
of Iranis became more which was found during his stay in Kabul.

Humayun had raised the Iranis and Turanis and availed the support of a loyal
ruling class whose help was indispensable in re conquering India. The more
dominant class in the nobility during his period belonged to Central Asian
origin.

But during the reign of Babur and Humayun, the nobility was not disciplined
and organized and unable to face the challenges for the newly established
Mughal Empire. Despite the efforts made by Babur and Humayun to make them
loyal, the nobility were not subservient to them completely.

Development under Akbar-

During the initial years of Akbar reign the Iranis and Turanis enjoyed their
position as earlier .But after the dismissal of Bairam Khan, the rebellion of the
Turani nobles was a notable event which resulted in incorporation of Indian
Muslims and Rajputs in the nobility of Akbar. Akbar also promoted Iranis to
higher ranks as a reward for their loyalty during the rebellion.

After the exit of Bairam Khan since 1561 Akbar took some measures to
befriend the Rajputs .One f that which is very significant was established
matrimonial relation with them and the liberal measure was abolition of Jizya

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tax, 1564 and pilgrimage tax 1562.This attitude of Akbar was

noticed after the suppression of Uzbek rebellion.

The Indian Muslims were also befriended and Akbar adopted some
conciliatory measures .He became capable of building a loyal and efficient
bureaucracy and evert any serious crisis in his nobility .Adoption of such
nobility helped him to run the government effectively. But when he failed to
provide any solution to the problem succession, the nobility was divided into
factions supporting the rival princess aspirants to the throne.

5.3: COMPOSITION OF THE NOBILITY:

During the reign of the Babur and Humayun and in the early phase of Akbar’s
reign the Mughal nobility was found to be comprised of recognized racial
groups like the Turanis, Iranis, Afghans, Shaikhzadas, Rajputs and Deccanis .So
an international ruling class comprised the nobility .where nationality was no
bar ,The heterogeneous character of nobility was also observed during
Shahjahan’s reign .The presence of Ozbeks,Persians,Arabs and Turks and their
descendants in the Mughal nobility was noticed by the observers like Bernier.
For recruitment as a member of nobility, mostly the family and lineage was
taken as a factor .Merit was not a criteria and members of many families were
not admitted .

The best claimants were the KhanaZads who were the descendants of officers
already recruited in the nobility .they constituted half of the ruling class when
the other half were variety of persons who did not belong to the familes.

The zamindars were one of these class who had importance and were granted
mansabs and jagirs in different parts of the empire .These were addition to their
ancestral one and known as Watan Jagir.

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Some nobles and officials of higher states were also offered ranks
on account of their merit, experience and even they were persuaded
to desert their masters .Members of accounts class like khatnis,
kayasthas also were incorporated in the Mughal nobility and they
were appointed in the financial departments on low rank but not on high posts
.To dermal under Akbar and Raja Raghunath under Aurangzeb belonged to their
category but rose to higher ranks like mansabdar.

The other class of people who were indulged in the Mughal nobility were
scholars, saints, Sufis and the logians.Some of the reputed figures under this
class were Abul Fazl under Akbar, Sadatullah khan and Danishmand Khan
during Shah Jahans reign Hakim Ataul Mulk, Tuni Farid Khan and Inayatullah
Khan Kashmiri in Aurangzeb’s period.

Racial and Religious groups

One of the imperial policy of the Mughal rulers was integrate diverse elements
like the Afghans ,Shailhzadas,Rajputs,Marathas under one group .Akbars policy
of Sulh Kul was also one of the the planned policy to prevent sectarian
difference among them and so as to avoid interference in the loyalty to the
throne .

5.4: FOREIGN ELEMENTS:

During the Mughal era in India, the composition of the nobility was an intricate
tapestry woven with diverse ethnic and cultural threads. The Ain-i-Akbari, a
comprehensive document of Akbar's reign, reveals an intriguing facet:
approximately 70% of the nobility during Akbar's time comprised foreign
elements. This amalgamation was sustained through subsequent reigns, where
foreign influences continued to shape the Mughal court.

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Among these foreign elements, the Iranis held a prominent and

dominant position within the nobility. Mirza Aziz Koka's
allegations about the support of Iranis and Shaikhzadas by Jahangir
underscored their significant presence. Even as Shah Jahan
ascended to power, attention shifted to other groups like the Turanis and
Rajputs, yet the Iranis managed to maintain their stature within the court.

The continuity of Iranis in influential positions persisted into Aurangzeb's reign,

wherein Persian nobles remained a considerable part of the Mughal nobility.
Their migration to India was motivated by various factors, notably seeking
better religious tolerance, employment opportunities, and security, as the
religious atmosphere in their homeland didn't align with their preferences.

Interestingly, during Aurangzeb's rule, a decline in direct foreign recruitment

was noted. Several factors contributed to this shift, including the downfall of the
Uzbek and Safavid kingdoms. Aurangzeb's strategic focus on Deccan affairs
and a restrained militarist policy in the North-West led to a decrease in foreign
influx directly. However, the Iranis managed to sustain their influence within
the nobility due to an influx of Iranian nobles migrating from the Deccan
region.

Remarkably, even the Sunni orthodoxy of Aurangzeb did not adversely affect
the Iranis' standing in the Mughal court. Some notable Iranis who continued to
hold significant positions included individuals like Khwaja Mirak, Bahadur
Khan, and Ali Mardan Khan Haiderabadi.

Overall, the presence of foreign elements, particularly the Iranis, within the
Mughal nobility remained a consistent and influential aspect throughout various
reigns, demonstrating the complex and diverse composition of the imperial
court during the Mughal era.

Afghans:

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The Afghans were not trusted by the Mughals rather they were
suspected .During the reign of Humayun and Akbar, The Mughals
were not close to the Afghans .Jahangir assigned them high
position to Khan Jahan Lodi. During Shah Jahans reign ,the
Afghans lost faith of the imperial ruler .But in the later period of Aurangzebs
reign ,the members of Afghans nobles increased on account of the influx from
the Bijapur kingdom.

Indian Muslims:

The Indian Muslims were mainly comprised of Barha and Kambus and some
other classes. They were prominent during Akbars reign but lost their position
during Aurangzebs reign .The Sayyids of Barha constituted the important wing
Mughal armies on account of their martial qualification did not enjoy the faith
of Aurangzeb as they supported Dara Shikoh in the war of Succession.

The Kashmiris enjoyed prominent position during later years of Aurangzebs

reign .One of his favourite nobles was Inayatullah Kashmiri.

Rajputs and other Hindus:

Akbar had adopted a friendly attitude towards the Rajputs. He was liberal to the
Rajput’s and several Rajputs were appointed as mansabdars during his reign
.They also hold high position .This trend continued till the reign of Shahjahan
and Aurangzeb .Although Aurangzeb was criticised for his anti-Hindu policy
still then the number of Rajput and indigenous nobles increased during his time
.The mansabdars having 2000 Jats were found .Jai Singh was supported as the
viceroy of Deccan , one of the important post ever since the Rajputs entry into
the nobility .Jaswant Singh was also appointed twice as the Governor of Gujarat
1659-1661 and 1670-1672.So it cannot be denied that during the period of
Aurangzeb ,the number of Hindus in the Mughal nobility increased to a greater
proportion and number.

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Marathas and other Deccanis:

Shah Jahan had appointed the Marathas during his Ahmadnagar

campaign .During the reign of Aurangzeb, the Marathas did not
count a greater proportion in Aurangzebs nobility because their allegiance to the
Mughals was not stable .Aurangzebs granted mansabs to the Marathas but his
attempt failed as the Marathas were reluctant to Jain as subordinates .So there
was no possibility of Marathas acquiring any real position in the Mughal
nobility.

The nobles of the Deccan kingdom like Bijapur and Golconda were known s the
Deccanis .They could be of Indian origin like Afghan Shaizadas and Indian
Muslims of forign origin like Turanis and Iranis. During the early period of
Aurangzebs reign the Deccan did not form a major proportion.

5.5: ORGANISATION OF THE NOBILITY:

The Mughal nobility was organised within the framework of Mansab system.

Organisation of the Nobility-

The Mughal nobility was organised within the framework of Mansab system
.Mansab meant office position or rank. The Mansab were

a)To determine the status of the Mansabdar,the holder in the official hierarchy

b)To fix the pay of the Mansabdars

c)To make them oblige to maintain a different number of contingent with

chosen and equipment. Each officer was assigned a dual rank. They were Zat
and Sawar. Zat being a personal rank determined the status of Mansabdar in the
official hierarchy and indicated his personal pay .Sawar being a military rank
determined the number of contingents the mansabdars was required to maintain
and fix the payment for the maintenance of that contingent .

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For the recruitment of mansabdars nationality was no bar .The

Khanazads (descendants of mansabdars already in service) were
given the priority. The second channel of recruitment was
immigrants from Iran, the third one being recommendation (tazwiz)
and the last channel of recruitment was made from the leading commanders of
the enemy camp who were often tempted to desert their masters.

5.6: DISTRIBUTION OF REVENUE RESOURCES AMONG

THE NOBILITY:

During the time of Akbar revenue resources were concentrated in the hands of
few persons as observed by Jan Qacsar and Shireen Moosvi 82% of the revenue
resources was appropriated by 1671 mansabdars .The top 12mansabdars
controlled 18.52% of the total revenue and the reaming were controlled by the
rest of the mansabdars .The same situation continued during the reign of Akbars
successors also .The salary of the mansabdars were very high .one of the
instances was the salary of Khan-i-Jahan Lodi’s annual income from his Jagirs
which was 30lacs rupees and he spend 24lacs on his establishment while he
used to save six lakhs .

The nobles drew their income from land revenue .There was immense
concentration in the hands of few and another cause of this was that they did not
spend the wealth for maintaining the troops.

Socio-economic role of the Nobility:

As observed the nobles had accumulated enough treasures in different forms

like jewels, jagirs, species etc. They invested those in trade and also made
capital advances to merchants .They also invested on sea borne trade. Another
mode was business investments.Sometimes,their own ships carried their own
goods or cargo travelling to different countries .Mirjumla,one of the traders,

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known as a merchants Prince had dealing with the English .He also
advances money to the English .His ships carried on trade between
Arakan,Southern India,Bengal,Persia and Arabia.

Apart from the external trade activities, the Mughals also had a remarkable
achievement in internal trade.Shaista Khan offers the best example of internal
trade.During his vice royalty of Gujarat and Bengal ,he had tried to control and
monopolise trade in many important articles like salt,supari and fodder of
animals .It is evident the Mughals had keen interest about luxury goods and
jewels .Shaista Khan purchased pearls and jewels from the Travernier.He is
titled as a great amateur of precious stones by Manucci.

Living standard of the Nobility:

The nobles led a life of pomp and splendour .They had great establishment
.They maintained establishments of wives, servants and horses. They also spent
on works of public utility .

They constructed attractive houses as revealed from Shaikh Farid Bhakkaris

biographical work Zakhirat-ul-Khwarin(1642).These houses were beautified
with gardens and apartments as mentioned by Palsaert.There were also tanks
there filled with fresh water drawn by oxen .The nobles hold pearls in the
gardens in honour of the emperor .Mannique describes a lavish dinner party in
the house of Asaf Khan.

The nobles also built works of public utility like sarais,hammas,(public step
wells, water tanks, markets ,roads throughout the empire .Murtaza Khan ,built
Khanq ,mosques and sarais during the reign of Akbar. Abdur Kahim
Khan,Azam Khan, Khawaja jahan Kabuli were the builders during the reign of
Jahangir .

The Irani nobles also founded the construction of mosques ,sarais etc. in Iran
.cities and towns were also founded by the nobles .The new cities provided with
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all necessities of civil life and amenities of urban settlement to

encourage the people to settle there .playing out gardens was a part
of nobles cultural activities .Wakil of Shahjahan known as
Alimuddin Wazir khan built a new city at his native town and
handed over to its residents .He built a market ,a sarais ,a madrassa, a step well
and made endowments for their maintenance .

These cultural activities continued .It nourished a competitive spirit .It became a
trend and as if the builders scored more by motivating and doing such works .It
perpetuated the builders fame for an indefinite period .For charitable works
,religious sanction was given so that they were aspired .The masses also
expected from the prosperous person for such work. The Mughal nobles had the
vital role here.

Luxurious items were manufactured by the Karkhanas which were maintained

by the nobles themselves.

It is evident from the British and Dutch record that the nobles made demand for
innumerable items and paid high amount.

There are evidences of nobles spending huge amount in charity .They gave gifts
to the residents of their own native places .Mir Kasim Bakkari who fixed yearly,
monthly, weekly and daily stipend for the natives of his own townsman was an
illustrious example .He also used to send gifts to his townsmen from his own
place of posting.

During the Mughal period in India, the nobility led lives of opulence and
leisure, engaging in a diverse array of pursuits to fill their time and display their
wealth and status. Among their various hobbies, hunting held a significant
place. The nobles indulged in elaborate hunting expeditions, showcasing their
prowess in the sport and displaying their wealth through the upkeep of trained
hunting animals and specialized equipment.

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Horticulture was another passion that fascinated the nobles. They

often maintained lavish gardens adorned with exotic flora,
showcasing their refined taste and investing considerable resources
in creating serene and aesthetically pleasing landscapes.

Additionally, animal husbandry captivated the nobles' interests. They took pride
in breeding and maintaining rare and exotic animals, from horses to falcons,
further amplifying their prestige and wealth.

Alchemy, the precursor to modern chemistry, also intrigued the nobility. While
it was pursued with varying degrees of seriousness, the allure of discovering the
secrets of transmutation and the creation of precious metals remained a
fascination among the elite.

Beyond these personal interests, the nobles assumed the role of patrons,
generously supporting musicians, poets, and literati. They provided patronage to
artists and intellectuals, fostering an environment conducive to cultural and
intellectual growth in their courts.

Extravagance was a hallmark of the noble lifestyle, evident in their lavish

spending on marriages and other festive occasions. These events were grand
spectacles, displaying their affluence and societal standing through elaborate
ceremonies, feasts, and gifts.

In terms of governance within their own domains, the nobles wielded

considerable power through their Sarkar, a semi-autonomous administrative
setup. This included a contingent of armed forces, a household staff comprising
various attendants and servants, along with appointed officials to manage their
estates and affairs. The absence of stringent audits or restrictions on their
income empowered the nobles to manage their resources as they saw fit,
contributing to their autonomy and influence within their domains.

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This freedom from financial oversight enabled the nobles to live

lavishly, pursue their interests, and maintain a lifestyle of
extravagance. However, while it granted them autonomy, it also
contributed to disparities in wealth and power among the nobility,
leading to varying degrees of influence and affluence across the Mughal court.

5.7: CONCLUSION:

In the beginning the nobles emerged as a Turani dominated class but later on it
was comprised of Iranis, Indian Muslims. Rajputs Marathas and Afghans due to
political exigencies became a heterogenous ruling class. It was within the
framework of mansabdari and jagirdari system .The Mansabdars were not only
the prosperous class but also the elite’s .They accumulated wealth during the
tenure of their service and left to their families .The nobles’ investments were
found in trade and capital advances. They were patron of stilled artisans. Luxury
goods was their interest.

5.8: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Discuss the socio-economic role of the nobility.

B- Write a note on living standard of the nobility.

C- Critically examine the development under Akbar.

D-Discuss the three different steps for the organization of the nobility.

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UNIT-6: EVOLUTION OF MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION

INSTITUTION, ZABTI, MANSAB, JAGIR, MADAD-I-MASH:

Learning Objectives

After reading the unit you will be able to know

 The central and provincial administration

 What was Mansabdari system
 The pivotal functions of Jagir system

Unit Structure

6.1: Introduction

6.2: Central Administration

6.3: Provincial Administration

6.4: Mughal Administration

6.5:Jagir System

6.6: Conclusion

6.7: Sample Questions

6.1: INTRODUCTION:

Mughal administrative structure retained many aspects of Sultanate and Sher

Shahs administrative structure. The Mughals created suba, which was a new
division .Jagir and Mansab were also introduced by the Mughals. This system

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also led to a high degree of centralisation .It evolved with change

and continuity.

6.2: CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION:

The features of central Administration were –

The Emperor:

The emperor himself was in charge of all government in function. He hold the
military and judiciary power also. All the officers owed the emperor their power
and responsibility.

The emperor could nominate, elevate and dismiss all the affairs as he pleased.
But he himself was not under any institution or pressure .It was the task of a few
department to ensure that the emperor and government function without any
problem.

Wazir and Wakil:

The Wizarat or Wikalab institution existed in some capacity throughout the

Delhi sultanate .The Wazir position was reinstated under the Mughals which
had lost its prominence during the reign of Afghans .During the reign of Babur
and Humayun, the Wazir had considerable authority .During the time when
Bairam Khan acted as regent of Akbar, the position of Wazir rose to
prominence .But Akbar in order to restrict Wazirs power, removed his financial
authority. This was the time when Wazirs power declined.

Diwan-I –Kul:

Diwan-i-Kul served as the main diwan who handled the revenue administration
of the Mughals .His position was strengthened when he was entrusted with this
power .He oversaw the provincial diwans and used to oversee all transactions
and payments in all ministries .He handled the charge of entire revenue

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collection and payment. Daily reports on state finance were also to

be submitted to the emperor by the Diwani.

Mir Bakshi:

Mir Bakshi handled all administrative issues relating to the military. He as an

important officer, approved and endorsed the appointment orders of mansabdars
and their salaries .He had also vigilant eye on the mansabdars maintenance of
armed contingents and military equipment .Mir Bakshi introduced the new
entrants seeking employment to the emperor.

Mir Saman:

He was the officer in command of the royal Karkhana .He was handling all
types of purchases and storage for the royal household .He used to oversaw the
various production for the royal house.

Sadar-us –Sadar:

The religion division of the Mughal division was under the Sadar-us-Sadar .His
main authority as to uphold the Sharia law .Distribution of allowances and
stipends to the needy individuals and to the religious institutions were handled
by him .During first 25 years of Mughal administration, the officer enjoyed high
power .Mazhar which was promulgated in 1580 limited his powe4r .The
revenue free grants for religious for religious and philanthropic reasons were
governed by this officer .But,a number of restrictions were imposed on his
power to provide grants independent of revenue Muhtasibs had to ensure that
morality is upheld .He had to check weights and measures ,to ensure fair prices
and other things also .

6.3: THE PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION:

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Akbar had divided the Mughal Empire in to twelve Subas or

provinces which was in charge of a Subadar or regional governor
who was chosen by emperor.

The subedar oversaw the province and was responsible for reserving law and
order .He was also in charge of pitting down the uprisings and supply an army
for excursions.

The head of the revenue division of the Suba was Diwan .He was selected by
the Emperor and was an independent officer .He was entrusted with the
collection of revenue of the Suba and he had to track all expenses .Peasants
were also offered (taqavi) loans through the agency.

Bakshi of the province also carried out the same duties like Mir Bakshi at the
centre. The Royal court appointed him on the advice of Mir Bakshi .He had to
see that the soldiers and horses maintained by the Mansabdars in the Suba were
kept in good shape and were checked and inspected .He was also in charge of
distributing the paycheques of mansabdars. He shared his space in the office
with waqainiqar .He had to update the centre on events in his province.

Sadr was the title given to the provincial level representative of the central Sadr.
He was in charge of ensuring the individuals who studied and participated in
religion .He also inspected the Qazis activities and was in charge of judiciary.

Some additional officers were also appointed at the provincial level.

The lines of communication were kept open by Darogai-i-Dak.Postal runners

were appointed to deliver letters to the court (Merwars).waquainavis and
waquainigars were the officers to deliver reports to the emperor personally.

6.4: MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION:

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Provinces were created out of Sarkars .Parganas were created out of

Sarkars. The smallest division was the village.

The two officers at the level of Sarkar’s were Faujdar and the
Amalguzar .The Faujdar was appointed by imperial order.

His duty was to protect the people .Who lived in the districts under his
jurisdiction both physically and financially .He also handled law and order
issues when force was necessary .He also assisted in revenue collection.

Amalguzar was in charge of collection of money .He was also known as

Amil.He had to evaluate and oversee revenue collection .He could also expand
the area under cultivation and persuaded the peasants to pay taxes voluntarily.

Shiqdar was the executive officer at the pragana level ,who asserted the amils
with their work of collecting money .Amils handled the pargana level revenue
collection .Qanungo maintained the land records of Pargana .Kotwals were
appointed by the imperial authority .He was in charge of maintaining law and
order ,mostly in towns. He maintained a register to keep in track the records of
people who entered and exiled the towns .Financial records of the village were
managed by the Patwaris .The village headman was Muquadddam.Quiladar was
required to control the forts .He was responsible for the general management of
the fort and the regions that Jagir had delegated to him.

Quiladar was required to control the forts .He was responsible for the general
management that Jagir had delegated to him.

But provincial authority had no influence on port administration .Mutassadi

who was the direct choice of the emperor to manage the fort .He ran a custom
house, oversaw collection of taxes on goods. He also was in charge of the mint
house of the port.

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The Mansabs and Jagir system did not evolve suddenly but was a
result of situation and time .These institutional background were
borrowed from West Asia and modified to suit the needs of the
time.

Mansabdars were an integral part of Mughal bureaucracy.

Mansab:

The word Mansab means a place or position .It was a rank in the Manasab
system under Mughals .During Babur’s time ,the term Mansabdars was not used
rather wajhdar was employed .

The Mansabs were given to both military and civil offices by Akbar on the basis
of their merit .He was inspired by Chengiz Khan to fix the grade of his officers.
According to Abul Fazal, Akbar had established 66 garden of Mansabdars who
ranged from commander of 10 horses to 10,000horses.

Mansab denoted that, the status of its holders (the mansabdar) in the official
hierchi .To fix the pay of the holder to lay upon the holder the obligation of
maintaining a specified number of contingent with horses and elephants.

The Dual ranks-Zat and Sawar-Initially single number represented the rank,
personal pay, size of the contingent of the mansabdar But later on the rank of
mansabdar, instead of one number came to be denoted by two numbers –Zat and
Sawar .Which occurred in 1595-96

The mansabdar personal pay was determined by the Zat and also it denoted his
rank.

The second number (Sawar) fixed the number of horses and horsemen to be
maintained by the mansabdar and he received the payment for the contingent
accordingly.

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It is controversial that the mansabdars had to maintain from his

personal pay two contingents .as William Irvine says –Abdul Aziz
status that the Zat pay was purely personal .With no involvement
troops .Athar Ali says that the first rank placed the mansabdar in
appropriate position among the officials of the state and thus the salary of
mansabdar was fixed .The second rank (Sawar) determined the number of
horses and horsemen the mansabdar had to furnish the three classes of
Mansabdars.

The Mansabdars were classified into three classes.

1. Those with horsemen equal to the number of Zat
2. Those with horsemen half or more than of the number of Zat and
3. Those whose Sawar rank was less than half of their Zat rank.

The Sawar rank was equal or half than that of the Zat .The mansabdars position
was not affected if the Sawar was higher also .But when the mansabdar was
serving among the rebels or in a difficult position there was no exception .In
such situation ,the Sawar rank was increased without altering the Zat rank. So
the system changed accordingly to circumstances .One such was to increase the
Sawar rank for a period, that was a conditional rank (mashrut).This is to recruit
more horseman with the permission of state and it was an emergency order
during crisis.

Introduction of do aspa si aspa under Jahangir was another development

.Mahtab Khan was first to get in 10th years of Jahangir’s reign .A part or full
Sawar rank was made do aspa si aspa .Behind this Jahangir had the motive to
strengthen the nobles of his confidence .

Appointment of Mansabdar:

Although Mir Bakshi generally presented the name of the candidates to the
emperor, the governor or leading nobles recommended their names .When it

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went for confirmation of the emperor, the Diwan, Bakshi and

others followed it when it went for the confirmation .Later on the
Farman was issued under the seal of the Wazir.

The same procedure was followed in case of promotion also. However it was
the prerogative of the emperor to appoint the Mansabdar. There was no such
examination. But as survey shows mostly favoured classes were appointed as
the Mansabdar. Mostly the sons and kinsmen .From Uzbek and Safavi emperor
most candidates came.

The Deccan kingdoms were also there.Irani, Turani.Khurasani were also

recruited .The rulers of autonomous principalities also formed a group who
were preferred .The Rajput kings were mostly selected.

Promotion were given on the basis of performance and lineage .But in practice
man of higher lineage generally employed it.

Maintenance of troops and payment:

Mansabdars had to present their troops for regular inspection and verification
which was performed by Mir Bakshis department .The procedure was known as
Dagh o Chehra.A seal distinguished the horses branded the physical description
of troops was also recorded .So the possibility of present of same horses was
reduced .A reduction was also found for non-fulfilment of obligation on
contingent .

The scale of salary was fixed for Zat rank but one rank had no arithmetical or
proportional rank .But there was no increase or decrease in salary.

The salary for the Sawar was the sum total of the remuneration given to trooper
which was fixed and uniformly applicable.

The system of Escheat:

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The emperor took possession of the property of nobles after death

.This practice is known as escheat(Zabt)The loan they took remain
unpaid till their death also .The Khan Saman had the duty to take
over the property of the nobles .and adjust to state demand after
which the rest was given to the heirs .In 1666 Aurangzeb issued a Farman that
after the death of nobles the property was taken by the state .Another Farman
was issued in 1691,which instructed the state officers not to attach the property
of the nobles whose heirs were in government service because they had to pay
the mutalaba.

Composition of the Mansabdars:

The Khanzads hold the rank of Mansabdars mostly .Zamindars were also
recruited apart from them Persian, Chagatai, Deccanis were also appointed as
Mansabdars.

Moth Scale:

Generally, the Mansabdars were paid through Jagirs.But as calculation was

made on the basis of the expected income from the Jagir during one year, the
revenue collection fell short of the estimated income and this process was not
successful always. So another method month scale was adopted .If the Jagir
hold half of the Jamah, it was called Shashmaha, if it yielded one fourth, it
called sihmaha .The month scale was applied to cash salaries also.

There was deduction in the salaries also mostly it was from Deccanis who had
to pay one fourth (Chauthai)other deduction were Khurak Dawaa(fodder for
beasts).Those who received (naqd)two dams in a rupee were deducted ,Jarimana
or fines were imposed also .

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6.5: JAGIR SYSTEM:

The Mughal emperor assigned Jagirs in lieu of cash salaries .This

were known as Jagirs and the holders were known as Jagirdars
.Iqtidars,tuyuldar were also other terms used .The revenue from the land area
was given to the Jagirdars .This system became stable after a change of long
period .The basis framework was developed during Akbar’s period .

Babur, after his conquest had restored the former Afghans or chieftains
assignment of more than on third of the conquered territories .The holders of
such assignments were known as Wajhidars.Wajh was a fixed sum assigned out
of the total revenue .Khalisa was the rest of the revenue of the territories .The
zamindars continued in their respective areas. Babur ruled through hakims
(governor).

Organisation of Jagir-

During Akbars period, the territory was divided in to two parts Khalisa and
Jagir .The revenue from Khalisa went to the imperial treasury and that from
Jagir to the Jagirdar in lieu of their salary in cash .The naqdi were the
mansabdars who got cash salary .Some other mansabdars were given both cash
and jagirdars .The Mansabdars were assigned territory according to their rank
.The revenue was calculated in dam. So it was known as Jama or Jamadani.The
Jama include land revenue ,in ;and transit duties ,part customs and other taxes
known as Sair Jihat .The revenue collected was known as hasil .The term
Paribaqi means the revenue yet to be collected .

The ratio of Jama and Khalisa in reign period of different Mughal rulers varied.

The Jagir holders also shifted from one place to another for administrative
reasons .The disadvantage was that it discouraged the Jagirdars. But the benefit
was that it checked the Jagirdars from developing the local roofs.

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Various type of Jagirdars:

There were generally four type of revenue assignments.

1) The Jagirs which were given in lieu of pay was known as
Jagir Tankha.
2) Mashrut Jagirs were Jagirs given to a person on certain condition .
3) Inam Jagirs were the Jagirs which involved no obligation of service
and were independent of rank.
4) Watan Jagirs were the Jagirs assigned to the Zamindars or chieftain in
their home land .Al Tamgha were some Jagir resembling to Watan Jagir
granted to Muslims nobles during Jahangir’s period .Maharaja Jaswant
Singh holding Watan Jagir in Marwar hold Jagir tanka in Hissar.

Management of Jagirs:

The Jagirdars was allowed to collect only authorised revenue (mal wait)and that
too in accordance with the imperial regulations .He appointed officials like
Karkun,amil,fatedar who acted on his behalf .

The imperial official kept watch on Jagirdars .The diwan of the Suba used to
prevent the oppression on the peasants by the Jagirdars .Akbar posted Amins
from 20th year to prevent the oppression of Jagirdars during collection of
revenue and to see that imperial regulation was followed.

Madad-i-Mash:

This was granted to qualified people .These grants did not invest grantee with
any right over land but were entitles to the prescribed revenue from its produce.
Akbar fixed such grants of land to 100bighas per person.

These grants were intended to create pockets of influence and to develop waste
lands. The Saikhas, Sayyids and other men of learning were given such grants

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.Some of them wanted to acquire and create in their own land .So a
tendency like this was developed gradually.

6.6:CONCLUSION :

In the Mughal period, with the need of time and situation ,the Zabti ,Mansab,
Jagirs and other institution developed and the basic aim was to wars a
centralised system of administration .

6.7: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Discuss mansabdari system in Mughal administration.

B- Critically examine the Jagir system.

C- What was the system of Escheat?

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UNIT-07 EMERGENCE OF MARATHAS ONLY

Learning Objectives:

After reading the unit you will be able to understand

The rise of Maratha power

Shahi and his reign

Mughal-Maratha relations and its phases

Shivaji and his reign

Unit Structure

7.1: Introduction

7.2: Geography

7.3: Shahji

7.4: Shivaji

7.5: The Marathas and Siddhis of Janjira

7.6: Marathas, Porugeese and English

7.7: Administration of Shivaji Maratha

7.8: Conclusion

7.9: Sample Questions

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7.1: INTRODUCTION:

The rise of Marathas was not an isolated factor. It was as much a contribution of
geographical situation as that of daring Shivaji.

The sources of Maratha history Provide valuable conformation which include

biographies and other literary work . Shivaji's biography written by Sabhasad in 1694
is a most important one . It was again elaborated bay Chitragupta Adnapatra of
Sambhaji or Maratha Sahitil Rajaniti of Ramachandra a Pants Amatya are also sources
which trace the events from shivaji to sambhaji . Radhamadhav vilas champu, a work
in Sanskrit is another work that deals with the life of shivaji, The Mughal. Maratha
relation is also known form Bhimsen's Nuska- i Dilkasha.

7.2: GEOGRAPHY

The Konkan between the Sahyadri ranges, which is known as the western Ghat's and
the western sea coast Ghat matha at the top of the Sahyadri ranges , the Des the lower
valley all formed part of Maharashtra, on its north toward the west runs the sahyadri
mountain ranges while from east to west lies the satpura and vindhya hill terrain . The
hill Parts provided natural defences. Due to its strategic location it was one of the best
fortified region of India, Due to its hilly terrain and forts it was impregnable to the
invaders. But the sail was of poor quality which was unfit for cultivation . The
inhabitantds became hardworking. The soil was black in the Deccan plateau and also
was fertile. Although the rainfall was scanty, the region produced good crops.

Rise of Maratha power.

The Historians viewed the rise of Maratha power from different angles: Grant Duff
views it as a result of conflagration in the forest of sahyadri. M.G. Ranade says it was

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not merely fortuitous circumstances but it was a national struggle of

independence against foreign domination. But it is not accepted because
not only the Mughals were foreigners, the rulers of Bijapur and
Ahemadnagar were also foreigners whose domination was equally must
not have been accepted.

But the rise of Maratha power as viewed by Jadunath sarkar and G.S. Sardesai was a
reaction against the communal Policies of Aurangzeb. But Akbar’s policy of Sulhkul
was admired by Shivaji . Even Shivaji was not keen to undertake social reforms
within Maharashtra and also the Marathas were not very violent against the ruler of
Bijapur and Ahaemadnagar.

Andre wink’s opinion to which supported by Grand Duff is that the rise of Maratha
was due to the growing Mughal pressure in the Deccan.

Satish chandra finds socio -economic content in the rise of Marathas. Shivaji could
mobilise the Peasants. He discontinued the Jagirdari and zamindari System. But
Shivali did not wipe out the system. He only curtailed the Power of bigger Deshmukh
and only reformed. The peasants were benefited by direct contact. Shivaji's power laid
in the power of petty landlords who were benefited more.

Political authority depended on the control over land so all the deshmukhs the bigger,
smaller they tried to expand their land which was a passion for them.

Shivaji followed a dual Policy to fulfill his mission that was to raise to status of his
family to achieve the same footing at par with the Deccanis and also the superior
status of Surya Vamsi Kshatriya genealogy of his family by linking it with Indra. He
entered into matrimonial alliances with families like the Deshmukh Shrikes, Morays,
Nimballkers and also curtailed the power of bigger deshmukhs . After confirming his
status, he claimed the exclusive right to collect Sardeshmukhi which was earlier
collected by the Maratha families under the Patronage of shrikes, Ghorpades.

So, it was evident that there was social tension in the society. The People were
agriculturalists basically but had formed a fighting class . They were not Kshatriyas
The Kundris, the kolis and other tribals of the Maratha area also wanted to get their
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status raised and were motivated by the desire of shivaji. So the rise of
Marathas had social-economic reasons.

The Bhakti movement also provided an intellectual and ideological

frame work for the rise of Marathas. It took the shape of Maharashtra
dharma. It is said by M.G. Ranade and V.K Rajwade that Maharashtra dharma
resulted in the Political independence of the Marathas. Ranade describes it as Jayshnu
(aggressive) Hinduism against sahishnu(tolerant) Hinduism.

In 15th century also the concept of Maharashtra dharma was found . Saint Ramdas
gave it a political tone and he was dissatisfied with the Turko-Afghan Mughal rule.
Shivaji used the chant of Maharashtra Dharma against the Deccanis and Mughals. The
religious cry of the Maratha arroused the sentiment of the peasantry & Shivaji
collected chauth and sardeshmukh across their boundaries.

Shivaji's carving of his own principality was a regional reaction against the Mughals.

Since the early 17th century the Marathas in the Deccan emerged under the Bijapur,
Golkonda and Ahemadnagar states. They served in the army of Bijapur and
Ahamadnagar and also in Golconda. The qiladars controlled the important forts still
then the hill ports were controlled by marathas. They were conferred the title of Raja,
Naik, Rao. The Bijapur ruler Ibrahim Adil Shah employed the natives of Maharashtra
as bargirs and used them against the Nizam shahi rulers of Ahmednagar. The
Brahmins and Marathas were recruited in the accounts department also. Yashwant
Rao became a distinguished one against the Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmadnagar. He
was confined as the Raja of Javli, Rao Naik Nimbalkar or Phultan Rao joined the
Bijapur rulers in mid 17th century. Jujhar Rao Ghatge who was the desmukh or
Mullori, joined the Bijapur ruler Ibrahim Adil Shah. The Manayas were silahadars
under Bijapur. In the first half of 17th century, the Ghorpadesh, Dutlays of Jhutt,
Sawants of waree also served Bijapur. Jadav Rao, the deshmukh of Sindkher was
most powerful under the Nizam Shahi rulers.

7.3: SHAHJI

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Maloji, Shivaji's grandfather was connected with Jagpal Rao Naik

Nimbalkar, the deshmukh of phultun by matrimonial alliance as his
sister Deepa Bai was married to Maloji. Majoli Joined the service of
Murtaza Nizam as bargir but over the question of marriage between Shahji and Jija
bai there was a dispute and Maloji was forced to leave. Once again maloji Joined the
Nizam Shahis with the help of Nimbarkar. He got the title of Maloji Raja Bhonsale.
He was interested with the charge of the fort of Shivneri and chakan and got the Jagirs
of poona and sopa. His connection with Jadav Rao Sinhkar enhanced his prestige in
1604. Jijabai, daughter of Jadab Rao was married to Shahji. But his stability was
shattered due to Mughal encroachment in Ahemadnagar. In this chaotic situation
Jahangir became advantageous and gained the favour of Maratha Sardar. Father in law
of Shahji and deshmukh of Sindkher was Lokhjee Jadav Rao supported Jahangir.
Lokhji shifted his allegiance to the Nizam Shahi ruler after the accession of Murtaza
Nizam Shah II. But he was murdered. Jagdeo Rao Joined the Mughal forces with a
mansab of 5000 Jat.

In 1630 Shahji offered his Services to the Mughals through Azam khan and received
the rank of 6000 jat and 5000 sawar in 1638. In 1632 Shahji was defected to Bijapur
and Joined the service of Adil Shah. By 1634, he could be able to control almost 1/4th
of the dominion of Nizam shah. But on account of the Mughal onslaught he was
shifted towards konkana as a Bijapur noble and surrendered all his gains . In this
period he could impress Morari Pandit. He joined Ranadaullah Khan in his Karnataka
campaign where due to his excellent performance Muhammad Adil shah granted him
24 villages as Jagir in karar.

7.4: SHIVAJI

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Shivaji was born at Shivneri. He was the son of shahji and lijabai. His
father was mostly involved in Bijapur as a noble. After the surrender of
shivner, he went to poona with his mother under the guardianship of
Dadaji kanddev. He became the sole in charge of Poona Jagir. He also
wanted to recover all the possessions of shahji after Dadaji kondadev's death in 1964
he occupied the port of purandhar which provided an impregnable defence.

Mughal Maratha Relation

The relation of mughal Maratha can be divided into four Phases i)(1615-1664)
ii)1664-1667 iii) 1667-1680 iv)(1680-1707)

First Phase

The dominance of marathas caused the Mughal rulers decision to thwart it. Jahangir
who succeeded in pursuading the chieftains to gain their support and defeated the
combined the Deccan armies (1616) Shahjahan also followed the same procedure to
win the maratha sardar. Shahji had Joined the Mughals but later on he conspired with
Morari Pandit and other anti maratha power of the Bijapur court . Shah Jahan
apprehended the threat of Marathas and a Mughal Bijapur alliance was made against
the marathas . The treaty of 1636 confirmed- the Bijapur ruler to employ shahji but
keep him at a distance from karnataka Aurangzeb also before leaving for north on the
war of succession in his nishan to Adil Shal advised him to the same. But this
alliance failed because Aurangzeb had nothing to offer.

Aurangzeb’s attempt to gain shivaji to his own side failed because shivaji demanded
Dabhol and the fertile region of Adil shahi konkan which was also important for trade.
shivaji switched over to Bijapur and raided the Mughal Deccan Ahmednagar and
Junhar sub division . During the period when the war of succesion was going on,
Shivaji took the opportunity and occupied Kalyan and Bhivandi (oct 1657). Mahuli on
January 1658 . so the entire eastern half of kolaba was district was conquered form
the Abyssinians (siddis) of Janjira.

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Then after Aurangzeb's departure, Bijapur turned to wards Marathas

Abdullah Bhatari Afzal Khan was entrusted with this charge whose
forces were, no match to Shivaji’s . So he thought of employing
diplomacy and tact and arranged a meeting for a compromise with
shivaji but shivaji got him murdered. (10th Nov 1659). As soon as this incident
happened, the marathas overpowered the Bijapur army . Panhala. and South Konkan
fell in the hands of marathas. Parhala again was occupied by Bijapur (2nd March
1660). Then Aurangzeb appointed shaista khan in Deccan as a viceroy (July 1659)
who succeeded in occupying chakan (15th Aug 1660) and North Konkan (1661) but
failed to occupy south Konkan. Shivaji attacked in the night in the battle of Mughal
camp when all of them were wounded seriously and Mughal viceroy himself also.
This was again followed by the first sack of Surat in January 1664 by the maraths.

Second Phase

All these incidents forced the Mughal to be more calculative, Mirza khan Jai singh
was appointed as the viceroy of Deccan Jai Singh conceived a plan for the conquest of
Deccan which aimed at the conquest of Bijapur by making Shivaji an ally and
granting him concessions at the cost of Bijapur and also shifting Shivaji’s jagir to a
less sensitive area. Then, he thought of suppressing Shivaji easily.

Jai singh succeeded in defeating Shivaji at Purandhar. By the treatly of Purandhar

Shivaji surrendered 23 out of 35 forts, which amounted to annual income of 4 Lakhs
huns in the Nizam territory and also 12 other forts including Raigarh which yielded,
1lakh huns annually. Shivaji's son was enrolled as a mansabdar 5000 zat on the
Mughal army.

Thus keeping shivaji away from Mughal was possible and seeds of confrontation of
Bijapur and Maratha were sown.

Aurangzeb wanted to deal with The marathas and Bejapur separately. He decided to
attack Bijapur but without further military reinforcements. He conditioned to confer
on Shivaji the title of Bijapurs Balaghat i.e. on the Success of Bijapur campaigns,
Considering all the situation. Jai Singh & Plan was not expected to be successful.

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Jai Singh after the Bijapur-Golkonda alliance proposed shivaji to visit to

the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb at Agra. But Shivaji being insulted
with the welcome of a lower rank was enraged and imprisoned.

Jai Singh wanted the Emperor’s Presence in Deccan to end up the

faction which could not be possible on account of Aurangzeb’s involvement in the
north west persia and Yusufzais. Shivaji escaped from Agra and Jaisingh was asked to
proceed to kabul being replaced by Muazzam as the Viceroy of Deccan. This failure
of Jai Singh made the Mughals unsuccessful in destroying Shivaji with the help of
Bijapur and conquer Deccan states.

Third Phase

After his escape from Agra Shivaji instead of confronting the Mughals tried to
maintain friendly relation with them. Muazzam, the Prince conferred a mansab of
5000 zat upon his son Sambhaji and also granted Jagir in Berar in August 1668.
Aurangzeb, apprehended of a rebellion which might be Caused due to the friendship
of Muazzam and shivaji and asked Muazzam to arrest Pratap Rao and Niraj Pant, the
Maratha agent at Aurangabad. The mughal also attached a part of shivaji’s Jagir at
Berar to recover the one lakh rupees which he had been given in advance for his Agra
visit. Shivaji being aware of this situation asked Pratap Rao and Niraj Pant to leave
Aurangabad. He also attacked the Ports ceded by him to the Mughals after the treaty
of Purandhar and occupied Kandana, purandar, Mahuli and Nander in 1670.

By that time prince Muazam and Diler khan became hostile to each other, Diler khan
accused Muazzam of being an ally of Shivaji while Muazzam accused him of dis
obedience. This crisis weakend the Mughal army- Aurangeb withdraw Jaswant Singh
and posted him at Burhanpur . Shevaji sacked surat for the second time (30th Oct
1670) Maratha also became successful in Berar and Baglana (1670-71). The forts that
fell into the hands of Marathas were the Ahivant, Markanda, Ravia and Javia in
Baglana and Karinjia, Ausa, Nandurbar, Salhir, Mulhir card chauragarh and Hulgarh.

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With this success of Maratha the Mughals became cautious and sent .
Muhabat khan in charge of Deccan (1670) but he was not successful. He
along with Muazzam was removed and Bahadurs khan took the charge
of Deccan (1673).

Marathas continued the march and occupied koil (June 1672) However their raids in
Khandesh and Berar were not successful Bahadur Khan could occupy shivner after
the death of the Ali Adil Shah, the situation in Bijapur was chaotic, Shivaji took
advantage of the situation because Bahadur shah's son’s was also minor. He wrested
the forts of Panhala (March 1673) parli (1st April 1673) and Satara (27th July 1673)
from Bijapur. Khawas khan was not supported in Bijapur. Bahlol khan put the blame
of Bijapur reverses on him in 1674, Bahlol Khan was successful in pushing back the
Marathas at kanara.

The Afghan disturbances made Aurangzeb to withdraw from Deccan. Bahadhur Khan
was also left alone with a weak contingent. Shivaji, taking advantage of the situation
crowned himself as the king on 6th June 1674 and Bahadur Khan camp was looted on
May 1674. The Proposal for mughals Maratha Peace proved futile.

Bahadur khan planned to support Bijapur (Oct 1675) against Shivaji but as he failed
after Khawas Khan's. Allthough Aurangzeb censored this , the maratha blow was still
in force. Diler Khan who made attempts for Mughal Bijapur alliance failed. This Plan
was made imperative by Madanna the wazir of the Golconda ruler and by Akannas’s
great diplomacy Madanna entered into an alliance with Shivaji agreed to pay one lakh
huns annual- for Protection against the Mughals Shivaji’s possession of the east of
Krishna river including Kolhapur district was acknowledged. Golkonda also
supported Shivaji in his Karnataka Campaign (1677-78).

Shivaji violted his promise to hand over Jinji and other regions to the Golkanda ruler
caused a rift between them. So Golkanda ruler stopped the Payment to Shivaji.
Shivaji attempt to capture Bijapur fort also caused hostility between both.

On the question of succession a rift was observed when Shivaji, offered Des and
konkan to his younger Son Rajaram who was minor. Karnataka was given to Sambhaji

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who was unpleased and wanted Des. So when offered help by Diler
Khan he accepted their friendship and awarded a mansab of 7000 to
Mughals.

There was an idea of all out concerted effort of Golkonda, Bijapur and
Mughals against the Marathas but it was unsuccessful. Siddi Masaudh an alliance with
Shivaji. Diler khan's attempt of conquering Bijapur was also failed.

Fourth Phase

Shivaji died in 1680 and Aurangzeb tried to settle the matters of Deccan in person.
The Maratha nobles tried to assert their rights taking advantage of the situation which
was on the division of Kingdom of Shivaji. This tension was going on among more,
Peswa, Annaji Datto. The Maratha nobles proclaimed Rajaram as the king instead of
sambhaji, Rajaram and Annali Datto were put behind the bars as a result of this action.
Annaji Datto wanted to reassert with the help of rebel Prince Akbar. Sambhaji being
aware of the situation started a policy of suppression. Many of the loyal families like
shrikey took asylum in the court of Mughal. This put the Maratha state in lawlessness.
Sambhaji indulged in drunken state. The army became weak so that it was not
possible for the marathas state to sustain before the mughals.

Aurangzeb, during the first four years of his stay in Deccan tried to suppress the
Marathas with the help of Deccan states. Aurangzeb could not achieve much. By
1684 Aurangzeb, could occupy Golkonda and Bijapur (1686 and 1687)The Marathas
by that time had become more powerful and established a second line of defence in
Karnataka. They had become a formidable Power.

While Aurangzeb was busy in tackling Golkonda and Bijapur, The marathas
devastated the mughal territory from Aurangabad to Burhanpur . Sambhaji's behaviour
caused defection. Mughal prestige was enhanced. Sambhaji was imprisoned and
executed.

After the execution of Sambhaji the Mughals faced resistance from the local chiefs the
nayaks . valamas and deshmukhs. The imposition of Mughal administrative set up
created tension. The displacement of local landed aristocracy the shifting of
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mansabdars from the South, the crisis on Jagir system all created
factional fights between the Deccan and khanazad. It also put pressure
on the Mughal treasury. The extended mughal frontier became
vulnerable to maratha attacks.

Rajaram fled to Pratapgarh . Mughals occupied Raigarh, Panhala. Rajaram withdrew

to jinji. But mughals suffered hardship, could not catch Rajaram .

7.5: THE MARATHAS AND SIDDIS OF JANJIRA:

Shivaji built up his bases at kalyan and Bhivandi after his conquest His naval might
was expanded after his conquest of south Kankan Coast (1661). So he had direct
contact with the siddis of Janjira which was a rocky island 45 miiles to the south of
Bombay.

The siddis were Abyssinians Settled at janjira in 15th century. They got Danda
Rajpuri from Ahamednagar rulers. But after the disruption of Nizam shahi they were
free to act independently After the treaty of 1636 the western coast fell under Bijapur
influence . So there was a clash between the siddis and Bijapur rulers .Finally the
siddis accepted the Subjugation of Bijapur and they served as Wazir. In addition to
that they accepted the territory of Nagotha to Bankot. They promised the Bijapur
rulers to protect Mecca pilgrims at sea . The siddis also had an efficient naval fleet

In their pursuit of Afzal Khan the maratha had conflict with the Siddis in 1659. The
siddis were vassals to Afzal so they supported them . Shivaji sent a Strong Force
under Raghunath Ballal to suppress the Siddis . The Maratha wrested a vast region up
to the Danda sea coast. But the Siddis continued their struggle. By the treaty of
Purandhar the Mughals had agreed to leave Janjir. to the marathas they The
marathas renewed their attacks in 1669-70 and again they failed . After that the naval
force of Siddis was transferred to the Mughals and the Siddis became Mughal
Mansabdars. The siddis recovered Danda, from The marathas(1671) . Shivaji expected
help from the English but failed.

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7.6: MARATHAS, PORTUGUESE AND ENGLISH

After the occupation of the Port of Dabhol the Marathas come in contact
of the English. (Jan 1660) .The relation was straind Marathas demanded
Afzal Khan's Junks to be handed over to them . The Marathas alleged English for
supplying grenades to Bijapur rulers for use against Panhala fort of the Marathas .
Shivaji in october 1670 alleged the English for not supplying arms to the marathas .
When the English failed to pay the indemnity of 100,000 rupees their attempt for
reconcilliation failed . The embassy led by Thomas niccolis sent in 1673 failed . But
later on Henry Oxindon was welcomed . Shivali agreed to buy 50000 ordnances and
guns. The English factorial Rajapur (1675) was reopened, The damage done to the
English factory at Dharangaon in khandesh was to be repaid as the English
demanded. Shivali did not agree and Ralapur factory was closed by Sambhaji on
Decambees-1682

Relation with Portugeese

The maratha portugeese relation was Strained because of the following reasons

1) The support of the Portugese to the siddis of Janjira against Shivaji.

2) The shelter they provided to the desais of South Ratnagiri.

3) The Presence of Shivaji’s forces on the western coast which hindered portugese
trade.

4) Collection of chauth from Daman But the Portugese had no direct elash with shivaji
and portugeese governor did not support them openly when the treaty was renewed

Shivaji agreed not to build any fort in the dominion or frontier . But over the Payment
of chauth the relation god strained in the last part of Shivaji’s reign. After shivaji
death Sambhajit attacked chaul and Goa but he had to withdraw on account of
Mughal pressure

7.7: ADMINISTRATION OF SHIVAJI MARΑΤΗΑ

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CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

Although the Maratha polity was a centralised. autocratic monarchy but

it was an enlightened. One.The hang focussed on the happiness of his
subjects (Raja kalsya karanam )

A council of state ministers Asta pradhana were to assist the king.

Peshwa was the head of civil and military affairs.

Mazumdar ( auditor) - He looked into the income and expenditure of The state

Wakins – He was incharge of king’s private affairs

Dabir- Foreign secretary was known as Dabir

Surnis (superintend ) He used to take care of all official correspondences.

Senapati The commander. in chief was known as Senapati Nyayadhish

the chief Justice was known as Nyayadhish

The Peshwas, majundar Wakins, dabirs also existed under the Deccani rulers

Except Pandit Rao all were asked to lead military campaigns. These offices were
neither hereditary nor permanent. They had to hold offices till the king’s pleasure.
Frequent transfer was also observed. Under the peshwas they assumed hereditary
and permanent character. They were paid by the exchequer. No jagir was granted to
any offices. Though the council could advise the king their decision was not binding

Each of the asta Pradhan was assisted by eight assistants diwan. Majumdar Fadnis,
Sabnis , karkhanis , chitnis , jamadar and potnis

The chitnis were next to the asta Pradhana who dealt with diplomatic correspondences
Letters to provincial and district officere were written by him but fed it was the job of
fadnis to write letter to the commander of fort . The potnis looked after the income
and expenditure of the royal treasury. The Potdar was an assay officer.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

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The country was divided intio mauzas tarfs and Prants. Though these
units existed under the deccanis shivaji reorganize and re named them.
Mauza was the lowest unit Then was the tarfs headed by a havaldar,
karkun or paripatyagar

The Provinces were known as prants which were under subedar , Karkun.

Sarsubedar was functioning over a number of prants He had to supervise the work
of subedars. Each subedar had eight Sabordenate officers. diwan, Mazumdars Fadnis,
Sabins, karkhanis, chitnis Jamadar and potnis

Under Shivaji no officer was permanent and hereditary. But under the Peshwas The
officer of kameavisdar and mamlatdars became permanent. Darkhdars (fee man)
were there to check on other naval and military officers also the mamlatdars could
not dismiss them

Military Organisation:

Forts were constructed by Shivaji In each pragana and taluka He constructed 250
forts In every fort there were a havaldar, a sabnis and a Sarnobat. Big forts had five to
ten tat-sarnovats. The officers were of equal status and rank. They were transferred
freequently which was a system of check and balance on their power. Havldar was in
charge of the keys of the fort. The sabnis controlled the muster roll and dealt with all
government Correspondences He also looked after the revenue estimates of the
Provinces . The sarnobat was in charge of garrisons .Karkhanis took care of grain
stores and other material requirements . They also entered all daily accounts of
Income and expenditure. Although Sabinis were incarge of accounts the orders had to
bear the seal of havldars and karkhani.

Shivaji maintained cavalry and infantry trained in guirella warfare. Shivaji’s infantry
consisted of a 9man headed by a naik. five such unit were under one havldar
Jumbdar was heading two or three Havldars. Jumledar ware under a hazari and
hajaris were under a sarnobat

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Shivaji's cavalry consisted of bargirs and Siledars . The bargirs troopers

ware supplied horses and arms by the State while siledar brought their
own arms over 25 bargir’s was a maratha havaldar Five havadars
formed a Jumla and 10 Jumlas a hazari and five such hazari were
placed under Panch hazari They were under the command of sarnobat . The siledars
were also placed under sarnobat

Shivaji also maintained bodyguards . The watandars supplied forces in time of need.
The soldiers were paid in cash - The wounded soldiers were getting allowances, the
widows got State Pensions

The peshwas established separate artillery department, Under the peshwas the strength
of cavalry increased

Navy:

Shivaji had an adequate naval power. His fleet was equipped with ghurabs ( gon
boat)

Judiciary:

There was no organised judiciary . The civil cases were decided by the Village elders
(parchayat) in Paschayat in patil’s office or in village temple. criminal cases were
decided by patil. Hazirmajalla was the highest court civil and Criminal cases .

7.8: CONCLUSION:

The maratha movement found its Strength in the socio economic formation of that
period. The movement evolved with several factors like control of land exploitation
and desire for upward mobility. The Mughals looked down upon them as chieftain
which gave a blow to them .

7.9: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Discuss the rise of the Maratha power.

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B- Briefly discuss the military organization of Shivaji.

C- Critically examine the relationship of the Marathas with the Portugeese and
the English.

D- Write a note on the Mughal-Maratha relation.

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UNIT-8: EXPANSION OF MARATHA UNDER THE

PESHWAS:

Learning Objectives

After reading theunit you will be able to know

 Balaji Viswanath
 Marathas under Baji Rao, Jay Singh and Madhav Rao
 Decline of the Marathas

Unit Structure

8.1: Introduction

8.2: Balaji Viswanath

8.3: Baji Rao I

8.4: Jay Singh and the Marathas

8.5: Balaji Baji Rao

8.6: Madhav Rao I

8.7: Conclusion

8.8: Sample Questions

8.1: INTRODUCTION:

India's historical narrative unfurls like an intricate tapestry, with its roots tracing
back to the majestic Indus Valley Civilization, a cradle of ancient human
advancement that flourished around 4000 BC. This formidable civilization
sprawled across a vast expanse, surpassing the territorial reach of many
contemporaneous ancient societies. It cultivated remarkable achievements in

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urban planning, trade, and culture, showcasing a level of

sophistication unparalleled in its time.

Central to India's historical saga is the continuous movement of

people, a perpetual flux that has shaped its civilization. Waves of migrations
surged across its landscapes, fostering a kaleidoscope of cultures, languages,
and traditions. This rich amalgamation of diverse ethnicities, religions, and
customs characterizes India's societal fabric, manifesting a remarkable history
of inclusivity and assimilation.

Throughout antiquity, India's ethos resonated with the harmonious coexistence

of various religious beliefs. The landscape of Indian civilization bears witness to
the convergence of myriad faiths and philosophies. Waves of immigrants
integrated seamlessly with local communities, engendering a societal tapestry
where religious differences were often woven into the vibrant mosaic rather
than serving as divisive fault lines. Consequently, ancient Indian society was
remarkably tolerant and accommodating, fostering an environment where
diversity was celebrated rather than viewed as a source of conflict.

However, the dynamics of strain and discord emerged when societal divisions
were stoked by differentiation and discrimination. Historically, these rifts have
posed challenges to the societal structure, leading to periods of tension and
upheaval. While India's historical narrative reflects an overarching spirit of
inclusivity, moments of strain have surfaced when prejudices and biases have
marred the societal fabric, disrupting the harmonious balance nurtured through
ages.

India's historical trajectory bears witness to the ascent and fall of various
dynasties and empires that wielded dominion over its territories. The Indian
subcontinent was governed by diverse groups, each leaving an indelible imprint
on its cultural, political, and socio-economic landscape. These empires,

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spanning different regions and eras, contributed to the

amalgamation and diversification of India's historical legacy.

From the Mauryas and Guptas to the Mughals and the British Raj,
India's history is a narrative woven with the threads of various rulers and
regimes. The ebb and flow of their reigns marked distinct epochs in the annals
of India's past, shaping the country's destiny and leaving an enduring legacy that
resonates through the corridors of time.

India's historical continuum stands as a testament to the resilience and

adaptability of its people, who have weathered the tides of time and emerged
with a cultural mosaic that thrives on diversity. It is a saga of continuous
evolution, where the interplay of migrations, assimilation, and societal
dynamics has sculpted an indelible identity that resonates across epochs.

8.2: BALAJI VISHWANATH:

The Maratha Empire, a pivotal chapter in India's historical tapestry, emerged as

a formidable force between 1674 and 1818. Its genesis lies in the indomitable
spirit of Chhatrapati Shivaji, a visionary leader who rebelled against the
hegemony of the Mughal Empire (1526 to 1857). Establishing his capital at
Raigad in Maharashtra in 1674, Shivaji laid the foundation for a dynasty that
would etch its mark on the annals of Indian history.

The descendants of Shivaji fragmented among themselves, establishing their

respective capitals at Satara and Kolhapur in Maharashtra. Under the rule of
Shahaji, Balaji Vishwanath ascended to the position of the peshwa, the prime
minister of the kingdom. This pivotal appointment marked a turning point,
propelling the Maratha Empire from a modest dominion into a formidable
power in the political landscape of the time.

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At its inception, Shahaji's kingdom was relatively diminutive,

lacking significant influence. However, under the astute leadership
of Balaji Vishwanath, the Maratha Empire rapidly expanded its
sphere of influence. Notably, Vishwanath orchestrated the
ascension of Mughal King Farrukhsiyar to the throne in Delhi, the seat of the
Mughal Empire. This strategic maneuver solidified the Maratha foothold in the
political realm, reshaping the power dynamics of the era.

The political landscape during the era of the peshwas was tumultuous and
marked by volatility. Uncertainty loomed over rulers and their territorial sway.
Within the Mughal domain, a pervasive instability reigned, largely due to the
interference of the Saiyid Brothers. Their capricious actions in making and
unseating rulers destabilized the Mughal Empire, rendering it susceptible to
external influences and internal strife.

Amidst this flux, the Maratha Empire under the leadership of the peshwas
ascended, leveraging the prevailing political uncertainties to consolidate their
power base. The names of various peshwas in this period stand as testament to
their pivotal roles in shaping the course of Maratha history, each leaving an
indelible imprint on the empire's trajectory.

The ascendancy of the Maratha Empire not only signified a shift in regional
power dynamics but also encapsulated the resilience and strategic acumen of its
leaders. Their astute maneuvers, adept navigation of complex political
scenarios, and territorial expansions contributed to the empire's prominence and
endurance over the centuries.

In essence, the Maratha Empire, catalyzed by Shivaji's valor and propelled by

the sagacity of its subsequent leaders, stands as a testament to India's
multifaceted historical narrative. Its legacy persists as a reminder of the intricate

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interplay of power, politics, and resilience that defined an era of

India's storied past.

8.3: BAJIRAO I:

Bajirao I, an iconic figure in the annals of Maratha history, embodies a blend of

strategic brilliance, military prowess, and a legacy marked by both triumphs and
complexities. Born in 1700, Bajirao Ballal, also known as Thorale Bajirao
(Marathi for Elder Bajirao), rose to prominence as a distinguished general
within the Maratha Empire, leaving an indelible imprint on India's historical
landscape.

During his tenure, a series of pivotal events unfolded, defining the trajectory of
the Maratha Empire. Bajirao's enduring legacy rests on his remarkable
expansionist endeavors, particularly in the northern territories. His strategic
campaigns and military acumen played a pivotal role in elevating the Maratha
Empire to its zenith, a pinnacle that materialized two decades after his demise
during the reign of his son.

Among the nine peshwas who wielded influence over the Maratha Empire,
Bajirao stands out as one of the most influential and pivotal figures. His
visionary leadership, coupled with his military brilliance, propelled the empire
to unprecedented territorial heights, consolidating Maratha dominance in
various regions, especially in the north.

One of the intriguing facets of Bajirao's life is his union with Mastani, the
daughter of Rajput King Chhatrasal of Bundelkhand, whose mother hailed from
a Muslim lineage. This marriage, transcending cultural and religious
boundaries, bore testament to Bajirao's open-mindedness amidst the
conservative backdrop of his Brahmin lineage. However, despite Mastani's

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loyalty to the Marathas, his family did not accord her the
recognition and honor she deserved, owing to social and cultural
constraints.

Their union bore fruit in the form of two children, among whom Shamsher
Bahadur emerges as a significant figure. Shamsher Bahadur, who fought
alongside the Marathas in the pivotal Battle of Panipat in 1761, tragically met
his demise on the battlefield. His valor and participation in this historic conflict
epitomize the enduring legacy of Bajirao's lineage, intertwined with the epic
chapters of Maratha history.

The saga of Bajirao I encapsulates not only military triumphs but also
complexities arising from societal norms and cultural clashes. His visionary
exploits in expanding the Maratha Empire, his unconventional marital alliance,
and the subsequent familial dynamics underscore the intricacies of his era,
where personal choices intersected with the broader canvas of political and
social structures.

In essence, Bajirao I's legacy reverberates through the corridors of history, an

embodiment of Maratha valor and expansionism, interwoven with tales of love,
loyalty, and societal constraints. His indomitable spirit and strategic brilliance
continue to echo as a testament to an era of Maratha ascendancy and the
intricate interplay between power, culture, and personal relationships in
historical narratives.

8.4: SAWAI JAY SINGH AND THE MARATHAS:

Sawai Jai Singh II, born in 1688, was not just a ruler but a multifaceted
personality whose life was marked by valor, strategic acumen, and diplomatic
finesse. At the tender age of 12, he inherited the throne after the untimely

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demise of his father. His ascension to power coincided with a

tumultuous period in Indian history, where the Mughal Empire
under Aurangzeb was grappling with internal strife and external
conflicts.

Sent to the Deccan in 1701 under Bidar Bakht, son of Prince Azam, Jai Singh
demonstrated exceptional courage in the Mughal campaign to secure the Khelna
fort from the Marathas. His bravery and leadership during this conquest earned
him recognition and set the stage for his future endeavors.

In 1713, Farrukhsiyar became the emperor, and recognizing Jai Singh's

capabilities, appointed him as the viceroy of Malwa. Placed in a region fraught
with challenges from the Marathas and Afghan soldiers, Jai Singh's exemplary
service to the Mughal ruler was instrumental in maintaining control and stability
in the area. His adept governance and military prowess effectively restrained the
Marathas and Afghans, safeguarding Malwa from falling into their hands.

Despite his commendable efforts in Malwa, the Emperor repeatedly summoned

Jai Singh for diverse duties elsewhere due to pressing issues facing the empire,
such as conflicts with the Saiyid Brothers in Delhi and the Jats near Agra. This
constant redirection of his responsibilities showcased his versatility and loyalty
to the Mughal Empire.

Remarkably, Jai Singh fostered amicable relations with the Marathas,

exemplified by his assistance to Bajirao I in facilitating his mother's pilgrimage
in Mughal territory. The exchange of gifts and friendly gestures between Jai
Singh and Bajirao's family underscored his diplomatic finesse, although this
connection would later have implications in the course of history, notably
during the Panipat III battle in 1761.

Returning to Jaipur after being relieved of his duties in Malwa in 1737, Jai
Singh spent his remaining years governing his capital until his passing in 1743.

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His legacy transcends his tenure, as he was a contemporary of

significant historical events, notably absent from Delhi during
Nadir Shah's devastating sack of the city in 1739.

Sawai Jai Singh II's life epitomizes the intricate tapestry of alliances, conflicts,
and diplomatic maneuvers characterizing the socio-political landscape of 18th-
century India. His strategic vision, military prowess, and adept diplomacy left
an indelible mark on history, shaping the course of events during a period of
significant upheaval in the Indian subcontinent.

8.5: BALAJI BAJIRAO:

Balaji Baji Rao, born in 1720, emerged as a pivotal figure in Maratha history.
Following the demise of Baji Rao I in April 1740, Chhatrapati Shahu appointed
the 19-year-old Balaji as the Peshwa. His ascension marked the beginning of an
era characterized by rapid territorial expansion for the Maratha Empire.

In a mere span of 20 years, Balaji Baji Rao significantly extended Maratha

dominion, encompassing a vast expanse from Tamil Nadu in the south to
Peshawar in modern-day Pakistan in the north, and from Bengal to the
Andaman Islands in the east. This remarkable expansion testified to his strategic
acumen and leadership prowess.

However, the pinnacle of Maratha expansion was met with a sobering setback
in the form of the Battle of Panipat III in 1761, where Ahmad Shah Durrani of
the Afghan Durrani Empire emerged victorious. The defeat bore multiple
reasons, as noted by historians:

1. Unfriendly Territory: The Marathas found themselves battling in

unfamiliar terrain, struggling to procure essential supplies, which severely
hampered their logistical support.

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2. Disagreements and Withdrawals: Differences arose among

Hindu kings regarding Sadashiv Rao's decision to bring
families along for a pilgrimage to the northern battlefield.
This dissent led to the withdrawal of some allies, leaving the
Marathas isolated in their fight.

3. Tactical Maneuvers by Durrani: Ahmad Shah Durrani strategically

divided his forces into various groups, orchestrating coordinated attacks
from multiple directions, overwhelming the Marathas.

4. Devastating Losses: The battle resulted in a catastrophic toll on the

Maratha forces, with approximately 70,000 soldiers slaughtered and
30,000 taken prisoner for ransom. Under pressure due to shortages of
food and supplies in hostile territory, Sadashiv Rao had to abandon
entrenched positions, exposing his troops to the well-defended positions
of Durrani.

Balaji Baji Rao, after the tragic defeat at Panipat, passed away in the same year,
leaving a significant legacy. He was succeeded by Madhav Rao, inheriting a
realm in turmoil yet resilient.

Apart from military conquests, the Maratha Empire's maritime strength was a
crucial aspect, safeguarding its extensive coastline. Commanders like Kanhoji
Angre played pivotal roles in securing these shores, effectively warding off
invasions from foreign naval powers, notably the Portuguese and the British.
Their prowess in naval defense ensured the territorial integrity and security of
the Maratha Empire's coastal regions.

Balaji Baji Rao's legacy remains intertwined with the contrasting narratives of
triumphs in expansion and the sobering defeat at Panipat, illustrating the
complex tapestry of triumphs and setbacks that defined the Maratha Empire's
trajectory during this tumultuous period of Indian history.

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8.6: MADHAV RAO I:

The Battle of Panipat in 1761 served as a pivotal moment in the

history of the Maratha Empire, halting their unprecedented and seemingly
magical expansion across India. The defeat at Panipat was a significant setback,
casting a shadow over the Maratha ascendancy. However, ten years after this
tragic event, a capable and visionary leader, Madhav Rao I, emerged as the
Peshwa, steering the Marathas toward recovery.

Madhav Rao I, despite his youth, displayed exceptional leadership and strategic
prowess. Within a decade of the catastrophic defeat at Panipat, he orchestrated a
remarkable resurgence for the Marathas. His astute governance and military
acumen reinstated Maratha authority over North India, a testament to his
remarkable abilities and the resilience of the Maratha Empire.

However, the promising resurgence under Madhav Rao I was tragically short-
lived. His untimely demise at the tender age of 27 dealt a severe blow to the
Maratha Empire. The loss of such a capable and visionary leader ultimately
sealed the fate of Maratha glory.

Following Madhav Rao I's passing, subsequent Peshwas struggled to match his
strategic brilliance and leadership. The vacuum left by Madhav Rao's death
created a power struggle and internal conflicts within the Maratha leadership.
Moreover, the growing strength and strategic advancements of the British East
India Company posed formidable challenges that the succeeding Peshwas were
ill-equipped to counter.

The absence of a unifying and visionary leader like Madhav Rao I significantly
weakened the Maratha Empire. As the British East India Company capitalized
on their strategies, advancements in military tactics, and political maneuvering,

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the Marathas found themselves increasingly outmatched. The

ensuing years witnessed the gradual erosion of Maratha power and
influence, paving the way for British dominance in India.

8.7: CONCLUSION:

Madhav Rao I's brief but impactful tenure stands as a testament to the potential
and resilience of the Maratha Empire. His ability to revive Maratha authority
following the devastation of Panipat showcased the empire's inherent strength.
However, his premature death marked the beginning of the decline, as
subsequent leadership struggled to replicate his achievements, ultimately
leading to the gradual decline and subjugation of the once-mighty Maratha
Empire under the growing influence of the British East India Company.

8.8: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Discuss the position of the Marathas under Jay Singh.

B- What were the crucial factors responsible for the defeat of the Marathas in
Panipat?

C- Write a note on Balaji Viswanath.

D-Write a note on Baji Rao I.

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BLOCK-03

SOCIETY AND ECONOMY

UNIT-9: Land rights and Revenue system:

Zamindars and Peasants

UNIT-10: Trade Routes and patterns of Internal

Commerce; over-seas trade

UNIT-11: Urban Centres

UNIT-12: Craft and Technology

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UNIT-9: LAND RIGHTS AND REVENUE SYSTEM:

ZAMINDARS AND PEASANTS

Unit Structure

9.1: Introduction

9.2: Methods of Land Revenue

9.3: Limitations of Zabti System

9.4: Revenue Farming

9.5: Relief Measures

9.6: Land Revenue Administration

9.7: Conclusion

9.8: Sample Questions

9.1: INTRODUCTION:

Zamindars and peasants alienation from the peasants of his surplus produce in
the form of land revenue was the central feature of the agrarian system .British
administrative viewed that King was the owner of the land .So land revenue was
the rent of the soil .According to Abul Fazal, the imposition of taxes was
remuneration of sovereignty paid in return for protection and justice.

The Persian term for revenue was mal and mal wazile.

The two stages that was involved in the land revenue collection were

a) Assessment

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b) Actual collection. Assessment was necessary to fix the demand

and on the basis of this demand actual collection was made which
was separate for Rabi and Kharif crops.

9.2: METHODS OF LAND REVENUE:

Assessment was separately made for Kharif and Rabi crops .A written
document Patta, qual or qual quarar was issued .The amount or rate of the land
revenue was mentioned there. The assesse was to give quabliyat which was the
acceptance of the obligation imposed upon him .It also stated when and how he
would pay.

The methods were

1) Ghalla Bakshi (Crop-sharing)

It was also known as bhaoli or batai.in some area .According to Ain-i-Akbar,

three types of crop sharing were there.

Division of Crop at the threshing floor both parties had to agree and this was
done in presence of both the parties.

2) Khet Batai-

The share was decided when the crop was standing in the field .A division of
the field was marked.

3) Lang Batai-

When the crop was cut and stacked in heaps without separating grain, division
of crops was made.

In his work Nigarnama-i-Munshi Malikzada has described crop sharing as the

best method of revenue assessment and collection .This was advantageous
because the peasants an the state shared the risks of the seasons equally but as
misappropriation was apprehended, a large number of watchman had to be
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appointed before harvesting .During Aurangzeb’s reign this

implementation doubled the crops.

Kankut/Danasbandi:

The word Kankut which is derived from the word Kan and Kut which means the
grain and the estimate or appraisal respectively .In the same way Dana means
grain while bandi means fixing or determining anything. It was a system where
yielding was estimated .In Kankut,the field was measured by means of a rope or
by pacing .But in the later period the per bighas productivity was estimated
from good,middle and bad land and the demand was fixed .

Zabti:

This was the best method of assessment which took its origin in the reign of
SherShah and Akbar revised it several times before it took the final shape.

Sher Shah established a Rai or per bigha yield of lands those were under
cultivation .Those land which very rarely fallow. The rai was based on three
rates, good, middle and low yields. One third of the yields and sum of these was
appropriated as land revenue .Akbar who followed this system also
experimented Karori and Karoris were appointed in entire North India in 1574-
75.The entire jagir was converted into khalisa .Akbar also introduced a new
system Ain Dahsala which was on the basis of information provided by the
Karoris regarding produce .

Local prices, productivity etc. in 1560.The average produce of different crops as

well as the prices of the products prevailing in last ten years was calculated .The
state had its minimum share which was one third of the produce under Karori
experiment .Measurement of all provinces took place .Bamboo rods and iron
rings known as tasab were used .The divisions took place on the basis of
productivity into dastur circles. At first, the rate of assessment in cash for each
crop in every dastur was decided and accordingly the demand was fixed.
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The main features of Zabti which came into operation in Akbars

period were

1) Measurement of land which was essential

2) To fix the cash revenue rates known as Dasturamal or Dastur for each crop

3) Collection were to be made in cash

The merits of Zabti system were

1) Measurement could always be rechecked

2) Local officials could not use their discretion due to fixed revenue .Due to the
fixed permanent Dastur. The uncertainties and fluctuation in levying the land
revenue demand was reduced to a great extent.

9.3: THE LIMITATIONS OF ZABTI SYSTEM:

1) It could not be applied when the quality of the soil was not uniform.

2) This method was disadvantageous to the peasants because there was no

certainty of the yields and the risks were to be borne by themselves.

3) The method was also expensive as a cess of one dam per bigha was given to
meet the costs towards the maintain ace of the measuring party .

4) There was possibility of fraud practice in recording the measurement.

The Zabti system was adopted in the core region of the empire like in the
provinces of Delhi, Allahbad, Awadh, Agra, Lahore and Multan. But sometimes
other methods were also practised depending on the circumstances

Nasaq-was not an independent method for assessment as it was subordinate to

other methods. It was a process adopted irrespective of the method of revenue
assessment and collection in force .In north India it was Nasaqui Zabti while in
Kashmir it was nasaqi ghalla bakhshi.

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During measurement the previous figure were also taken into

account with some variations. Due to the need for annual
measurement being essential in Zabti system, the administrators
and payers both wanted to replace it.So Zabti Dahsela or annual
measurement was set aside with some modification.

9.4: REVENUE FARMING (IJARA):

Ijara or revenue farming was another feature of this time .It was disapproved by
the Mughals but in practice certain villages were sometimes farmed out. The
villages where peasants did not have resources or they faced clarity, Ijara
practice was adopted .The revenue officials or their relatives were not supported
to take land on Ijara. It was expected that the revenue farmers would not extract
more than the stipulated land revenue from the peasant’s .But in practice it was
not followed.

It was mostly common in the Jagir lands where revenue

assignees(Jagirdars)formed out their assignments in lieu of a lump of payment
generally to highest bidder .Sometimes Jagirdars sub assigned part of these
Jagirs to his subordinates /troopers .In 18th century the Ijara system become a
common method of revenue assessment .

Magnitute of Land revenue:

There was not limits set up for the demand of the labour as Abul Fazl states
.According to Aurangzeb land revenue should be appropriated according to
Shariat i.e. not more than one half of the total produce.Pelssert, The European
travellers observed that the extraction was so much that the peasants were left

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with merely dry bread.Irfan Habib also states that revenue demand
with other taxes was a burden on peasantry.

Sher Shah had fixed the revenue demand as 1/3rd of the average of
three crops. Which was lowest according to Abul Fazal .The revenue demands
under the Mughals were 1/3rd to ½ of the produce and sometimes to 3/4th of the
produce .It varied from suba to suba .In Kashmir it was one third in theory but
in practice it was 2/3rd of the produce .Akbar ordered that it must not exceed one
third or a fourth part of the total produce.

For Ajmer, the rate was different .In fertile region of eastern Rajasthan it was
one third to one half of the produce .In the desert region it was 1/7 th or 1/8th as
pointed out by Abul Fazal on the basis of Ain-I-Akbari .But there is no such
evidence .Even in Jaisalmer one fifth was collected for Ravi crop and 1/4 th for
Kharif crop.

In central India it varied from ½ to 1/3rd and even up to 2/5th .In Deccan ½ of the
produce was extracted from ordinary, 1/3rd from those irrigated by wells and
1/4th from high grade crops.

Aurangzeb ordered that the authorities should extract ½,1.3 rd or 2/5th in case of
distressed peasantry .It was higher than that of Akbar because there was a
general rise in agricultural prices but no change in the pitch of demand .

Rajasthan witnessed the variations in revenue rates on the basis of caste or class
of revenue payers .According to Sati’s Chandra and Dil Bagh Singh, the
Brahamanas and Banias in a certain pargana of Rajasthan were offered
concession in revenue rate.

So, the revenue was ½ to 1/3rd since the revenue was imposed per unit of area
“uniformity”. So those who possessed large lands felt tax burden than who
possessed less lands.

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Mode of payment:

During the Mughal era in Zabti system the revenue was paid in
cash .There was not provision for commutation of cash into kind in
any circumstances .But under crop sharing and Kankut, Commutation into cash
was permitted at market prices .Cash nexus was established in every part of the
empire.

Collection of land revenue:

Except Ghalla Bakshi where the state share was seized directly from the field,
others system allowed to collect during harvest.

According to Abul Fazl, for Rabi collection was to be made from holi and for
Kharif from Dushera But for other collection the official should not delay.

The Ravi harvest was gathered within a short period .Before the harvest was cut
and removed ,the revenue was to be collected by the authorities .The peasants in
17th century were prevented to harvest until they did not pay the revenue .It
might be a bad practice but to ensure a well develop money economy, it would
have followed .

The revenue collector or amil usually deposited the revenue in the treasury.
Akbar instructed to pay the revenue themselves.Todarmal also argue to follow
the practice and find a receipt. Abul Fazl says it was followed to avoid fraud
and embezzlement.

9.5: RELIEF MEASURES:

Sher Shah declared that concessions may be granted during assessment but not
at collection as Tarikh-i-Shershahi states. It is also evident from Aurangzeb’s
Farman that no concession or remission was granted after the crop was cut out.

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But in case of bad harvest, there was some provision for relief .In
Ghalla Bakshi and Kankut, a rise and fall in states share was
observed depending upon current harvest. In Zabti relief was given
excluding the area designated nabud from assessment.

It was observed that always there was an arrear which was in balance and to be
collected next year .Aurangzeb issued a hash-ul hakim in 1674A.D. to check
this practice in Khalisa and Jagir lands arguing that no peasant could be held
responsible for the arrears contracted by other.

Taqvi lands were granted to enable peasants to bury seeds and cattle.Todar Mal
argued to grant this loans to peasants in distress. These were paid in advance
through Muquaddams and Chaudhuris.Abul Fazl stated to recover it slowly
.New wells were dug up and old ones were repaired for extension and
improvement in cultivation.

9.6: LAND REVENUE ADMINISTRATION:

There is scanty information regarding Jagir lands because Jagirdars were

transferred every two or three years and had no information.

Three types of officials were found

.1) Officials and agents of Jagirdars

2) Permanent local officials most of them were hereditary who were not
affected by transfers of Jagirdars.

3) Imperial officials who helped and controlled the Jagirdars.

The revenue officers at the rural levels were

Karori-Karori were appointed in 1574-75 whose charge was assessment and

collection .But during Shah Jahans period amins were appointed for assessment
and Karoris were in the collection charge.

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Karoris were appointed by Diwan of the province .He had to look

after the interest of the peasantry .Village Patwaris papers made
enable to study the accounts of the actual collection of the Karoris .

Amin-

The office of Amin was created during Shah Jahans rewign.Assessment of

revenue was his main function .He was also appointed by Diwan .For the safe
transit of the collected revenue he was responsible jointly with the Faujdar and
Karori . Faujdar kept a vigilant eyes on the activities of the Karori and Amin
“He also recommended their promotion.

Qanungo-

He being the local revenue officer of the Parganas, generally belonged to the
accountant castes. Though it was a hereditary post, an imperial order was
required for nomination of each new person.

Nigarnama-i-Munshi-

He held the Qanungo responsible for mal practices who had no fear of transfer.

Chaudhari-

He was the leading zamindar of the locality .Collection was his main duty .He
also stood surety for the lesser zamindars .He stood surely for the repayment of
Taqvi loans.

Shiqdar-

He was in charge of revenue collection and maintained law and order under
Sher Shah. But in Akbar’s period he was subordinate under Karori.

Muquaddam and Patwari-

Those two were village levied officials .Muquaddam was the village headman
.He was allowed 2.5% of the total revenue collected by him .The Patwari was to
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maintain the records of the village lands .The holdings of the

individual cultivators, the crops growth and details of fallow land.
The names of the cultivators were entered on the bahi on basis of
which necessary papers were prepared and records for assessment
and collection was carried out.

Faujdar and Khazandar-

They were appointed in each Pargan under Sher Shah on maintained Hindi
records and other Persian but Persian became the sole language for accounts in
1583-84.

Faujdar-

Faujdar represented military or policy power of the government .He helped the
Jagirdar or Amin on collection of revenue from zortalab (refractory) zamindars
and peasants

Waqal navis, sawanih nigar (laws writers) were in charge of reporting

irregularities and oppression to the centre.

9.7: CONCLUSION:

Land revenue was the main source of income in Mughal period .A number of
system was introduced like Zabti .A number of officers were appointed on the
whole system .Measures were taken to stop corruption .Loans were also given
as relief measures .

9.8: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Write a short note on Muquaddam or Patwari.

B-Discuss land revenue administration.

C-Critically examine relief measures.

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D-Analyse the magnitude of land revenue.

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UNIT-10: TRADE ROUTES AND PATTERNS OF

INTERNAL COMMERCE; OVER-SEAS TRADE

Learning Objectives

After reading the unit you will be able to know

 What is inland and interregional trade

 Coastal trade
 What were the different trade routes

Unit Structure

10.1: Introduction

10.2: Inland Trade

10.3: Interregional Trade

10.4: Coastal Trade

10.5: Trade Routes

10.6: Conclusion

10.7: Sample Questions

10.1:INTRODUCTION:

Trade in agricultural products had started since long back and it was a revival in
the Mughals Period. It started from the field itself and the transaction of craft
products also started from artisan's household. The trades in various levels were
noticed were local, regional, inter - regional and outside the country.

The reasons of the trade, gained a new dimension with enhanced production the
political Stability. Entry of Europeans was also another factor. The Portuguese
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had already Settled in India by early 16th century. The French,

Dutch and English participated in 17th century.

10.2: INLAND TRADE:

The land revenue which was realized in cash denoted that the surplus
agricultural Produce Was sold. Mostly the banjaras or the traditional merchants
purchased it. They also sold it in nearly by towns and Villages. In every villages
or towns rice, sugar, butter, milk and daily needs were available. Even shroff
were there, who were money exchangers.

Nearby every locality there was a hat or penth where People gathered to buy
their daily needs or specific goods. These hat an penth were periodic markets
which were held on fixed days in a week

Apart form food grain and Salt tools of iron and wood were also available in the
markets & as evident from different sources, markets were held almost in every
praganas. Instance of Jaunpur is found in the writing of Banarasi Das where
there were 52 Praganas and 52 markets.

The local trading centers were linked with bigger commercial Centers. The
bigger commercial centers served as nodal centers of all commodities like the
markets in Suba which were the headquarters. These were also administrative
headquarters. Some towns which Served as trading centers and headquarter
were Patna, Ahemadabad, Surat, Delhi, Agra etc. These Centres were also
serving as emporis for inter regional and foreign trade, Some of these citiess
had separate markets for Specific commodities.

The income accruing to a town from commercial taxes levied was of high
amount. Even one street only had shops of all kinds of commodities like Goa as
described by J. Linschoten. The cities had large number of merchants brokers,
etc. Sarais were also there for the convenience of merchants.

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In the big centers were the found the commodities form different
centers.

10.3: INTER REGIONAL TRADE:

Trade between different regions of India were developed. Goods from one Place
were carried to other Places. Food grains, various types of textiles, weapons
were the main commodities of inter-regional trade.

Hugli was one of the main trade Centre though other center had also trade
relations with different regions which where Dacca, Mursidabad, Malda etc.
Bengal supplied food grains to all parts of the country. Rice and sugar from
patna was brought to all parts of the country. Textiles from all parts of India like
Bihar, Banaras and Jaunpur were brought to Bengal. The Bengal textiles were
available in Patna, Ahmadabad. The silk manufacture in Gujarat and Bihar was
dependent on Bengal for raw silk and these were exported to abroad also,
Saffron from Kashmir was also available in Bengal and Bihar. Bengal had trade
link with Agra, Banaras etc.

Textiles from south, north and the eastern Parts of India made there way to the
commercial centers of west like the Ahmadabad and Surat. The textiles were
bleached and dyed for onwards sale. The silk manufactured in Gujarat from the
raw silk of Bengal was taken to the north. The spices were exported from
Malalar coast to Gujarat. Textiles from Gujarat were taken to Lahore and
Multan, Sarkhaj indigo and lac from Bengal were sent to Gujarat. Trade in large
scale was carried on between the towns of Gujarat, Konkan and Malabar.

Agra received large quantities from Bangle Gujarat region received carpet and
textiles form Awadh region, Markets of north, west and east India received
Saffron, wood Products, fruits and woollen shawls from Kashmir.

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Bengal Indigo were sold in Masulipatan. Pepper and spices of

Malabar coast were sold in Bijapur, coromandal, konkan coast and
the Gujarat tobacco from Masulipatam Was taken to Bengal.
Diamond from Golkunda mines were taken to Bengal.

Minerals and metals were taken to all Parts of India. Salt from Rajasthan and
Punjab was also taken to all parts of India. Gwalior, Rajasthan, Sindh:
Produced. Iron Steel was produced in Cutch in Gujarat, some places in Deccan
and south India. Copper was produced in Rajasthan, Bihar and Sindh.
Rajasthan and pasts of north India is procured Saltpeter.

10.4: COASTAL TRADE:

One of the reasons for interregional trade conducted through the sea route was
long distance and slow moving transport. The eastern coast had also trading
operations. The trading operation were carried on in different ways. Piracy war
rampant on the western coast. So most of the traffic was conducted through
conveys. Boats ladden with copper, zinc, tin, chitz came from Coromandel coast
to the coastal towns of Bengal. Coromandel coast received copper, mercury,
cinnabar, peppers etc from Gujarat and spices from Malabar. Coastal towns also
had links with Coromandel and Malabar Coast. Cloth, food stuffs, iron, Steel
brought from Vijayanagar and Golkunda were supplied to Bengal.

Foreign Trade

During 16th and 17th centuries, the coming of Europeans gave a new direction
to the foreign trade although it had started since long back. Exports of goods
were made in large scale.

Ex Posts

Textiles, saltpeter and Indigo formed the major share of Indian exports. Among
the other commodities were sugar, opium, spices.

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Textiles

Textiles were carried to central Asia, Persia and Turkey by the

main purchasers who were the Mughals, Khorasanis, Iragis and
Armenians before the coming of Europeans. From 17th centuries on words the
Dutch and English concentrated on Indian textiles. The Cotton varieties were
baftas, samanis, calico, Khairabadi, Dariabadi, Ambesty, quamkhani etc and
Muslim and others clothes. Cotton textiles form Eastern coast were also
procured. Among the most favorable items were chintz. Among carpet
importing territories were Gujarat, Jaunpur and Bengal.

Silk clothes were exported from Gujarat and Bengal. There was demand for
cotton and silk yarn was also seen. The famine of 1630 in Gujarat affected the
supply. But after 1650 the east coast was also explored. The Dutch demand was
also high. So the large scale textile exports were evident.

Saltpeter

Saltpeter was one of the important ingredients for making gunpowder. Although
in 16th century there was no references to the export of 16th century, In the 17th
century the Dutch and English started exporting it from coromandel. In the
Second half of with century Bihar became the most important supplier and
Bihar as well as Orissa also supplied it. After 1658 the English were procuring
more than 25,000 mounds of Saltpeter per year from Bengal Ports. The Dutch
and English demand for it continued and became much higher gradually.

Indigo

Punjab, Sindh and Gujarat were well known for producing Indigo for blue dye.
The indigo from Sarkhej (Gujarat) and Bayana (Agra) were much in demand
for exports. Indigo was also supplied to Persian Gulf from Gujarat and Aleppo
markets from Lahore prior to its supply to Europe.

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In the last quarter of 16th century the Portuguese started the supply
of indigo. There was a competition among the Dutch, English,
Persian, and Armenians to procure this commodity which
continued to increase in the following years.

Other commodities

Among the other commodities were opium Bengal sugar, Turmeric, gingers and
aniseed. The main source of supply of opium was Bengal and Bihar. Bengals
sugar was taken by Dutch and English companies. Turmeric, ginger and
Aniseed were exported by Armenians.

Large scale trading operations were conducted between the ports of Gujarat and
Indonesian Archipelago . Cotton textiles were taken to Indonesia. and spices
were brought in return. The cotton cloth and chintz from India were in great
demand. Later on textiles were also taken to Indonesian islands.

Imports

The Imports of a few commodities were listed . Silver was imported to finance
the Purchases of European companies and other merchants from different parts
of Europe and Asia . Copper, lead and Mercury were other imported
commodities. Silk and Porcelain farm china were imported to India . Among
the imported items form persia were wine & carpets and perfumes . The
aristocrats in India also imported cut glass , watches , silver utensils , wollen
cloths and small weapons from Europe . Musk was less brought from Nepal and
Bhutan. Borax was imposed form Tibet and Nepal , Iron and food grains were
supplied to the hill regions .

10.5: TRADE ROUTES:

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Inland Trade Routes.

By the beginning of 17th century . the Mughal emperors had

established a network of trade routes . The roads were looked after
by the chieftains of the state through which it passed . It was observed that the
rivers had also obstructed the trade ruter. Bridges were built and maintained by
state or nobles But sometimes like in the rainy Season, the roads were in bad
condition. Kosminarfs were the towers provided to tell the distances travelled.

There were also sarais for the convenience of merchant and travellers where
they could halt. Big Sarais had also provision for storage of goods.

Some important trade routes were

Agra Delhi-Kabul route

Ludhiana - Fatehpur - Lahore

Agra - Burhanpur Surat

Surat Ahmedabad Agra

Agra-Patna-Bengal Route

Rules for foreign trade

Foreign merchants travelled through overland as well as overseas

Overland Route

The overland route of this period was ‘great silk route. The great Silk route lee
beginning from Bejing Passed through control Asia via Kashi ghar, Samarkand
Balkh and kabul. This route also connected the hintertand and Lahore. It passed
through Multan , Quandahar Baghdad and after crossing the Euphrates it
reached Aleppo . The commodities Taken to Europe by ships.

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Over Seas Rocete

The sea routes from Arabians Sea and Bay of Bengal were
frequently used . The sea routes were

From cambay, Surat, Thatta to The Persian Gulf and Red sea.

From the other Parts like Dabhor, Cochin, Calicut to Adan and Mocha At
Mocha .certain commodities were carried via Red sea and then through
overland route to Alexeranderia via Cairo . With the rounding of Cape of Good
hope, there were new opening and no more they depended on Alexandria or
Aleppo bout directly deat with india and South Asian countries.

Means of Transport

Land Transports

Oxen were used as peck animals to carry load or their backs . The grain
merchants even travelled with 10,000-20,000 Pack animals in one caravan
called tanda . The banjaras and other merchants also used - Oxen could carry
four mounds . the cart could carry 40 mounds and they travelled for long days .
camels were used in Western part of India and carried goods to Persia and centrl
Asia on high mountains mules and hill Ponies ware used to carry loads.

River Routes

River Routes were used in Bengal and Sindh. There was regular traffic of goods
between Agra and Bengal through boats . The Boats carried goods from Agra
via Yamuna Joined Ganga at Allahabad and went to Bengal . 2000 boats were
own these at another at Rajmahal ‘Patella’ ( flat boat) which were plying
between Patna and Hugli were carrying even 200 tons of load, The boat sailing
in the direction of the flow of river travelled faster River transport was cheaper
also .

Administration and Trade

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The Mughal emperors encouraged trade and it is known that they

offered concessions to the merchants also . The policies of the
emperors regarding trade changed from time to time .

Jahangir abolished customs on the trade with Kabul and Quan dahar. During
the famine of Gujarat, customs on a number of commodities were remitted .
Aurangzeb also during his accession in 1659 abolished taxes on food stuffs .
The British, Dutch and French procured royal orders for carrying merchandise
without paying transit dues . Aurangzeb is known to abolish all road tolls :
According to the decrees, the trade Polices of the emperor was liberal.

Attitude of the Administrators

The provincial Governors, custom officers were not in favour of liberal

policies"

They sometimes appropriated the tax duties . They themselves were engaged in
trade and monopolised the trade also.

Prince shuhja was keen trade . Mir Jumla , a high noble tried to establish his
monopoly in Bengal I though the English tried to resist if in the early stage.

Later on they agreed to procure all saltpetre supply ley hem - Shaisla Khan also
forced the English to sell him all goods and silver and assured them free supply
of soltpetre His Son Buzrug umed khan also had extensive overseas trade.The
subordinate officers also were indulged in trade and there continued a coercion

10.6: CONCLUSION:

At the local and regional level and the commercial or trading transactions were
confined to food grains, cloth, salt, equipment’s of daily use and other
commodities. Hats or penths were the local markets small town markets also .
played a role in transactions Trade links were developed in different regions.

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Emperors also took interest in traders but sometimes it caused harm

to the traders.

10.7: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Write a short note on river route.

B- Discuss coastal trade in detail.

C- What do you understand by interregional trade? Explain.

D- Write a note on inland trade.

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UNIT-11 URBAN CENTES

Objectives:
After reading the unit you will be able to understand

 Urban landscape under the Mughals

 Composition of population
 Significant reasons for the development of cities

UNIT STRUCTURE:

11.1: Introduction

11.2: Urban Landscape under the Mughals

11.3: Composition of Population

11.4: Urban Life

11.5: Conclusion

11.6: Sample Questions

11.1: INTRODUCTION

India was comprised of many villages before the arrival of Muslim invaders. After the
advent of Mughals the rulers developed Urban centres in town across India. This
development of the cities like Administrative hubs, commercial cities, pilgrimage
centre were due to the were caused due to the stability in political system and strong
economic system.

11.2: URBAN LANDSCAPE UNDER THE MUGHALS

The towns and cities had fortification with one or more gates. The cities outgrew their
walls gradually. In the description of John Jourdan has described as about Agra in the
beginning of 17th century.

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He states the city is 12 courses long by the river sides which is above 16
miles and at the narrowed place. It is three miles broad. It is walled but
the suburbs are Joined to the Walls, that were if not for the gates and one
could not know within the walls or without. The nobles or princes built
their mansions or gardens outside the gates of the town. in many cities Delhi, Agra,
Patna, Ahmadabad and Allahbad these settlements developed as suburbs. Most of the
towns had number of markets. Many of these markets specialized in a number of
commodity. The names of the areas were according to their speciality like Loha Gali
(Iron markets) Cheenitole ( Sugar Market) nil para (Indigo Market) dal mandi (
market for pulses) .Sabun Katha (Soap market).

The Residential area were known as mahalla were often identified by the
professional groups that resided there. The examples are mahalla kunjrah Machiwara
Mahalla zargaran (goldsmiths) Kucha rangrezan (dyers). Some towns were known as
names of influential men resided there.

Another significant factor was Presence of Sarais. The Sarais were halting places of
merchants or travellers. Delhi, Agra, Ahmadabad had sarais. The nobles, royal ladies,
big merchants or the state constructed sarais. The travellers were provided with
amenities like storage space to stock merchandise. The Keepers of Sarais were known
as bhatiyaras who were keepers of sarais. The foreigners who visited the towns were
required to inform the city administration about there arrival and departure.

But there was no detailed Planning in any of the towns. Except the main street other
lanes were muddy. The city had its own administrative rules and regulations.

11.3: COMPOSITION OF POPULATION

The People residing in the towns can be classified into various categories like

1) The nobles, officials of the state and troops

2) persons engaged in mercantile activates

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3) People involved with religious establishments, musicians, painters,

poets, physicians etc.
4) Artisans, menials and workmen.

The nature of towns depended on the people residing there. The

administrative headquarters composed of nobles, retainers and troops of king. The
provincial governors, high nobles and other administrative officers all had their
contingents, servants and Slaves.

The mercantile community had an important place in the Town and Cities.
Ahmadabad was an illustrious example where there were 84 caste and sub castes of
merchants. In big towns all the roads were lined with shops. In Jodhpur more than 600
shops were owned by Mahajan.

The people having the Professions of medicine, leaning, literature, art and music also
constituted an important group. The religious and charitable grants were given in the
vicinity of towns. Money could be earned on the patronage of kings and nobles.

Another biggest group was artisans, workmen and labourers. The people working in
different craft may be divided in to different groups.

1) Artisans working in Karkhanas of the kings and nobles also working in

building constructions.
2) There was a large workforce of semiskilled and unskilled workers who could
assist artisans or work force.

A number of workmen were employed as domestic help and daily wage labourers.

URBAN DEMOGRAPHY

According to Tabaqoat-i-Akbari, during Akbar’s period there were 120 big cities and
3200 qasbas (small towns). Irfan Habib says around 15% of population during
Mughal era lived in towns.

11.4: URBAN LIFE

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The upper strata lived a life akin to royal life, the urban Poor found it
difficult to achieve the bare subsistence level. They had to Struggle to
for a penny also. But the nobles were dressed richly. The Hindu nobles
dressed like their Muslim Counter Parts. The Brahmanas put tilak on
their forehead and Rajput wore earrings. lower class were scantily clothed. The
average monthly wage of the urban workers ranged from Rs 3 to 4 as stated by Ain-i-
Akbari.

The standard of unskilled workers was letter in the early part of 19th century than in
later Part. The lower ranks mansabdars, Physician were prosperous. The intellectuals
were poor and depended upon their patrons. The nobles and Other middle class led a
luxurious life which caused their decline. However noble helped to develop craft
Production, The investment on craft production was large.

The development of cities were due to significant reasons:

The economic activities converted small towns into big cities which helped in urban
growth because in the cities trade and commerce dominated agriculture. and urban
economy was the main factor.

The influences of administrative political classes also contributed for urbanisation.

Mughal had the regulation of markets. They levied tax duties on imports and
exports.

Urban centres expanded with the passage of time which was generated by the towns
in various dimensions in the economic system and Political system, in social network
and in the minds of the people who lived in particular area.

when Babur arrived in India cities existed. The urban Progress was higher in the
western Parts of India Ain-i-Akbari Provides list of industry cities like Agra, Delhi,
Fatehpur, Jaunpur etc.

Imperial Factories of Mughal India also attracted urbanisation, According to Abul

Fazal Akbar maintained a number of factories. After the conquest of Bengal and

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Gujrat Akbar took up urbanisation After the inception of Mansabdari

system also garrisons were converted into towns

The major cities were Coastal cities-cambay, Broach, Surat, Calicut.

Defense lines - Attack, sehwan, Thatta, Kobul

Industrial and commercial towns

Lahore, Multan, Gujrat, Sialkot, Sultanpur, Hosiarpur, Faridabad, Delhi, Kishangarh.

Delhi

It was one of the populous cities remained capital for centuries. It was a trading
centre of cloth and known for various commodities. It was a source for attraction of
traders, travellers and tourist.

Agra

"It was both a religious and Political centre It was a grand market of cotton,
carpet, salt, animal. it was a centre of attraction for local and international traders.

Kabul

It was an ancient town known for its trade activities. It had both commercial
and strategic importance. It led to central Asia like Badak shan, Balkh and Kashghar.

Allahabad

The ancient name of the city was Parag. Emperor Akbar named it Allahabas
after constriction of a fort in the city. Shahjahan renamed it as Allahabad.

Lahore

Akbar made Lahore the capital city of Hindustan deu to his north west frontiers
policy, He gave orders to repair and enlarge Lahore fort. The town situated near it
grew rapidly in area and Population

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Ahmadabad

Ahmadabad was a center of national and international trade.

Population was also dense here. The Bohra Bankers were known for
their wealth markets of indigo, Saltpeter and cotton were established in
Ahmadabad. Asians, Armenians , Persians merchants invested money there.

Khambhat

It became a main Port of Gujarat when Akbar conquered It in 1572 A.D.

Surat

Surat was another coastal city of Mughal India. It attain its prominence in
Jahangir period Most of the labour of mint Industry of the Ahmadabad were shifted to
Surat. All the commodities and slaves were also coming here from Bruhanpur.

Bruhanpur

It was named after the holy saint Burhan ud- den Darvaish. This town was
founded on the bank of river Tapti in 1401 AD. It acted as a gateway to Decan and
garrison area.

Thatta

It was situated in the west bank of river Indus.

Aurangabad

Aurangzeb laid the foundation of Aurangabad.

11.5: CONCLUSION

Urban process was in tall swing before the arrival of English Companies. the support
of local corporate structure gave a way to foreign merchants after reducing their
duties. The emperor developed a network with artisans’ and craftsmen. Urban history

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gave fresh look to Indian towns origin of communalism, Nationalism

and Poverty may be traced to the development of urbanisation.

11.6: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Briefly discuss commercial towns.

B- What were the significant reasons for the development of cities?

C- Write a note on the categorization of people living in towns.

D- Discuss urban landscapes under the Mughal empire.

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UNIT-12: CRAFT AND TECHNOLOGY:

After reading the unit you will be able to understand

 Mughal urban centres

 Craft production
 Major factors led to the growth of arts

Unit Structure

12.1: Introduction

12.2: Urban Centres

12.3: Craft Production in Mughal India

12.4: Factors Contributing to the Growth of Arts

12.5: Science and Technology

12.6: Conclusion

12.7: Sample Questions

12.1: INTRODUCTION:

During the Mughal era, the landscape of cities and the pattern of population
distribution reflected a blueprint of what modern civilizations have evolved into
today. While lacking the technological marvels like railways and canal systems
that characterize contemporary infrastructure, Mughal cities boasted a
sophisticated network of connections and facilities that catered to the needs of
its populace.

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One of the remarkable features of Mughal cities was their

interconnectivity despite the absence of modern transportation. The
absence of railways and metalled roads did not hinder the
movement of people and goods across the empire. Instead, the
Mughals established an intricate network of Kacha roads, which although
unpaved, were well-marked and lined with trees, providing shade and
demarcation. These roads were complemented by sarais strategically placed
along the routes, providing merchants and travelers a safe haven to spend their
nights securely. These sarais not only facilitated trade but also contributed to the
social fabric by fostering interactions among diverse communities traversing
these paths.

12.2: URBAN CENTRES:

Agra, the erstwhile capital of the Mughal Empire, stood as a testament to their
advanced urban planning and connectivity. Situated strategically, Agra was a
hub that linked various parts of the empire. The Grand Trunk Road, a
monumental feat of engineering and vision, connected Agra with key cities such
as Dacca in the east and Kabul in the north-west. This expansive road traversed
significant cities like Patna, Allahabad, Banaras, Mathura, Lahore, and Attock
before reaching Kabul. Its significance lay not only in connecting vital urban
centers but also in facilitating trade, cultural exchange, and the movement of
ideas across diverse regions.

Moreover, Agra served as the starting point for another crucial road network
that stretched all the way to Asirgarh. Along this route, towns like Dholpur,
Gwalior, Jodhpur, Sirohi, Ajmer, and Asirgarh emerged as key waypoints,
contributing to the economic and cultural vitality of the Mughal Empire.

The intricate road networks and well-established urban centers in the Mughal
era provide a fascinating parallel to our modern interconnected world. Despite

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the absence of contemporary infrastructure, these cities thrived due

to their well-planned connectivity and facilities. They exemplified
the importance of trade routes, safe passages, and communal spaces
in fostering societal growth and connectivity.

Studying the urban landscapes and population dynamics of Mughal cities offers
us insights into the foundations of our current urban civilization. Their ability to
create a functional and connected network without the technological
advancements we take for granted today underscores the ingenuity and foresight
of historical civilizations. The Mughal cities were indeed the precursors to the
interconnected, culturally diverse, and well-connected societies that we inhabit
today.

The Mughal Empire, renowned for its grandeur and strategic planning, boasted
a remarkable network of roads that connected key cities and regions, facilitating
trade, cultural exchange, and the movement of troops and goods. While lacking
modern transportation systems, these road networks were instrumental in
establishing thriving urban centers that rivaled the prominent cities of Europe
and Asia.

One of the crucial roadways extended from Agra to Ahmadabad, demonstrating

the Mughals' commitment to connectivity across vast expanses. Another
significant route connected Lahore with Multan, further enhancing the empire's
internal cohesion and economic activity. However, beyond the roadways, the
navigable rivers—Indus, Ganga, Yamuna, and those in Bengal—played a
pivotal role in transportation, serving as vital channels for the movement of
goods and troops, fostering commerce, and contributing to the growth of
settlements along their banks.

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During the 16th century, several major towns had already

established themselves as pivotal centers of trade, culture, and
administration within the empire. Accounts from historical sources
such as Ralph Fitch and Monserrate provide intriguing insights into
the sheer magnitude and significance of these cities. Agra and Fatehpur Sikri,
according to Ralph Fitch, surpassed London in size, which was then one of
Europe's largest towns. Monserrate, a Jesuit priest at Akbar's court, revered
Lahore as a city unmatched by any in Europe or Asia.

The 17th century witnessed a remarkable surge in the size and importance of
these cities. Agra, for instance, more than doubled in size, reflecting the vitality
and growth of urban settlements during this period. Bernier's writings from the
mid-17th century compared Delhi to Paris and highlighted Agra's grandeur,
surpassing even Delhi in size. Cities such as Ahmadnagar, Burhanpur in the
west, Multan in the northwest, and Patna, Rajmahal, and Dacca in the east
flourished, attaining significant proportions in terms of population and
economic activity. Ahmedabad rivaled London in size, including its suburbs,
while Patna boasted a population of two lakhs—an impressive size by the
standards of that era.

These urban centers weren't merely administrative hubs; they evolved into
bustling centers of trade and manufacturing. Their growth and prosperity
stemmed from their strategic locations, favorable trade routes, and diverse
economic activities. These cities not only reflected the administrative prowess
of the Mughal Empire but also stood as testaments to their economic vibrancy
and cultural richness.

Studying the expansion and significance of these cities in Mughal times offers a
glimpse into the foundations of our modern urban civilization. The convergence
of trade, culture, and administration within these thriving centers laid the
groundwork for the interconnected and economically vibrant cities we see
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today. The Mughal cities, with their grandeur and strategic

importance, were precursors to the globalized urban landscapes we
inhabit in the contemporary world.

12.3: CRAFT PRODUCTION IN MUGHAL INDIA:

Pottery

Pottery was used for making beads, seals, bangles and other decorative items.
Although glazed pottery started in the13th century under Turkish rulers who
encouraged potters from Persia to migrate to India pottery in the Mughal era
was known for its designs,

Weaving

In 16th and 17th century hand woven carpets, floor covering were available
which were a blend of Persian and medium artistry, The design of landscapes
floral and animals patterns were mostly

found, The design shows a blend of Persian and Indian art carpet weaving was
renowned in Agra, Lahore and Fatehpur Sikri

Wood Carving

Mughal wood carving shows, intricate designs and patterns. some of the
instances are thrones with qaranic verses and decorative trays,

Meatal working

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Metal work in Mughal period included weapons, armor, coins and

Jewellery, Delhi and Lahore were the important centers of
production, production of decorative items and flask were also
found

Jewellery making

Mughal jewellery was famous for the intricate designs and use of precious
stones innovative techniques were found, Mughal emperors also patronized
textile workmanship and workshops.

International trade

The Mughal crafts were highly valued in Europe and far east and traded there

Cultural exchange

The cultural diversity in the Mughal empire influenced the development of

various crafts

Craft workshops and Karkhanas

The Mughal emperor established karkhanas, these were manufacturing units for
various arts and crafts ,The household and military need of the emperors were
also manufactured there. the imperial karkhanas manufactured luxury items and
weapons. New techniques and innovations were also found,

Techniques and materials

Semi-precious stones and precious stones were inlaid which is known as

Parchin Kari This technique is seen in Taj mahal, Agra fort and It-mad-ud
Daulah,

Glass engraving

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The art of glass and engraving war introduced by the Mughal

emperors Delicate foliated designs on glass objects were made

Carpet weaving

Mughal carpet were known for elaborate designs

Brocades.

Mughal brocades were known for symmetry and floral designs.

Enameling

Enameling technique was used to create intricate designs on metal surfaces falls

Gemstone Decoration

Gemstone Decoration was a new art found in Mughal period,

Inlay work

Inlay work was known as pachchikri or Parchin Kari. This technique involved
inlay of colored or semi-precious stones onto marbles. such works are found in
taj mahal, Agra fort, Lahore, Fatehpur, Sikri

The development of unique and innovative art was a contribution of skilled

artisans of different regions who had used their own distinctive styles and came
to the Mughal court from different areas, there started an exchange of ideas and
techniques.

12.4:FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE GROWTH OF

ARTS:

Artistic styles and cultural exchange

Persian artists were also patronized by Mughal rulers, they employed them in
their courts. Persian influence was seen in Mughal paintings. Persian literary

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style, and words were noticed in border calligraphy. the use of

bright color in Mughal paintings can be attributed to Persian art.

In the same way European art also in flounced Mughal art which is
clear from the use of light and shade and the use of atmospheric effects these
techniques were introduced by European emissaries’ and missionaries. There
was a synthesis of Mughal and European culture which was strengthened by
Jesuit missions. The Moghul craft was characterized by Persian, Indian and
European style which resulted in an unique and distinct style.

Organization and functioning of karkhanas

The Mughal karkhanas brought different craftsmen together under one roof
where the craftsmen could experiment with new ideas and techniques. the
karkhanas also facilitated the exchange of ideas and techniques among
craftsman, they allowed for continues development,

And improvement of products and techniques. The products manufactured high

standard of crafts Manship. These items were master pieces of art and craft. The
makhanas were an inextricable part of the Mughal economy, these were also
one of the significant revenue making establishments of the Mughals. Textiles
of India flourished under the Mughal empire the Indian cotton and silk textiles
were traded along most of the port cities located in Idina ocean, Arabian sea, red
sea as well an through craven routes to central Asia,

Role of Guilds and organization

Trade guilds were farmed by marshals to organize and expand their trading
activities they also supported the growth of various crafts. Guilds provided a
platform for santo collaborate and exchange idea and techniques and also to
maintain high standards of crafts Manship.

Condition of workers and challenges faced by them

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The social status artisans and crafts man varied with some of them
were highly skilled working in royal Karshana’s and some running
their small independent one.

Although the craftsmen were patronized by Mughal rulers, they faced several
challenges due to lack of formal education and union repress enation. It became
difficult for them to negotiate fair wages and wolfing conditions, the onset of
colonial period and introduction of new technologies led to a decline of craft
production resulting in the loss of livelihood of many craftsmen and artisans.

Introduction of science and technology in India during Mughal period

Science and technology played a crucial role in the development and sustenance
of the Mughal empire. That Mughal emperors encouraged development of
various scientific disciplines like astronomy mathematic medicine and
engineering. The reasons for such development were prosperity and stability of
the empire, the influence of Indian and Islamic scientific traditions which paved
the path for a synthesis of knowledge.

12.5: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY:

Astronomy:

The Mughals built observatories and also developed sophist tricoated

astronomical instruments such as astrolabes and armillary sphere. The famous
observatory was established by maharaja jai Singh II of Jaipur known as jointer
mantra which have a collection of architectural instruments In the astrolabes a
portable instrument was used to mean the position of celestial bodies and
armillary spheres were used to model celestial co ordinals.

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The astronomers were Fathallah Shirazi who is famous for a

calendrer known as Tarikh -i- Ilahi or Divine era Mulla, Mahmud
Jaipuri who whole several treatises on astronomy like lubab–ul
muhkamat and was serving under Jahangir. lulab up muhkamat
dealt with spherical astronomy and trigonometry. Mirza Ulugh Beg established
the Ulugh beg observatory in Samarkand and was a contemporary of early
Mughals,

Astrology:

The Mughal emperors particularly Akbar and Jahangir used to consult

astrologers for guidance. Several astrologers were appointed in the Mughal
court. the astrological treatises like Tazkirat –al–Muluk’’(Book of kings) and
the ‘’14 majma–ul–Bahrain ‘’(confluence of the two seas )were written during
this period. Astrological texts from Sanskrit and Persian were also translated.

Mathematics and Geometry:

There was a significant contribution of the Mughal ruler in the mathematical

field. There was advancement in algebra. The study of geometry also
flourished- Mughal mathematicians made significant contribution to trigon-
mean, Mughal mathematicians had developed number theory, there also
flourished the study of combinatorists.
Mathematician and their works:

Court of emperor Akbar who made significant contributions to mathematics

who developed a method for solving cubic equations.

Abul-Faiz ibn Mubarak was also a mathematician who made contribution to

Algebra and geometry and translated several important Mathematical texts from
Arabian and Persian into Sanskrit

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Nasir–al–Din–al Talsi was a mathematician and also made

contribution to astronomy and philosophy also his works in
trigonometry and spherical geometry.

Maharaja Sawal jai Singh who was the ruler of Amler made significant
contributions to the field of mathematics particular in the areas of trigonometry

Medicine and pharmacology

In the field of medicine, a synthesis of Islamic and Indian medical tradition was
observed physicians were well versed in the works of ancient Greece and
Persian medical scholars, Diagnoses and treatments were made properly. There
were evidences of preventive medicines, surgery etc. Hospitals were known us
Dar-ul–Shila which were established by Mughal emperors Qualified surgeons,
Physician were appointed in the hospital’s medical care was provided free of
charge to the poor. Mughal pharmacists known as Hakims

Metallurgy and Metal working

The Mughals empire witnessed significant advancement in mining and

extraction techniques production of various metals iron, copper, gold and silver
was seen, there was development of advancement something and refining
processes Mughal metal workers were known for their unprecedented
craftsmanship and skill in working with various metals bird were was a type of
metal handicraft, It was popular during the Mughal period.

Weapons and Armor production

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The Mughal empire was known for its advanced weaponries of

Mughal weapons swords, daggers, bows, firearms were known,
steel used was of exceptional quality Armer was made of variety of
materials like steel, iron, leather and textiles. Lise of gun powder,
iron canons and canting of bronze was significant.

Engineering Techniques and material

Apart from construction of buildings dome the Mughals were skilled in the use
of hydrocele engine- nearing also.

Textiles and Dyeing

Textiles produced during Mughal period included silk, cotton and wool. Mughal
textiles were in high demand both domestically and internationally Mughal
ampere was famous for its fine muslin, a lightweight cotton fabric and entry
cate brocade and embroidery work

Dyeing Techniques and Maternal

Mughal empire witnessed advanced dyeing techniques, Natural dyes were used,
some of the commonly used dyes included indigo, madder, turmeric and Cal
etc. They were skilled in intricate patterns and designs

Influence an Global Textiles industry

There was a significant impact of the Mughal textile industry on the global
trade, the demand for Mughal textile industry led to the development of trade
routes, exchange of ideas, techniques and materials. The European traders like

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the British, Dutch were heavily involved in the textile trade with
the Mughal empire.

Agriculture and irrigation

The Mughal period witnessed development in a agricultural practices, There

was also increased food production and overall economic growth, The Mughals
introduced new crops to the median subcontinent such as maize, tobacco,
potatoes, improved. Forming techniques such as ploughing sowing and
harvesting were introduced which increased crop yields. It also reduced labor
requirement new land management policed such as the measurement and
classification of land facilitated the efficient allocation of resources and promo
led agricultural growth Ener ease agricultural productivity led to a surplus of
food which supported population growth and urbanization, it also stimulated the
development other sectors of the economy such an trade, manufacturing and
services

Irrigation system

Water availability departed diverse climatic conditions The Mughal emperors

developed and maintained extensive irrigation systems which included canals,
wells, reservoirs and tanks.

They contented large scale canal networks to transport water Trom rivers to
agricultural fields, in the regions of limited surface water availability wells were
common sours of avigation Reservoirs and tanks were built to store waler for
irrigation during dry seasons. There was provision for construction of public
wells and financial contentives for farmers to I most in irrigation infrastructures.

Ship rewilding and maritime Technology

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Ship rebuilding was an important industry of Mughal period, The

Mughal shapelier were skilled in constructing various types of
vessels wood such as teak, Sal were the primary material used in
ship building, iron and copper nails were also used by the ship
shipbuilders.

Navigation and cartography

Mughal navigators and cartographers, were skilled in the art of navigation. They
created maps and charts which were essential for maritime A trade and
exploration study of and exploration study of stars and other celestial bodies
were used to determine the position of sea various instruments astrolabes,
quadrants and compass were used to measure the latitude and determine the
direction. Maps and charts were found to bee used which included information
on coastal features.

Maritime Trade

The Mughal empire was strategically located along the Indian ocean trade
routes it which connected East Africa, The Arabian peninsula and south east
Asia, maritime trade seeing a pans of Mughal economy Facilitated the exchange
of goods and ideas between the Indian subcontinent and other regions of the
world, The merchants traded a variety of goods like textiles, spies, precious
metals and gemstones, The Mughal ships explored and long distances voyages
contributed for, their voyages contributed for their influence in the Indian
ocean.

Development of Musical Styles

Mughal music was characterized by a fusion of Persian and Indian musical

traditions resulting in the creation of new styles The Mughal emperors were
patrons of music. The style developed during that period were Dhrupad, khyal,
Thumri etc. some of the instruments were Silao, Sarod, Tabla, Sarangi etc.
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Printing and Book Binding

The introduction of printing technology in the Mughal period in the

Indian sub-continent had a profound impact on the field of art, literature and
know- ledge This resulted in the mass production of books and other written
materials printing enabled the standardization of texts and the preservation of
knowledge.

Mughal period also witnessed advancements in look building techniques such as

use of palm leaves and wooden covers. later on, more durable and sophisticated
methods were adopted materials like leather, cloth and paper were used to
create decorative book covers. The availability of printed works contributed to
preservation and promotion of literature. The Mughal period laid the foundation
for the modern Indian literary and educational landscape.

12.6: CONCLUSION:

The craft production and development in science played a significant role in shaping the
artistic, cultural and science life landscape of the time. as it fostered innovation, cultural
exchange and economic growth. The developments on Mughals art and science inspired
contemporary scientists and artists.

12.7: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Write a note on the important factors contributing to the growth of arts.

B- Discuss agriculture and irrigation of that period.

C- Critically examine craft production in Mughal India with examples.

D-Write a note on Mughal urban centres.

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BLOCK-04

CULTURAL IDEALS

Unit-13: Religious tolerance and sulh-i-kul; Sufi mystical and Intellectual

Interventions

Unit-14: Art and Architecture

Unit-15: Mughal Paintings: Themes and Perspectives

Unit-16: Rajput Paintings: Themes and Perspectives

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UNIT-13: RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE AND SULH-I-KUL; SUFI

MYSTICAL AND INTELLECTUAL INTERVENTIONS:

Learning Objectives

After going through the unit you will be able to know

 What is Sufism
 Phases of Sufism
 Salient features and Order

Unit Structure

13.1: Introduction

13.2: Different Phases

13.3: Suhl-I-Kuhl

13.4: Salient Features of Sufism

13.5: Order of Sufism and Its Prominent Saints

13.6: Conclusion

13.7: Sample Questions

13.1: INTRODUCTION:

There was a charge in the composition of the ruling classes in Northern India
after the Muslim conquers. The Muslim rulers became dominant for many
countries. There was a perception that Islam must have been the state religion

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but not only has the personal beliefs of emperor but the state
politics and relationship with the non Muslim subjects also had to
be evaluated.

Akbar was a devout Muslim beet has attitude towards religion and religious
communities changed gradually which can be decided into four phases on the
basis of his measures taken.

13.2: DIFFERENT PHASES:

Early phase – In the early phase but he also was above sectarian prejudices as
instructed and brought up since his childhood. He also sought for alliance with
the Rajputs. He had inclination towards Sufis.

Second phase – There was a change in his policy after 1565 In 1575 Akbar
established Ibadat Khana (House of worship) in orders to have free discussion
on various aspects of Islamic theology. Discussions were held on every Friday.
Most of the Rajputs joined his military services despite the religious intolerance.
He married Rajput Princesses. It is also viewed that religion was used only as a
tool to attain political goats. He abolished Jizya tax.

Third phase 1578 – 1580 - In this period Akbar was dissatisfied with the Ulena
who were self centered and arrogant. He ever developed distrust on their
traditional wisdom. He opened the gates of Ibadat Khana to all religious
communities. He issued decree for complete freedom in religious worship. In
1579 proclamation of Mahazar was the culmination of the break away from
Ulena. The causes were Akbar was the Khalifa and he was higher than the
Multahids.

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Fourth phase (1581-1605) – This phase was marked by a number

of decrees. He declared Tasshidi – illahi. He introduced Illahi era.
‘It was an attempt of Akbar to consolidate his political fraternity’ as
observed by Van Noer.

13.3: SULH-I-KUL (PEACE WITH ALL):

Akbar of studied all religious traditions, Akbar searched unity in diversity. The
idea of Sul-i-kul was based on the ideas of tolerance which did not discriminate
between the people of different religions. It focused on honesty, Justice and
Peace. Abul Fazl described sulh – I – kul as the cornerstone of Akbar
enlightened rule. Akbar wanted people of all religions to come in contact with
one another and arouse a feeling of fraternity. He also opened a translation
department to translate Sanskrit, Arabic and Greek text into Persian.

During the medieval period politics and religion were interwoven. So it is

necessary to study both The Mughals who established their supremacy in north
India during Sixteenth, Seventeenth and eighteenth century derived their
legitimacy from different sources. They were successful in managing political
elite which was comprised of political groups from north Deccan and peripheral
regions and also the migrants of Central and West Asia. They had established
relations with various religious groups. So also their relation will sufis was
important.

Sufism had originated eri Persia and other parts of western Asia. It was a mystic
interpretation of Islamic life within the bonds of religious orthodoxy.

It was a movement against the formal or external attitude of the Ulerna. No

doubt that Ulema maintained Islamic concept of equality and brotherhood
within the community but the Sufis extended this to the non – muslim in the
community. They aimed at removing racial distinctions class superiority and

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religious differences. They wanted to create a society that believed

in the essential unity of all religions and believe in universal
brotherhood. All the orders of Sufism did not believe in the same.

Sufism believed that the inner realization of divine unity can be aroused with
intuitive and spiritual faculties – The Sufis advocated meditation, They
preached Fauhid (Unity of God) and they tried spread Islam through this mystic
movement they were so much dedicated to God that their heart and souls were
free from other thoughts except God. Their purpose was to safeguard Islam
from outward dogma of other faith.

13.4: SALIENT FEATURES OF SUFISM:

Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam, encompasses a rich tapestry of beliefs,

practices, and philosophies that have deeply influenced Islamic spirituality and
culture. Its salient features are both diverse and profound, reflecting a quest for
inner knowledge, divine love, and closeness to the divine. Here are some of the
key aspects that define Sufism:

1. Tawhid (Unity of God): At the core of Sufi teachings lies the concept of
Tawhid, the oneness of God. Sufis emphasize experiencing this unity
directly through spiritual practices rather than merely intellectual
understanding.

2. Love and Devotion: Sufism emphasizes love for God (Ishq), often
expressed through poetry, music, and dance. The figure of the beloved
represents the divine, and this love is considered the highest form of
worship.

3. Spiritual Practices: Sufis engage in various spiritual practices known as

"dhikr," which involves the remembrance of God through chanting,
repetition of divine names, breathing exercises, and meditation. Whirling

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dervishes in the Mevlevi Order are a notable example of a

meditative practice aimed at achieving a trance-like state.

4. Guru-Disciple Relationship: Sufism often involves a master-

disciple relationship, where the guidance and teachings of a spiritual
guide (Sheikh) play a crucial role in the disciple's spiritual journey. This
personal guidance is fundamental for the aspirant's inner transformation.

5. Symbolism and Allegory: Sufi teachings frequently use symbols and

allegorical language to convey spiritual truths that are often beyond the
grasp of mere words. Stories, parables, and metaphors are employed to
communicate deeper spiritual insights.

6. Universalism: Sufism often emphasizes the universality of spiritual

truths, transcending religious and cultural boundaries. It highlights the
essence of divine love, which is not confined to any particular religious
doctrine.

7. Inner Purification: Sufis believe in the purification of the soul (Tazkiyah)

by eliminating the ego (Nafs) and worldly attachments. This process
involves self-reflection, self-discipline, and the cultivation of virtues like
patience, compassion, and humility.

8. Music and Poetry: Sufism employs music and poetry as vehicles for
spiritual expression. The mesmerizing qawwalis (devotional songs) and
the poetic verses of renowned Sufi poets like Rumi, Hafiz, and Ibn Arabi
serve as profound conduits for connecting with the divine.

9. Diverse Orders and Practices: Sufism encompasses various orders or

"Tariqas," each with its own distinct practices, rituals, and teachings. The
Naqshbandi, Chishti, and Qadiri orders are among the most prominent,
each with its unique emphasis on spiritual practices.

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10. Social Service and Humanity: Many Sufi orders emphasize

service to humanity as an integral part of spiritual practice.
They engage in charitable works, providing assistance to the
needy, and promoting peace and tolerance.

Sufism's depth and richness have contributed significantly to Islamic spirituality

and have resonated globally, attracting individuals seeking a deeper connection
with the divine. Its emphasis on love, inner transformation, and universal
spirituality continues to inspire seekers across cultures and religions, fostering a
message of harmony and unity in diversity.

13.5: ORDER OF SUFISM AND SOME PROMINENT SAINTS:

Abul Fazl lists fourteen orders that were functioning in sixteenth century of
where the four most prominent ba-shara silsilahs are Chisti, Suhrawardi,
Qadriya and Naqshobandi.

Chishti:

Khwafa Moinuddin Chisti came to India after the battle of Tarain in 1192 and
settled in Almer which was away from the centre of political activity Delhi. His
intension was to help Muslims to live a life of devotion to God. In Delhi, the
chisti influence was established by Qutbuddin Bakhtyar Kavi – other eminent
saints were Baba Fariduddin, Nizamuddin Auliya, Mian Mir and Nasiruddin
chirag.

The chishti’s were generous and polite to all people irrespective of their
religious, They wanted refrain from worldly Power. In order to achieve this,

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they keep themselves away from the kings and royal officers. The
rulers or nobles could be patron but they were to be treated as other
devotees. Evoking, the divine presence was known as ‘Sama’
which was a sufi practice. The sufis used to listen to aawwali which
helped the devotees to forget sell in the love of Allah. They also said that the
followers observe the full range of Muslim obligations.

The sufis lived simple and pcous life. They were great schools, (alims), many of
them earned their livelihood through labour were engaged in business. The
instances are Shaikh Nizam of Mandu who earned his livelihood as a digger,
Shaikh Abdul Wahal Afghan and Shaika syed Hassan of Mandu collected wood
and grass from the forests and sold them in the market. They distributed a part
of their earning to poor and orphans. They were opposed to avail grants like
Maddat – i-mash and sometimes also did not allow the rulling classes to meet
them.

Suharwardi:

Suhrawardi, also known as Shaikh Shihab al-Din Abu Hafs Umar Suhrawardi,
was a prominent Persian Sufi saint, philosopher, and founder of the
Suhrawardiyya Sufi order. He lived during the 12th century and left a lasting
impact on Islamic mysticism, particularly through his philosophical
contributions and spiritual teachings.

Early Life and Spiritual Journey

Born in Suhraward, a town in Iran, Suhrawardi belonged to a family known for

its scholarship in religious and spiritual matters. From an early age, he displayed
a profound inclination towards mysticism and sought spiritual knowledge. He
received a traditional education in Islamic sciences and philosophy, delving into
the works of Avicenna and other influential philosophers of his time.

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Philosophical Contributions

Suhrawardi is renowned for his philosophical system known as

"Illuminationism" (al-Ishraq). This philosophical school
emphasizes the importance of intuitive knowledge, insight, and the inner
illumination of the soul in understanding reality. He believed that genuine
knowledge comes from a divine light that illuminates the intellect, enabling
humans to grasp truths beyond mere sensory perception.

His doctrine of "Light and Darkness" describes the world as a battleground

between these opposing forces, with light representing divine knowledge and
darkness symbolizing ignorance and worldly attachments. This concept greatly
influenced later Islamic philosophy and mysticism.

Sufi Teachings and Spiritual Legacy

As a Sufi saint, Suhrawardi advocated spiritual practices aimed at inner

purification, emphasizing the importance of purging the ego (Nafs) and
achieving proximity to God through spiritual exercises, meditation, and dhikr
(remembrance of God). He stressed the significance of the spiritual guide
(Sheikh) in guiding seekers on the path to enlightenment.

Suhrawardi founded the Suhrawardiyya Sufi order, which attracted followers

seeking a deeper understanding of spirituality and divine knowledge. His
teachings emphasized the direct experience of God's presence and the
transformative power of divine love in achieving spiritual awakening.

Influence and Legacy

Suhrawardi's impact extended beyond his lifetime. His philosophical ideas and
mystical teachings continued to influence subsequent generations of scholars
and Sufis. The Illuminationist school of thought persisted in Persian
philosophical circles, leaving a significant mark on Islamic intellectual history.

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Moreover, his Sufi order, the Suhrawardiyya, contributed to the

expansion of Sufism in Persia and beyond. The order maintained its
distinct practices and spiritual disciplines, attracting followers who
sought a balance between philosophical understanding and spiritual
experience.

The Qadiriyya is one of the oldest and most widespread Sufi orders, named after
its founder, Abdul-Qadir Gilani, a revered Sufi saint and scholar. Abdul-Qadir
Gilani, also known as Ghaus-e-Azam (the great helper), was born in the 11th
century in Gilan, Persia (present-day Iran). His life and teachings had a
profound impact on Islamic spirituality, and the Qadiriyya order became one of
the most influential Sufi orders in the Muslim world.

Early Life and Spiritual Journey

Abdul-Qadir Gilani grew up in a scholarly and religious environment. He

received an extensive education in Islamic sciences and spirituality, studying
under renowned scholars of his time. However, he yearned for deeper spiritual
understanding and embarked on a profound inward journey seeking closeness to
God.

Spiritual Teachings and Practices

Abdul-Qadir Gilani's teachings emphasized the importance of purifying the soul

and achieving a direct, personal connection with the divine. Central to his
teachings were concepts such as reliance on God (Tawakkul), detachment from
worldly desires, and sincere devotion to God through prayers and acts of
kindness.

The Qadiriyya order focuses on the path of spiritual discipline (Tariqa) as a

means to attain God-consciousness. Practices within the order include regular
prayers, meditation, dhikr (remembrance of God), and adherence to ethical and

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moral principles. The guidance of a spiritual mentor or guide

(Sheikh) is crucial for disciples in their journey towards spiritual
enlightenment.

Charitable Work and Service

Abdul-Qadir Gilani stressed the importance of helping others and serving

humanity. His teachings emphasized compassion, generosity, and selflessness.
Members of the Qadiriyya order historically engaged in charitable activities,
assisting the needy, and providing support to communities, embodying the Sufi
principle of love and service towards all.

Influence and Legacy

The Qadiriyya order rapidly expanded during Abdul-Qadir Gilani's lifetime,

spreading across the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia, and Africa. His
teachings attracted a diverse array of followers, transcending ethnic and cultural
boundaries. His emphasis on simplicity, piety, and the universality of spiritual
truths contributed to the enduring appeal of the Qadiriyya order.

Continued Reverence and Significance

Abdul-Qadir Gilani's tomb in Baghdad, Iraq, known as the Shrine of Abdul-

Qadir Gilani, remains a revered pilgrimage site for millions of Muslims
worldwide. His writings and teachings, compiled in books such as "Futuh al-
Ghaib" (Revelations of the Unseen), continue to guide spiritual seekers in their
quest for closeness to God and self-realization.

13.6: CONCLUSION:

Akbar, one of the most renowned Mughal emperors, left an indelible mark on
the Indian subcontinent, not just through his conquests and administrative

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prowess but also through his visionary principles that redefined the
socio-religious landscape of his time.

Central to Akbar's reign was the principle of 'Sulh-i-Kul,' a concept

he championed passionately. Translating to "peace with all," Sulh-i-Kul was
Akbar's doctrine of religious tolerance and acceptance. This principle advocated
for an environment where diverse religious beliefs coexisted harmoniously,
fostering mutual respect and understanding among different faiths. It was a
progressive departure from the prevalent religious rigidity of his era.

Under Sulh-i-Kul, Akbar established an inclusive policy that granted freedom of

expression to all religions. He ensured that religious principles were respected
and protected, regardless of faith. This approach was revolutionary for its time,
elevating the status of religious minorities and affirming their rights within the
Mughal Empire. It was a stark departure from the religious persecutions and
exclusivity often seen in many other empires.

Akbar's approach to religious tolerance wasn’t merely theoretical; it was deeply

ingrained in his governance. He invited scholars, theologians, and practitioners
from various faiths to engage in discussions and debates at his court, fostering
an intellectual atmosphere that valued diversity of thought.

While Akbar revered the teachings of various religions, he demonstrated a

particular inclination towards Sufism. Sufism, a mystical dimension of Islam,
emphasized spiritual unity and transcended the boundaries of sectarian
differences. Its focus on spirituality and love as a path to God resonated deeply
with Akbar, influencing his personal beliefs and practices.

Din-i-Ilahi, a religious synthesis initiated by Akbar, was a testament to his

commitment to Sulh-i-Kul. This new religion aimed to amalgamate the virtues
of different faiths, drawing elements from Islam, Hinduism, Christianity,
Jainism, and Zoroastrianism. At its core, Din-i-Ilahi espoused the principles of

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peace, harmony, and tolerance. However, it didn’t gain widespread

acceptance and gradually faded after Akbar's reign, remaining more
of an experiment than a lasting religious movement.

Akbar's legacy as a proponent of religious harmony and tolerance endures as a

beacon of enlightenment in history. His vision of Sulh-i-Kul laid the
groundwork for a pluralistic society, setting an example for future leaders to
embrace diversity and inclusivity in governance. Even though Din-i-Ilahi didn't
endure, Akbar's overarching philosophy of respecting all religions continues to
inspire discussions on religious tolerance and coexistence in today's world.

13.7: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Discuss the life and teachings of Suharwadi.

B- Write a note on the salient features of Sufism.

C- Discuss Suhl-I-Kuhl.

UNIT-14: ART AND ARCHITECTURE:

Unit Structure
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14.1: Introduction

14.2: Important Features of Mughal Architecture

14.3: Architectural Development Under Mughal Rulers

14.4: Conclusion

14.5: Sample Questions

14.1: INTRODUCTION:

Mughal architecture, a characteristic Indo Islamic Persian staple flourished on the

indean subcontinent during the Mughal empire (1526-1857) this staple was a new one
combined with Islamic art and architecture. It was introduced in India during the
Delhi sultanate and great monuments were built. In these monuments features of
Persian art and architecture were also found. Although most monuments of Mughal
period are found in India. Some of them are found in Pakistan also Excellent Forts,
Mosques; Monuments were built by the emperors with meticulous planning.

14.2: IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MUGHAL

ARCHITECTURE:

Mughal architecture stands as a testament to the exquisite fusion of Indian,

Persian, and Turkish styles, creating an iconic and influential design language
that shaped the visual landscape of the Indian subcontinent. Spanning an era of
rich cultural exchange and artistic evolution, Mughal architectural marvels
reflect a synthesis of diverse influences and techniques.

The diversity of Mughal buildings showcases a broad spectrum of structures,

each serving a distinct purpose. Majestic gates, imposing forts, elegant

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mausoleums, opulent palaces, grand mosques, and functional sarais

(inns) were meticulously crafted, embodying the empire's grandeur
and functional needs.

The choice of building materials played a pivotal role in defining the aesthetic
and durability of Mughal structures. Red sandstone and white marble emerged
as the primary elements, each imparting its unique character to the edifices. The
contrast between the warm, earthy tones of sandstone and the pristine elegance
of marble added depth and richness to the architectural compositions.

Distinctive features became hallmarks of Mughal architecture, contributing to

its iconic identity. The charbagh style, a garden layout characterized by
symmetrical quadrilateral divisions, adorned the surroundings of many
mausoleums, symbolizing paradise on earth and offering serene, picturesque
landscapes. The bulbous domes, a prominent feature, exuded an aura of
grandeur and grace, accentuating the skyline. The use of slender minarets at the
corners of buildings added verticality and architectural finesse.

Broad gateways, often embellished with intricate arabesque designs and

beautiful calligraphy, served as impressive entrances, symbolizing the grandeur
and authority of the structures they led to. Geometric patterns, both intricate and
mesmerizing, adorned pillars and walls, showcasing the artisans' mastery over
intricate detailing.

Another architectural innovation was the incorporation of dalaee halls, vast

spaces supported on pillars, facilitating ventilation and offering respite from the
heat, which became a hallmark feature in many Mughal buildings. This
architectural ingenuity allowed for spacious, airy interiors, promoting comfort
within the structures.

Mughal architecture's legacy persists in the preservation and admiration of these

splendid structures, each a testament to the artistic prowess and cultural

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synthesis of its time. Beyond their visual magnificence, these

buildings serve as historical and cultural treasures, offering insights
into the Mughal era's architectural sophistication and the
amalgamation of diverse influences that shaped it. The enduring
beauty and structural brilliance of Mughal architecture continue to captivate and
inspire architects, historians, and admirers worldwide, ensuring its place as a
pinnacle of artistic achievement in architectural history.

Mughal architecture, renowned for its grandeur, innovation, and artistic finesse,
bears distinct features that set it apart and make it an enduring legacy in the
realm of architectural history. The synthesis of diverse influences, technological
advancements, and artistic genius gave rise to several essential characteristics
that define Mughal architectural marvels:

1. Blend of Cultural Influences: Mughal architecture represents a

harmonious blend of Indian, Persian, and Turkish styles. This fusion
created a unique visual language that borrowed elements from each
culture, resulting in a rich tapestry of architectural aesthetics.

2. Use of Building Materials: Red sandstone and white marble were the
primary building materials in Mughal architecture. The contrast between
these materials added depth and character to the structures. Red sandstone
provided warmth and richness, while white marble brought elegance and
grandeur.

3. Bulbous Domes: Prominent bulbous domes characterize Mughal

buildings, creating a striking silhouette against the skyline. These domes,
often adorned with intricate designs and sometimes topped with a lotus
finial, were a distinctive feature, symbolizing power and grace.

4. Charbagh Style Gardens: The charbagh layout, featuring quadrilateral

gardens divided symmetrically by water channels, was a common feature

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surrounding many Mughal structures. These gardens

represented paradise on earth and provided a serene
backdrop to the architectural splendor.

5. Architectural Details: Mughal architecture is known for intricate details,

including arabesque designs, exquisite calligraphy, and geometric
patterns adorning walls, pillars, and gateways. These ornamental
elements showcased the craftsmanship and artistic finesse of the artisans.

6. Minarets and Gateways: Slender minarets often adorned the corners of

buildings, adding verticality and elegance to the structures. Broad
gateways, embellished with elaborate decorations and impressive designs,
served as majestic entrances, reflecting the grandeur within.

7. Dalaee Halls and Ventilation: Mughal architects incorporated dalaee

halls, spacious areas supported on pillars, allowing for ventilation and
providing relief from the heat. This architectural innovation ensured airy
interiors and enhanced comfort within the buildings.

8. Functional Diversity: Mughal architecture encompassed a variety of

structures, including forts, palaces, mosques, mausoleums, and sarais.
Each served its purpose while showcasing architectural excellence and
reflecting the empire's grandeur and cultural richness.

9. Integration of Water Features: Water was often integrated into Mughal

architecture, with fountains, pools, and channels adding a sense of
tranquility and enhancing the aesthetic appeal of the surroundings.

10. Legacy and Endurance: The enduring legacy of Mughal architecture

lies in the preservation and admiration of these structures as historical and
cultural treasures. Their beauty and structural brilliance continue to
captivate and inspire people globally, standing as testaments to an era of
artistic innovation and cultural synthesis.
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These features collectively embody the essence of Mughal

architecture, illustrating the empire's aesthetic vision, cultural
richness, and architectural legacy that continues to captivate
admirers worldwide.

14.3: ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENTS UNDER

MUGHAL RULERS:

Babur:
Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in India, indeed had a relatively short
reign of only five years. His tenure, however brief, was focused primarily on
consolidating his rule and establishing the foundation for the empire that would
flourish under his successors. While Babur's reign was marked by military
campaigns and strategic governance, his interest in architectural endeavors was
relatively limited compared to later Mughal rulers.

During his time, Babur's focus wasn't predominantly on constructing

monumental architectural marvels but rather on consolidating his rule over
newly conquered territories. His priorities were centered around military
strategies, governance, and the establishment of administrative structures.

The few buildings attributed to Babur's era, particularly mosques and other
structures, didn't necessarily exhibit significant architectural merit or the
grandeur commonly associated with later Mughal constructions. For instance,
the Lale-Darwaza mosque built in 1526 at Panipat, attributed to Babur's reign,
was more of a functional structure rather than a masterpiece of architectural
innovation. These early constructions were relatively simple and lacked the
elaborate ornamentation and design sophistication that became hallmarks of
later Mughal architecture.

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Babur's attention was largely directed towards governance and

military exploits, and his legacy primarily rests on his role as a
conqueror and a statesman rather than as an architectural patron.
His brief reign was a crucial transitional period that laid the
groundwork for the magnificent architectural achievements and cultural
patronage that would later define the Mughal Empire under rulers like Akbar,
Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb.

While Babur's direct architectural contributions might have been modest

compared to his successors, his role as the founder of the Mughal Empire and
the initiator of a dynasty that would leave an indelible mark on Indian
architecture and culture cannot be understated. His reign set the stage for the
flourishing of Mughal art and architecture in subsequent years, marking the
beginning of an era renowned for its architectural brilliance and cultural
synthesis. Thus, while Babur's personal architectural legacy might not be as
prominent, his impact on the trajectory of Mughal architecture and culture was
foundational and instrumental in shaping the empire's future artistic endeavors.

Humayun:

During Humayun’s reign, the consolidation of the empire remained an ongoing

endeavor, marked by periods of upheaval and exile. His reign was fraught with
challenges, including a fifteen-year exile in Persia due to the ascendance of the
Sur Dynasty. Despite the tumultuous circumstances, some architectural
developments emerged during his rule, although they lacked the distinctive
grandeur often associated with later Mughal constructions.

Two mosques, remnants from the initial phase of Humayun’s reign, were
erected but bore no remarkable architectural uniqueness. One lies in ruins in
Agra, while the other stands in Fatehabad (Hissar). These structures, while

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reflective of the period, lacked the ornate features and artistic flair
that would become synonymous with later Mughal architecture.

However, the most significant architectural legacy of Humayun’s

era remains his tomb, an iconic structure that marked a notable development in
Mughal architecture. Constructed under the patronage of Humayun’s widow,
Hamida Banu Begum, and designed by the Persian architect Mirak Mirza
Ghiyas, the tomb showcased a significant Persian influence, representing a
departure from earlier architectural styles.

The tomb was a testament to the infusion of Persian concepts into Mughal
architecture. Persian craftsmen, skilled in their trade, were brought to Delhi to
employ their techniques, contributing to the construction of this remarkable
structure. Raised on an arcaded sandstone platform, the tomb adopted an
octagonal shape, surmounted by a grand dome—a distinctive feature that
marked a departure from previous architectural norms.

The double dome structure, with an outer shell rising in proportion to the main
building, showcased architectural innovation. This double dome design
provided a unique aesthetic and structural support. The pointed arch entrance
led to the central chamber housing Humayun's grave, surrounded by smaller
chambers intended for the burial of his family members. The interior layout
comprised a series of octagonal rooms connected by diagonal passages,
emphasizing symmetry and organization in design.

The tomb’s architectural grandeur lay not only in its form but also in its
meticulous detailing and craftsmanship. Despite the Persian influence, it laid the
groundwork for subsequent Mughal architectural masterpieces, setting a
precedent for the fusion of diverse cultural elements into a distinct Mughal
style.

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Humayun’s tomb stands as a testament to the evolving architectural

prowess of the Mughal Empire, marking a transition towards the
opulent and elaborate structures that would later define Mughal
architecture under subsequent rulers. Its fusion of Persian
influences with indigenous craftsmanship remains a significant milestone in the
evolution of Indian architectural history.

Architecture Under Akbar:

Akbar’s reign is famous for the fusion of Indo-Islamic architecture.

a) Red sand stone was used as the main building material.

b) There was use of the trabeate construction.
c) The arches used mainly in decorative form.
d) The dome was of ‘lode’ type but not of the double order.
e) The shafts of the pillars were multifaceted and the capitals look
the form of bracket supports.
f) Boldy carved patterns were noticed in the decoration.

The first phase

The construction of a fort at Agra was among the first phase projects. Its
massive walls and battlements show superior strength. Akbar built many
structures in the styles of Bengal and Gujrat. During remodelling all the
structures were demolished by shah Jahan except the Jahangir Mahal.
The only representative of Akbar’s reign is the Delhi gate of the fort and
Jahangir Mahal.

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Akbar’s earliest architectural piece was the Delhi gate of Agra fort.
The architecture of the gate shows that there ushered a new era in
the building art of India.

The components of the gate were

1) a front consisting of two broad octagonal towers by the sides of

a central archway.
2) a black having arcaded terraces topped by kiosks and pinnacles
and
3) an ornamentation consisting of patterns in white marble inlaid
against the red sand stone background.

The Jahangir Mahal was built in red sand stone. It shows fusion of Hindu
and Islamic design. It is planned in the form of asymmetrical range of
apartments. The entrance gateway of the façade on the eastern side
leading to a domed hall which has elaborately carved ceiling. After
crossing the hall a central open courtyard is found. On the north side of
the court yard a pillared hall with a root supported on piers and cross
beans with serpentine brackets.

The second phase

The second phase of Akbar’s construction was the creation of the capital
of the Empire at silicon 40 kms away from Agra. The new capital was
known as Fatepur sikn. Here the public areas like Diwan-i-Am and Jami
Majid are found around the private palace apartments. The city was built
in a very short span of time and was the construction was not planned.
The buildings were siled in such a way that these were related to each
other and to their surroundings. An asymmetry was found to be
incorporated traditional tralecate construction with rich red stone is

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noticed. The significant factor is that these are no use of mortar.

The pillars, brackets, tiles and posts were cut from local rocks.

The buildings are cut into two categories, religious and secular. The
religious buildings comprise a) Jami Masjid b) buland Darwaza c) the
tomle of sheikh salim chioti. The buildings of secular nature are
numerous.

These can be grouped as a) palaces b) administrative buildings c)

miscellaneous structures. The religious buildings are built in arcuate
style. The secular buildings dominate the trabeate order.

The design of a mosque is found in the Jami Masjid, a central cocert yard,
arcades on three sides and domed skyline. The prayer hall has three sides
with separate enclosed sanctuaries, each surmounted by a dome and
linked by arcades. A big gateway stands on the east projected in the form
of a half hexagonal porch and it is the entrance.

The architectural ensemble at Fatehpur Sikri, a UNESCO World Heritage

site, is a testament to the grandeur and architectural brilliance of the
Mughal era. Within this complex, the Panch Mahal stands as a
remarkable five-storied structure located in the southeastern part,
distinguished by its unique design and purpose.

The Panch Mahal, meaning 'Five Palaces,' is an exceptional edifice

characterized by its tiered structure. Each successive level diminishes in
size as it ascends, creating a striking visual effect. Red sandstone screens
enclose some sides of the building, adding an ornate touch to the
structure. The columns that support the five stories exhibit dissimilar
designs, showcasing the architectural diversity and craftsmanship
prevalent during the Mughal period.

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Adjacent to the Panch Mahal lies the Diwan-i-Khas, a building of

significant administrative importance within the complex. Its
rectangular plan extends across two stories, with a flat terraced roof
featuring pillared domed kiosks rising at each corner. The central
focus of this hall is a magnificently carved column, adorned with a
substantial bracket capital supporting a circular stone platform. From this
platform, four railed bridges extend, connecting to galleries surrounding
the upper portion of the hall. The shaft's design varies, branching out at
the top into intricate patterns, indicative of the skilled craftsmanship of
the era.

Another notable structure within the Fatehpur Sikri complex is the

Diwan-i-Am, an expansive rectangular courtyard enclosed by a
colonnade. Positioned towards the western end of this space is the
emperor's platform, a projecting structure with a pitched stone roof
featuring five equal openings. This platform comprises three parts, with
the central section reserved for the emperor. Fine stone screens,
intricately pierced with geometric patterns, separate this central space
from the other two sides.

The architectural details and layout of these buildings exemplify the

meticulous planning, artistic finesse, and engineering brilliance
characteristic of Mughal architecture. The utilization of red sandstone,
the intricate designs adorning columns and screens, and the functional yet
aesthetically pleasing layout of the structures highlight the sophistication
and attention to detail prevalent during the Mughal era.

Fatehpur Sikri, with its array of architectural wonders including the

Panch Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, and Diwan-i-Am, stands as a testament to
the cultural and architectural legacy of the Mughal Empire. These
structures not only served practical purposes but also reflected the
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opulence, grandeur, and administrative significance of the Mughal

court, leaving an indelible mark on the architectural heritage of
India.

Architecture under Jahangir and shah Jahan :

The transition from Akbar's reign to that of his successors, Jahangir and
Shah Jahan, marked a distinct shift in the trajectory of Mughal
architecture. While Akbar's demise hindered the direct progression of
architectural innovations, the secured empire and wealth that he left
behind fueled the aspirations of his successors, particularly Jahangir and
Shah Jahan, to pursue a profound interest in the visual arts. This period,
often referred to as the "age of Marble," witnessed significant changes
and innovations that became defining features of Mughal architecture.

1. Marble Era: Jahangir and Shah Jahan's reigns indeed earned the
moniker of the "age of Marble." This era saw a prevalent use of
marble as a primary building material, elevating structures to new
levels of opulence and grandeur. Marble became symbolic of
luxury and architectural sophistication.

2. Acceptance of Changes: During this period, notable changes were

embraced in Mughal architecture. These alterations were marked
by distinctive features that departed from earlier styles,
contributing to the evolution of architectural aesthetics.

3. Distinctive Arches: One significant change was the adoption of a

distinct form of arches featuring foliated curves with nine cusps.
This unique architectural feature added a sense of intricacy and
elegance to the buildings.

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4. Engrailed Arches: Marble arcades with engrailed arches

became prominent elements in architectural designs,
showcasing a refined and ornate style.

5. Bulbous Domes: The dome, a quintessential feature of Mughal

architecture, underwent changes. The bulbous dome with a stilled
neck became prevalent, and the use of double domes became
commonplace. These domes, with their graceful form, added to the
architectural splendor of the structures.

6. Inlaid Patterns and Pietra Dura: Intricate inlaid patterns in

colored stones emerged as the dominant decorative form. Pietra
dura, a technique involving embedding semi-precious stones like
lapis lazuli, onyx, jasper, topaz, and cornelian into the marble
surfaces, became a hallmark of this era. This meticulous
craftsmanship added unparalleled beauty and richness to the
architectural elements.

The reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan witnessed a remarkable evolution

in Mughal architectural aesthetics, characterized by a fusion of opulence,
precision, and artistic finesse. The meticulous use of marble, innovative
arch designs, distinctive domes, and the introduction of exquisite
decorative techniques like pietra dura exemplified the architectural
brilliance of this era. These developments not only reflected the refined
tastes of the Mughal emperors but also cemented their legacy as patrons
of extraordinary artistic expression in architectural design.

Building of Aurangzeb :-

Aurangzeb, the last of the great Mughal emperors, differed significantly

from his predecessors in his approach to architectural patronage. Unlike

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the passion for monumental construction exhibited by earlier rulers,

Aurangzeb did not share the same fervor for building.
Consequently, during his reign, the number of architectural projects
in Delhi and across the empire dwindled significantly.

Despite his relatively limited interest in architectural endeavors, a few

notable structures bear testimony to Aurangzeb's reign. Among these are
the mausoleums of his wife, Rabia, and Dara Shikoh in Aurangabad, the
Badshahi Masjid in Lahore, and the Moti Masjid within Lal Qila (Red
Fort) in Delhi.

The Badshahi Masjid in Lahore stands as a grand testament to

Aurangzeb's architectural legacy. Characterized by a vast courtyard, a
freestanding prayer hall, and minarets at each corner, it represents the
grandeur of Mughal mosque architecture. Four smaller minarets adorn
each angle of the sanctuary, and cloisters with arched entrances line both
sides of the complex. Constructed using a combination of white marble
and red sandstone, the mosque features three bulbous domes atop the
prayer hall, adding to its majestic appearance.

The Moti Masjid, situated within the Red Fort complex in Delhi, shares
similarities with Shah Jahan's Moti Masjid. However, Aurangzeb's
iteration distinguishes itself with more prominent curves. The mosque,
primarily constructed with marble, features three bulbous domes covering
the prayer hall, resembling three cupolas that add to its architectural
elegance.

Aurangzeb's architectural legacy also includes the mausoleum of his wife

in Aurangabad. However, Aurangzeb's attempt to replicate the grandeur
of the Taj Mahal with the minarets resulted in a structure that might have
seemed excessive or superfluous.

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14.4: CONCLUSION:

Though Aurangzeb's architectural patronage was relatively limited

compared to his predecessors, the structures commissioned during
his reign still stand as testaments to the architectural prowess of the
Mughal era. Despite his focus on governance and military conquests,
these buildings, with their distinctive features and architectural finesse,
serve as reminders of the diversity and richness of Mughal architecture,
even during a period marked by reduced royal patronage in this field.

14.5: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Write a note on the architectural achievements of Jahangir.

B- What were the major architectural moments found during the reign of
Akbar.

C- What were the chief features of Mughal architecture? Write a note.

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UNIT-15: MUGHAL PAINTINGS: THEMES AND

PERSPECTIVES:

Learning Objectives

After going through the unit you will be able to understand

 Major features of Mughal painting

 Growth of painting in Mughal era
 Major painters of that time

Unit Structure

15.1: Introduction

`15.2: Origin of Mughal Painting

15.3: Features of Mughal Painting

15.4: Growth of Mughal Painting Under Various Monarchs

15.5: Painters During Mughals

15.6: Conclusion

15.7: Sample Questions

15.1: INTRODUCTION:

The Mughals developed during their reign a style of painting which was known
as miniature painting. They patronised art, architecture, painting and literature
these traditions of miniature painting were established in their court. Mughal
painting was a synthesis of persianas European and Indian styles. These
paintings are significant because of their brilliance of colour execution and
artistic traditions. The painting reached its zenith during Akbar and Jahangir.

15.2: ORIGIN OF MUGHAL PAINTING :

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The miniature painting developed since 10th century and flourished

under various regional courts throughout the sultanate period. Mir-
Sayyid Ali and Abdal samad were two renowned Persian artists
who same will Humayun after his return from exit. On Humayun’s
direction they created several paintings. These paintings created a new
traditions and subsequent Mughal Emperor expanded the style.

15.3: FEATURES OF MUGHAL PAINTING :

Mughal painting, an integral part of India's artistic heritage, flourished during

the Mughal Empire, primarily from the 16th to the 18th centuries. This art form,
nurtured and patronized by the Mughal emperors, stands out for its exquisite
beauty, meticulous detail, and the fusion of diverse artistic traditions.

1. Patronage and Themes: Mughal painting received significant royal

patronage from emperors like Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. The
themes encompassed a wide array, including court scenes, portraits,
hunting scenes, flora and fauna, landscapes, mythological stories, and
religious narratives.

2. Artistic Synthesis: Mughal painting represents a synthesis of Persian,

Indian, and Central Asian artistic traditions. The blend of these diverse
influences resulted in a unique visual language that showcased intricate
detailing, vibrant colors, and a distinctive style.

3. Naturalistic Elements: The artists of Mughal paintings excelled in

portraying naturalistic elements with remarkable precision. The depiction
of flora, fauna, and landscapes was rendered with lifelike accuracy,
capturing minute details of plants, animals, and scenery.

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4. Human Portrayals: Human figures in Mughal paintings

were depicted with delicacy and grace. Emphasis was placed
on conveying emotions, expressions, and the fine details of
clothing and jewelry. Portraits of emperors, courtiers, and
nobles often reflected their grandeur and personality.

5. Perspective and Composition: Mughal painters experimented with

perspective and composition. They introduced elements of depth and
three-dimensionality, showcasing scenes with multiple layers and spatial
arrangements that created a sense of depth and realism.

6. Vibrant Color Palette: Mughal paintings are characterized by their rich

and vibrant color palette. Artists used natural pigments derived from
minerals, plants, and insects to create vivid hues that retained their
brilliance over time.

7. Miniature Format: Most Mughal paintings were executed in a miniature

format, often on materials like paper, cloth, or ivory. Despite their small
size, these miniatures were intricately detailed and exquisitely crafted,
reflecting the artists' skill and precision.

8. Calligraphy and Borders: Mughal paintings often featured ornate

calligraphy, incorporating poetic verses or inscriptions within the
artwork. Elaborate borders adorned with floral motifs, geometric patterns,
or intricate designs framed the paintings, adding to their aesthetic appeal.

9. Evolution and Innovation: The Mughal painting style evolved over

time, with each emperor contributing to its growth and refinement. While
Akbar's period emphasized realism and grandeur, Jahangir's era saw an
emphasis on delicate details and naturalistic beauty. Shah Jahan's reign
witnessed a fusion of opulence and refinement in artistic expressions.

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Mughal painting remains an invaluable cultural heritage, reflecting

the artistic brilliance and cultural amalgamation of the Mughal era.
Its enduring legacy continues to captivate art enthusiasts
worldwide, preserving the rich artistic traditions of India's past.

15.4: GROWTH OF MUGHAL PAINTINGS UNDER VARIOUS

MONARCHS:

Under Humayun

Humayun was mostly engaged in containing his rivals till he was forced out of
India by Sher Shah in 1540. During his refuge at the court of shah Tahmsp of
Persia he acquired love for painting. He commissioned Mir Syed Ali and
Khwaja Abdus samad, two Persian masters to illustrate manuscript for him.
They also came along with Humayun un an important painting was prices of
house of Timur.

Under Akbar

Akbar was a great patron. He paid attention to the details of the paintings which
he commissioned. Tutinama and ‘Hamzanama’ were the two most famous
paintings among others. Painters in his reign were influenced by Persian and
India traditions. Use of brilliant colours, brushwork and delicate execution were
the key features in his reign.

Under Jahangir

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Jahangir was influenced by European paintings and instructed his

painters to use a single point perspective. finer brushwork was
noticed. Use of shading and shadow was another feature.

Under Sahjahan

During the reign of Shah Jahan, Mughal painting reached a pinnacle of

refinement and grandeur, reflecting the opulence and artistic sophistication
characteristic of his era. Shah Jahan's patronage significantly influenced the
evolution and development of Mughal painting, marking a distinct chapter in its
history.

1. Refinement in Technique: Shah Jahan's period witnessed a refinement in

painting techniques. Artists under his patronage further perfected the
meticulous detailing, delicate brushwork, and precision in portraying
intricate designs.

2. Naturalistic Beauty: Mughal painting during Shah Jahan's reign continued

to emphasize naturalistic beauty. Artists excelled in depicting flora,
fauna, landscapes, and human figures with heightened attention to detail,
capturing the essence of beauty and realism.

3. Elegance and Grandeur: Shah Jahan's taste for elegance and grandeur
permeated Mughal paintings of his era. Courtly scenes, portraits, and
depictions of royal ceremonies exuded a sense of luxury and
sophistication, reflecting the opulent lifestyle of the Mughal court.

4. Architectural Backdrops: Paintings from Shah Jahan's time often

showcased architectural marvels, including the Taj Mahal and other
magnificent structures built during his reign. These buildings were
portrayed with intricate precision, capturing their grandeur and
architectural finesse.
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5. Rich Color Palette: The paintings of this era were

characterized by a rich and vibrant color palette. The use of
natural pigments resulted in hues that retained their brilliance
and richness over time, adding to the visual allure of the
artworks.

6. Emphasis on Portraits: Shah Jahan's era saw a heightened emphasis on

portraits. The artists skillfully captured the likeness and character of the
emperor, nobles, and courtiers, often adorned in resplendent attire and
jewelry.

7. Influence of European Art: Shah Jahan's reign also saw an increasing

influence of European art styles and techniques, particularly in the use of
shading, perspective, and certain stylistic elements. This exchange of
artistic ideas added diversity and innovation to Mughal painting.

8. Poetry and Calligraphy: Mughal paintings under Shah Jahan often

incorporated poetry and calligraphy, embedding verses within the
artwork. These poetic inscriptions added depth and lyrical beauty to the
compositions.

9. Continued Patronage: Shah Jahan's enduring patronage of the arts ensured

the continued flourishing of Mughal painting. His encouragement of
artistic endeavors led to the creation of exquisite masterpieces that
reflected the cultural richness and aesthetic sensibilities of his era.

Mughal painting under Shah Jahan stands as a testament to the empire's artistic
refinement and cultural legacy. The period witnessed the creation of exceptional
artworks that encapsulated the grandeur, elegance, and artistic finesse of the
Mughal court, leaving an indelible mark on the history of Indian art.

15.4: MAJOR PAINTERS DURING MUGHALS :

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Mughal painting, renowned for its intricacy, precision, and artistic

finesse, was not merely the work of individual artists but often a
collaborative effort involving multiple artists, each specializing in distinct
aspects of the painting process. These artists worked together under specific
rules and roles to produce the exquisite masterpieces that defined the Mughal
painting tradition.

The collaborative nature of Mughal painting involved a division of labor among

artists. Some focused on the overall composition, mapping out the layout and
design of the artwork. Others specialized in the actual execution of the painting,
applying colors and bringing the composition to life. Another group
concentrated on the intricate details, adding minute elements, fine lines, and
delicate embellishments that characterized Mughal paintings.

In the evolution and development of Mughal painting, certain artists played

pivotal roles, contributing significantly to the style and refinement of the art
form. Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd-al-Samad were prominent figures who made
substantial contributions during the early phases of Mughal painting. Their
influence helped shape the foundational elements of this artistic tradition.

Daswant, Basawan, Miskin, and Lal were among the painters whose
contributions sustained and enriched Mughal painting. They brought their
unique skills and artistic sensibilities, contributing to the diversity and depth of
the Mughal artistic repertoire.

During Akbar's reign, Kesu Das introduced European techniques into Mughal
painting, expanding the artistic horizons and introducing new methods and
styles. Govardhan, a renowned painter, made significant contributions, working
under the patronage of three Mughal emperors—Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah

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Jahan. His talent and versatility made a lasting impact on Mughal

artistic expression.

Other notable artists like Kanal, Mushfiq, and Fazl also left their
mark on Mughal painting, contributing to its richness and evolution.

However, with the decline of the Mughal Empire, some artists like Bhawanidas
and Lalchand sought refuge in the courts of the Rajput kingdoms. Their
migration led to an exchange of artistic ideas between the Mughals and the
Rajputs, influencing the trajectory of both artistic traditions.

The collaborative efforts of these artists, each contributing their specialized

skills and expertise, fostered the development and refinement of Mughal
painting. Their collective contributions formed the foundation of an artistic
legacy that continues to captivate and inspire admirers of Indian artistry
worldwide.

15.5: CONCLUSION:

Mughal painting stands as a remarkable fusion of Persian and Indian artistic

traditions, showcasing a unique blend that encapsulates historical subjects and a
vivid portrayal of courtly life.

The synthesis of Persian and Indian artistic influences is evident in Mughal

painting. It drew from the detailed and ornate styles of Persian miniatures while
incorporating the vibrant colors, naturalistic elements, and nuanced storytelling
typical of Indian art.

Mughal paintings often portrayed historical events, mythological stories, and

religious narratives. These paintings served not only as artistic expressions but
also as records of important events, offering a visual narrative of the times.

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A significant portion of Mughal painting captured scenes from the

daily life of the court. These included depictions of courtly
gatherings, ceremonies, festivities, and other routine activities of
the royal household. The paintings offered glimpses into the
opulence, customs, and traditions of the Mughal court.

Mughal paintings featured exquisite portraits of emperors, nobles, courtiers, and

other influential figures. These portraits were meticulously crafted to capture
the likeness, attire, and demeanor of the subjects, portraying them with grace
and dignity.

Certain themes in Mughal painting were repeated with variations, following a

set formula or repertoire of types. Scenes depicting hunting expeditions, battles,
court audiences, or sieges of fortresses often followed established conventions.
Painters utilized these templates and adapted them to specific contexts.

While painters adhered to established templates for certain scenes, they also
demonstrated creativity by crafting new compositions. When faced with
scenarios for which no prototype existed, artists innovated, devising fresh
compositions to capture unique events or concepts.

The Akbarnama, a chronicle of Akbar's reign, contains notable illustrations that

showcase a diverse range of scenes and events. These paintings depict battles,
court proceedings, royal ceremonies, and moments of historical significance,
offering a rich visual narrative of Akbar's era.

The versatility and creativity displayed by Mughal painters allowed them to

blend established artistic traditions with innovation. This fusion of Persian and
Indian styles, combined with the depiction of historical events and courtly life,
resulted in a rich and diverse artistic heritage that continues to captivate
audiences with its cultural depth and visual splendor.

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15.6: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Discuss about the major painters during the Mughal period.

B- Critically appreciate Mughal painting under different Mughal

rulers.

C- What were the major characteristics of Mughal painting? Write a note.

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UNIT-16: RAJPUT PAINTINGS: THEMES AND

PERSPECTIVES :

Learning Objectives

After reading the unit you will be able to understand

 Origin of Rajput painting

 Characteristic and themes of Rajput Painting
 Its different schools

Unit Structure

16.1: Introduction

16.2: Origin

16.3: Characteristics of Rajput Painting

16.4: Themes of Rajput Painting

16.5: Schools of Rajput Painting

16.6: Conclusion

16.7: Sample Questions

16.1: INTRODUCTION:

Rajput painting, spanning from the late 16th to the mid-19th century, holds a
significant position in the realm of Indian art. Its evolution and prominence

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were deeply intertwined with the socio-political changes and

cultural exchanges during this period.

1. Emergence During Akbar's Reign: The rise of Rajput

painting can be traced back to the court of Delhi after Akbar's conquest.
Skilled artisans from various regions of India, particularly from areas
under Akbar's control, presented their artistry at the Delhi court. This
interaction facilitated the exchange of artistic ideas and techniques
between Mughal and indigenous artists.

2. Themes and Diversity: Rajput painting encompassed diverse themes,

reflecting the cultural and social milieu of the region. These paintings
depicted scenes of bravery, valor, mythological narratives, courtly life,
religious stories, and the beauty of nature. Miniature paintings,
calligraphy, and manuscript illustrations were also integral components of
Rajput artistry.

3. Spread and Prosperity: The Rajput painting style thrived predominantly

in the princely courts of various regions, spreading across Rajasthan and
parts of present-day Madhya Pradesh. Prominent centers of Rajput
painting included Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh,
Jodhpur, Malwa, Sirohi, and other principalities. Each region developed
its distinctive style, often influenced by local traditions, patronage, and
cultural nuances.

4. Distinct Regional Styles: The different Rajput courts developed their

unique artistic identities. For instance, Mewar paintings were known for
their bold colors and detailed compositions, while Bundi paintings
showcased vibrant hues and intimate scenes. Jaipur paintings often
emphasized elegance and refinement, reflecting the courtly aesthetics of
the region.

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5. Patronage and Artistic Flourishing: Rajput painting

received generous patronage from the princely rulers, who
actively promoted artistic endeavors. The paintings adorned
palaces, manuscripts, religious texts, and courtly settings,
serving as expressions of cultural identity and aesthetic sensibilities.

6. Artistic Techniques and Adaptations: Rajput artists employed various

techniques, including the use of vibrant colors, intricate detailing, and
fine brushwork. They adapted Mughal painting techniques while infusing
their regional flavor, resulting in a distinctive artistic fusion.

7. Spiritual and Artistic Significance: Rajput paintings often depicted

religious stories, devotional themes, and romantic narratives. They held
not just artistic value but also served as visual expressions of spiritual
devotion and cultural pride.

The evolution and proliferation of Rajput painting signify the richness and
diversity of Indian artistic traditions. Its flourishing across princely courts
contributed to a vibrant tapestry of regional artistic expressions, leaving an
enduring legacy that continues to be celebrated for its beauty, cultural
significance, and historical relevance.

16.2: ORIGIN:

Rajput painting, often referred to as the Rajasthan school of paintings, emerged

in the late 16th and early 17th centuries within the royal courts of Rajputana,
particularly in the princely states of Rajasthan. Renowned for its intricate
designs, vibrant colors, and unique stylistic elements, Rajput painting gained
recognition as a distinct artistic tradition that flourished alongside the Mughal
school of painting.

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1. Origin and Patronage: Rajput painting originated in the

royal courts of Rajputana, where Rajput rulers were the
primary patrons of this art form. These paintings adorned
palace walls, manuscripts, religious texts, and other courtly
settings, showcasing the region's cultural richness and artistic prowess.

2. Anand Coomaraswamy's Description: Anand Coomaraswamy, in

1916, coined the term "Rajput Paintings" to differentiate this style from
the Mughal School of Paintings. His distinction was primarily based on
the patrons of these art forms, with Rajput rulers predominantly
supporting the Rajput painting tradition.

3. Distinguishing Features: Rajput paintings were characterized by their

intricate designs, often featuring richly detailed compositions, vibrant
colors, and a focus on storytelling through visual narratives. These
paintings depicted various themes, including mythological stories, courtly
life, religious scenes, and nature.

4. Expansion and Influence: The Rajput painting tradition extended

beyond Rajasthan to include regions like Malwa, situated in central India,
and the Pahari schools, which encompassed the hilly Himalayan regions
in Northwest India. These sub-schools developed their unique styles
while remaining part of the broader Rajput painting tradition.

5. Precedence Over Mughal Painting: Rajput painting existed prior to the

emergence of the Mughal School of Paintings. While Mughal painting
gained prominence after the Mughal conquests, Rajput painting was
rooted in the cultural heritage of the region, preceding the Mughal
influence in artistic expressions.

6. Distinct Regional Styles: Within the Rajput painting tradition, different

princely courts developed their unique styles. The Malwa school, for

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instance, showcased its artistic identity, while the Pahari

schools, including Basohli, Kangra, and others, reflected the
diverse cultural influences and local nuances of the
Himalayan regions.

7. Artistic Legacy: Rajput painting, with its vibrant colors, detailed

compositions, and regional diversity, contributed significantly to the
richness of Indian art history. It remains celebrated for its unique
expression of cultural identity, capturing the essence of Rajasthan's royal
courts and the diverse landscapes of India's northwest region.

Rajput painting's evolution and influence stand as a testament to the cultural

heritage and artistic brilliance of Rajasthan and the surrounding regions, leaving
a lasting legacy in the annals of Indian art history.

16.3: CHARACTERISTICS OF RAJPUT PAINTING:

Rajput painting, an exquisite artistic tradition that flourished in the royal courts
of Rajputana and neighboring regions in India from the late 16th to the 19th
century, carries distinct characteristics that define its style, themes, and artistic
expressions.

1. Intricate Designs and Detailing: Rajput paintings are renowned for their
intricate designs and meticulous detailing. Artists paid meticulous
attention to intricate patterns, delicate lines, and ornate embellishments,
often showcasing elaborate borders and finely-drawn elements.

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2. Vibrant Colors and Pigments: The paintings feature a

vibrant and vivid color palette. Artists used natural pigments
derived from minerals, plants, and other organic sources,
creating a rich array of colors that remained vibrant over
time. The use of bright hues added dynamism and visual appeal to the
artwork.

3. Emphasis on Miniature Art: Rajput painting often employed a

miniature format, where artists depicted intricate scenes on small-scale
surfaces like paper, cloth, or ivory. Despite their small size, these
miniatures showcased extraordinary detail and finesse.

4. Varied Themes and Subjects: The themes of Rajput painting were

diverse and encompassed various subjects. These included mythological
narratives, religious stories, courtly life, portraits of rulers and nobility,
scenes from nature, love stories, and historical events. Each theme was
depicted with its unique visual language and artistic representation.

5. Courtly Life and Royal Patronage: The paintings reflected the courtly
life and cultural milieu of the Rajput courts. Rajput rulers were major
patrons of this art form, commissioning paintings that glorified their
lineage, achievements, and cultural traditions.

6. Regional Diversity and Styles: Different Rajput courts developed their

distinctive artistic styles. For instance, the Mewar school was known for
its bold colors and narrative complexity, while the Kishangarh school
emphasized poetic and romantic themes. The Pahari schools, such as
Basohli and Kangra, focused on nature, love, and spirituality.

7. Narrative Storytelling: Rajput paintings often depicted narratives

through visual storytelling. Scenes were composed to convey stories,

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emotions, and cultural nuances, often through symbols,

gestures, and facial expressions.

8. Fusion of Indigenous and Mughal Styles: Rajput painting

incorporated elements from indigenous Indian artistic traditions along
with influences from the Mughal School of Painting. This fusion resulted
in a unique blend of styles, where indigenous motifs, themes, and cultural
symbols were adapted with Mughal techniques.

9. Spiritual and Devotional Themes: Many Rajput paintings depicted

spiritual and devotional themes, showcasing religious narratives, episodes
from Hindu epics, and scenes from mythology.

Rajput painting remains a testament to the artistic richness and cultural heritage
of India, reflecting the grandeur of Rajput courts, the diversity of regional
influences, and the artistic genius of its painters. Its enduring legacy continues
to captivate art enthusiasts worldwide for its intricate beauty and cultural
significance.

16.4: THEMES OF RAJPUT PAINTING:

Base Theme

The basic theme of Rajput paintings depicted. That they were painted on palace
walls, fort interior rooms and other locations.

Colour Theme

Colour themes were taken from minerals Plant sources and conch shells. Precise
colours were used.

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16.5: SCHOOLS OF RAJPUT PAINTING:

MEWAR SCHOOL

The Mewar rules Patronized art during the years of Peace and
Prosperity and there was an exceptional development.The different school of
typing in mewar Schools were Nath dwara style.Extra ordinary figure of
shahibdin dominated Mewar painting. During this time sahibdin displays the
Rasika Priya, the Ramayana and the Bhagabata Purana.But after Sahibdein
death the style of mewar painting changed and depicted the Court of Mewar.
The tamasha Paintings represented court ceremonies and city views.

Bundi schools

Hadoti was the name given to the twin Kingdoms of Bundi and kota. These
republics were created out of splitting the Bundi kingdom and have closely
interwined histories and artistic traditions.

The monarchs of Bundi and kota were Krishna devotees who declared
themselves as the ruling agents.

Udaipur and Jaipur Paintings reveal the same Patterns Natural plants and
spherical human faces were painted. The sky with a red ribbon visible in most
of in Park was painted in different colors.

Amber School

It was also known as Dhundar School, It is seen in the Rajasthan's Bairat

Paintings, it is the oldest evidence Paintings also are found on the Palace walls
and tomb of Amber palace in Rajasthan. Although some of the men are dressed
in Mughal style, it has a folk style finish. Under the reign of Sawai Pratap Singh
in 18th century the school reached its apex. Suratkhana or the painting

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department created miniatures for the Bhagavata Purana

RamaYana, Ragamala and many other portraits Malwa school.

Kota School

Kota school mostly depicted hunting scenes and express an unparalleled

Passion. It is obsessed with animal pursuits attention to destined shade,
Calligraphic execution and the double lid eye are the distinct features of this
school. They were expert in depicting animals and welfare.

Jodhpur School

The Ragamala set painted by Artistt Virji in 1623 is one of the first pali sets. In
the mid seventeenth century Maharaja Jaswant Singh flourished and he
parrosised various Krishna related subjet’s of which Bhagavata purana was the
most prominent one due to the fondness of Shrinathji Vallabha cult. The
important sets painted were Ramayana, Dhola Maru, Panchatantra etc.

Bikaner School

Rao Bika Rathore founded Bikaner in 1488 Anup Singh (1669-1698) and he
established a library which became a repositary of manuscripts and artworks -
Several master artists visited Bikamer during this period. Blue, green, red
colors were used Frequently. Turbans in the Style of Shahazahan and
Aurangzeb as well as Maswari tarbans were used.

Kishangarh school

The state of Kishangarh was founded by Kisan singh. Artists were working in
that court by the mid seventeenth century under the patronage man singh (1658-
1706). This school of Paintings depict the most romantic legends such as
Sawant Singh and his beloved Bani Thani the blending of life and mythology,
Passion and bhakti The Radha Krishna interaction is also depicted.

Materials and Techniques

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Paper- often handmade, using materials like silk, hemp and cotton
were used.

Mineral colors and natural pigments like indigo vermellion and

ochre sourced from minerals and plants.

Precious stones

Crushed gems like gold, silver, and precious stones were used.

Metalic Leaves

Gold and silver leaves added Gum Arabic was used as a binding medium.
Shellac was applied as varnish to enhance Shine and Protect colors

Techniques

Uses of Perspective work, meticulous Brushworks, Precise lines and delicate

strokes along with vegetal Pattern and human figures with symbolic gestured.

16.6: CONCLUSION:

The tradition of Rajput painting showcased extraordinary artistic excellence.

Artists demonstrated mastery in intricate designs, meticulous detailing, vibrant
color palettes, and the delicate art of miniature painting. Their skillful
brushwork and use of pigments resulted in captivating artworks that stood as
testaments to their creative prowess.

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Rajput paintings were characterized by a diverse range of themes

and subjects, depicting mythological stories, religious narratives,
courtly life, portraits, nature, love tales, and historical events. Each
theme was explored with a unique visual language, reflecting the
artistic versatility and depth of the Rajput artists.

The patronage extended by Rajput rulers played a pivotal role in nurturing and
promoting the development of Rajput painting. The artworks adorned palace
walls, manuscripts, and courtly settings, reflecting the tastes, preferences, and
aspirations of the royal patrons.

The various Rajput courts gave rise to distinct regional schools of painting, such
as Mewar, Bundi, Jaipur, Kishangarh, and the Pahari schools of Basohli,
Kangra, and others. Each school had its unique stylistic features, color palettes,
and thematic preferences, contributing to the diversity and richness of Rajput
painting.

Rajput painting's enduring legacy continues to inspire contemporary artists and

scholars, serving as a rich source of inspiration in the realm of Indian art
history. Its influence is evident in the cultural ethos, aesthetic traditions, and
artistic expressions that endure in present-day Indian art.

The significance of Rajput painting extends beyond its artistic excellence; it

serves as a vital part of India's cultural heritage. Efforts to preserve, study, and
showcase these artworks contribute to the preservation and understanding of
India's rich artistic legacy.

Rajput painting, with its intricacy, diversity, and cultural resonance, remains an
integral part of India's artistic heritage. It stands as a testament to the creativity,
craftsmanship, and cultural vibrancy of the Rajput courts, leaving an indelible
mark on the tapestry of Indian art history.

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16.7: SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

A- Write a note on the themes of Rajput painting.

B- What were the different schools of Rajput Painting? Elaborate.

C- Critically appreciate the characteristics of Rajput Painting.

D-How do you different Rajput painting from Mughal painting? Justify your
answer.

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