CETB 4013

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING

C A PA C I T Y A N D L E V E L O F S E R V I C E
Chapter

Capacity And Level

of Service
Outline

1. Definitions
2. Level of Service (LOS)
3. Freeway Segment LOS Determination
a. Free-flow speed
b. Flow Rate
Freeway Definition

■ A divided highway with full control of access and two or more

lanes for the exclusive use of traffic in each direction.
■ Assumptions
– No interaction with adjacent facilities (streets, other
freeways)
– Free-flow conditions exist on either side of the facility
being analyzed
– Outside the influence or ramps and weaving areas
Basic Freeway Segment

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

Base / Ideal Condition for Freeway
■ Lane width at least 3.6m wide
■ Lateral clearance between the edge of travel land and
the nearest obstacle or object influencing traffic
behavior at least 1.8m
■ Traffic stream consists of passenger cars only
■ 10 or more lanes (in urban area only)
■ Interchanges spaced every 3.3 km
■ Level terrain with grades no greater than 2 percent
■ Driver population dominated by regular and familiar
users of the facility
➢ Represent high operating level 110 km/hr or greater
Freeway capacity
– The maximum sustained 15-min flow rate,
expressed in passenger cars per hour per lane
(pc/hr/ln), that can be accommodated by a uniform
freeway segment under prevailing traffic and
roadway conditions in one direction of flow.

Number of lanes
Traffic composition
Lanes width
Driver population
Lateral obstruction
speed
Interchange spacing
Grade
Free-Flow Speed
■ Free-Flow Speed (FFS)
– The mean speed of passenger cars that can be
accommodated under low to moderate flow rates on a
uniform freeway segment under prevailing roadway and
traffic conditions.

■ Factors affecting free-flow speed

– Lane width - Driver population
– Lateral clearance - Geometric design
– Number of lanes - Interchange density
– Vehicle equivalents
 Level of Service (LOS)

■ Chief measure of “quality of service”

– Describes operational conditions within a traffic stream.
– Does not include safety
– Different measures for different facilities
■ Six measures (A through F)
■ Freeway LOS
– Based on flow rate and traffic density
Levels of Service
■ LOS A
– Free-flow operation with
low volume
– Density not greater than 7
pc/km/ln
– High speed

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

■ LOS B
– Reasonably free flow
– Ability to maneuver is only
slightly restricted
– Effects of minor incidents
still easily absorbed
 Levels of Service
■ LOS C
– Speeds at or near FFS
– Freedom to maneuver is
noticeably restricted
– Queues may form behind any
significant blockage.

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

■ LOS D
– Speeds decline slightly with
increasing flows
– Density increases more quickly
– Freedom to maneuver is more
noticeably limited
– Minor incidents create queuing
 Levels of Service
■ LOS E
– Operation near or at capacity
– No usable gaps in the traffic
stream
– Operations extremely volatile
– Any disruption causes queuing

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

■ LOS F
– Breakdown in flow
– Queues form behind
breakdown points
– Demand > capacity
Speed-Flow-Density Relationship
A B
C
Uncongested Flow / Stable flow D
E

Congested Flow / Unstable flow E

qmax

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

LOS Calculation

■ Does not consider

– Special lanes reserved for a particular type of vehicle (High
Occupancy Vehicle, truck, climbing, etc.)
– Extended bridge and tunnel segments
– Segments near a toll plaza
– Facilities with FFS < 90 km/h or > 120 km/h
– Demand conditions in excess of capacity
– Influence of downstream blockages or queuing
– Posted speed limit
– Extent of police enforcement
– Intelligent transportation system features
– Capacity-enhancing effects of ramp metering
 Freeway LOS
Input
Geometric Data
Measured FFS or BFFS
Volume
BFFS Input

BFFS Adjustment Volume Adjustment

Lane width PHF
Number of lanes Number of lanes
Interchange density Measured Driver population
Lateral clearance FFS Input Heavy vehicles

Compute FFS Compute flow rate

Define speed-flow curve

Compute density using flow rate and speed

Determine speed using speed-flow curve

Determine LOS
 Freeway LOS

Determining FFS
■ Measure FFS in the field
– Low to moderate traffic conditions

■ Use a baseline and adjust it (BFFS)

FFS = BFFS − f LW − f LC − f N − f ID
FFS = free-flow speed (km/h)
BFFS = base free-flow speed, 110 km/h (urban), 120 km/h (rural)
fLW = adjustment for lane width (km/h)
fLC = adjustment for right-shoulder lateral clearance (km/h)
fN = adjustment for number of lanes (km/h)
fID = adjustment for interchange density (km/h)
 Freeway LOS

Lane Width Adjustment (fLW)

■ Base condition (fLW = 0)
– Average width of 3.6 m or wider across all lanes

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

Lateral Clearance Adjustment (fLC)

Malaysia
■ Base condition (fLC = 0)
– 1.8 m or greater on left side
– 0.6 m or greater on the median or right side

USA

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

Number of Lanes Adjustment (fN)

■ Base condition (fN = 0)
– 5 or more lanes in one direction
– Do not include HOV lanes
– fN = 0 for all rural freeway segments

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

Interchange Density Adjustment (fIC)

■ Base condition (fIC = 0)
– 0.3 interchanges per km (3.3 km spacing)
– Interchange defined as having at least one on-ramp
– Determined over 10 km segment

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

Determining Flow Rate

■ Adjust hourly volumes to get pc/ln/hr

V
vp =
PHF  N  f HV  f p

vp = 15-minute passenger-car equivalent flow rate (pcphpl)

V = hourly volume (veh/hr)
PHF = peak hour factor
N = number of lanes in one direction
fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
fP = driver population adjustment factor
 Freeway LOS

Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

■ Typical values
– 0.80 to 0.95
– Lower PHF characteristic or rural or off-peak
– Higher PHF typical of urban peak-hour

V
PHF =
V15  4
V = hourly volume (veh/hr) for hour of analysis
V15 = maxiumum 15-min. flow rate within hour of analysis
4 = Number of 15-min. periods per hour
 Freeway LOS

Heavy Vehicle Adjustment (fHV)

■ Base condition (fHV = 1.0)
– No heavy vehicles
– Heavy vehicle = trucks, buses, RVs

■ Two-step process
– Determine passenger-car equivalents (ET)
– Determine fHV
 Freeway LOS

Determine fHV

1
f HV =
1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (E R − 1)

fHV = Heavy vehicle adjustment factor

ET, ER = Passenger-car equivalents for trucks/buses and RVs
PT, PR = Proportion of trucks/buses and RVs in traffic stream
 Freeway LOS

Passenger-Car Equivalents (ET)

■ Extended segments method
– Determine the type of terrain and select ET
– No one grade of 3% or more is longer than 0.4 km
OR
– No one grade of less than 3% is longer than 0.8 km

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

Level – permit HV to maintain approximately the same speed as PC (generally short grades
not more than 2%)
Rolling – HV to reduce speed substantially below PC but not to operate at their limiting speed
Mountainous – HV to operate at their limiting speed
 Freeway LOS

Passenger-Car Equivalents (ET)

■ Specific grades method
– Any grade of 3% or more that is longer than 0.4 km
OR
– Any grade of less than 3% that is longer than 0.8 km

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

Driver Population Adjustment (fP)

■ Base condition (fP = 1.0)

– Most drivers are familiar with the route
■ Commuter drivers
– Typical values between 0.85 and 1.00
 Freeway LOS

Determine Density

■ Calculate density using:

vp n q
D= k= =
S l u

D = density (pc/km/ln)
vp = flow rate (pc/hr/ln)
S = average passenger-car speed (km/h)
 Freeway LOS

Determine Average PC Speed (S)

Use vp and FFS curve to find average passenger car speed (S)

For 90 ≤ FFS ≤ 120 km/h AND (3100 – 15FFS) < vp ≤ (1800 + 5FFS)

2.6
1 𝑣𝑝 + 15𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 3100
𝑆 = 𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 23𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 1800
28 20𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 1300

For 90 ≤ FFS ≤ 120 km/h AND vp < (3100 – 15FFS)

S = FFS
Determine LOS
Select a speed-flow curve based on FFS and flow rate

𝑣𝑝

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

Determine LOS
Select density of flow

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

 Freeway LOS

Determine LOS

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000

From Highway Capacity Manual, 2000
 START

Determine Free Flow Speed

𝐹𝐹𝑆 = 𝐵𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 𝑓𝐿𝑊 − 𝑓𝐿𝐶 − 𝑓𝑁 − 𝑓𝐼𝐷
Data of Measured NO
Free Flow Speed Determine Flowrate
𝑉
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝
YES

Determine LOS

END
 Freeway LOS

Example 1
Existing 4-lane freeway, urban area with very restricted geometry.

✓ 3.3 m lane width

✓ 0.6 m lateral clearance on left and right sides
✓ rolling terrain
✓ interchange spaced 2 km apart
✓ 2000 vph peak hour volume (one direction)
✓ PHF = 0.92
✓ Traffic consists of 5% truck
✓ Mostly commuter traffic.

Determine the LOS during peak hour.

 Freeway LOS
Example 1 - Answer
Existing 4-lane freeway, urban area with very
restricted geometry.
✓ 3.3 m lane width
✓ 0.6 m lateral clearance on left and right sides
✓ rolling terrain
✓ interchange spaced 2 km apart
✓ 2000 vph peak hour volume (one direction)
✓ PHF = 0.92
✓ Traffic consists of 5% truck
✓ Mostly commuter traffic.

1 interchange
2 km
Determine Free Flow Speed = 0.5

FFS = BFFS − f LW − f LC − f N − f ID

= 110 – 3.1 – 3.9 – 7.3 – 2.1

= 93.6 km/hr
 Freeway LOS
Example 1 - Answer
Existing 4-lane freeway, urban area with very
restricted geometry.
✓ 3.3 m lane width
✓ 0.6 m lateral clearance on left and right sides
✓ rolling terrain
✓ interchange spaced 2 km apart
✓ 2000 vph PHV (one direction)
✓ PHF = 0.92
✓ Traffic consists of 5% truck
✓ Mostly commuter traffic.

Determine Flow Rate Compute HV adjustment factor

V 1
vp = f HV =
PHF  N  f HV  f p 1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1)
2000 1
= =
0.92 × 2 × 0.93 × 1 1 + 0.05 2.5 − 1 + 0

= 0.93
= 1169 pc/hr/ln
 Freeway LOS
Example 1 - Answer
Determine Level of Service

Use Flow- Speed Curve

At FFS = 93.6 km/hr
𝑣𝑝 = 1169 pc/hr/ln

LOS C

Use Density Table

vp
D=
S
1169
=
93.6
= 12.49 pc/km/ln

LOS C Check 3100 – 15 FFS = 1696 > Vp (1169)

So, S = FFS
 Freeway LOS

Example 2
Existing rural freeway

v two 3.6m lanes in each direction

v 1.2m shoulder lateral clearance
v Interchanges spaced approximately 5 km apart.
v Traffic consists of 10% trucks and buses and 8% recreational
vehicles.
v The adjustment for driver population factor is estimated to be 0.80.
v Directional peak hour volume is 1584 veh/hr
v PHF = 0.9

i. Determine the LOS if the segment is on a level roadway

ii. Determine the LOS if the segment is on a 1.7 km long 3.1% upgrade
iii. How many vehicle can be added before the roadway reach capacity (assume
proportion vehicle and PHF is constant)?
iv. When the road will reach capacity? (assume traffic growth rate is 3% per annum)
 Freeway LOS
Example 2 - Answer
Determine the LOS if the segment is on a level roadway

Existing rural freeway

v two 3.6m lanes in each direction

v 1.2m shoulder lateral clearance
v Interchanges spaced approximately 5 km apart.

1 interchange
5 km
Determine Free Flow Speed = 0.2

FFS = BFFS − f LW − f LC − f N − f ID
= 120 – 0 – 1.9 – 0 – 0
= 118.1 km/hr
 Freeway LOS
Example 2 – Answer (continue)
Determine the LOS if the segment is on a level roadway

Existing rural freeway

v Traffic consists of 10% trucks and

buses and 8% recreational vehicles.
v The adjustment for driver population
factor is estimated to be 0.80.
v Directional peak hour volume is 1584 veh/hr
v PHF = 0.9

Determine Flow Rate Compute HV adjustment factor

V 1
vp = f HV =
PHF  N  f HV  f p 1 + PT (ET − 1) + PR (ER − 1)
1584 1
= =
1 + 0.10 1.5 − 1 + 0.08(1.2 − 1)
0.9 × 2 × 0.938 × 0.8

= 1173 pc/hr/ln = 0.938

 Freeway LOS
Example 2 – Answer (continue)
Compute Level of Service

Use Flow- Speed Curve

At FFS = 118.1 km/hr
𝑣𝑝 = 1173 pc/hr/ln

LOS B

Use Density Table

vp
D=
S
1173
=
118.1
= 9.93 pc/km/ln

LOS B check, 3100 – 15 FFS = 1328.5 > 1173 (vp)

so, S= FFS
 Freeway LOS
Example 2 – Answer (continue)
Determine the LOS if the segment is on a 1.7 km long 3.1% upgrade

Compute HV adjustment factor

1 Determine new Vp
𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
1 + 0.10 3.0 − 1 + 0.08(2.0 − 1) Determine LOS

= 0.78 LOS C
 Freeway LOS
Example 2 – Answer (continue)
Determine how many vehicle can be added before the roadway reach capacity (assume
proportion vehicle and PHF is constant)?

Roadway capacity occurs at LOS E

At 120 km.hr, vp =2400 pc/hr/ln
At 110 km.hr, vp =2350 pc/hr/ln
By interpolating,
At 118.1 km/hr, vp = 2391 pc/hr/ln

Vehicle at capacity
V
vp =
PHF  N  f HV  f p
𝑉 When the road will reach capacity? (assume traffic
2391 =
0.9 𝑥 2 𝑥 0.938 𝑥 0.8) growth rate is 3% per annum)

𝑛
V = 3230 veh/hr 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉0 × 1 + 𝑟

Additional vehicle 𝑛
3230 = 1584 × 1 + 0.03
= 3230 – 1584 n = 24 years
= 1646 veh/hr
𝑰𝒏 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝟕
 Freeway LOS

Example 3
urban freeway

v Rolling terrain
v 3.6m lane width
v 1.2m shoulder lateral clearance
v Interchanges spaced approximately 5 km apart.
v Traffic consists of 3% trucks, 7% buses and 8% recreational
vehicles.
v The adjustment for driver population factor is estimated to be 0.80.
v Peak 15 min flow rate is 1760 veh/hr

Determine how many lanes to provide LOS B

 Freeway LOS
Example 3 - Answer
urban freeway

v Rolling terrain
v 3.6m lane width
v 1.2m shoulder lateral clearance
v Interchanges spaced approximately 5 km apart.

Determine Free Flow Speed

𝐹𝐹𝑆 = 𝐵𝐹𝐹𝑆 − 𝑓𝐿𝑊 − 𝑓𝐿𝐶 − 𝑓𝑁 − 𝑓𝐼𝐷

= 110 – 0 – 𝑓𝐿𝐶 − 𝑓𝑁 – 0

Assume N 𝐟𝐋𝐂 𝐟𝐍 FFS

2 1.9 7.3 100.8

3 1.3 4.8 103.9

4 0.7 2.4 106.9

5 0.4 0 109.6
 Freeway LOS
Example 3 – Answer (continue)
Determine how many lanes to provide LOS B

Urbanfreeway
v Rolling terrain
v Traffic consists of 10% trucks and
buses and 8% recreational vehicles.
v The adjustment for driver population
factor is estimated to be 0.80.
v Peak 15 min flow rate is 1760 veh/hr
HV adjustment factor
1
Compute Flow Rate 𝑓𝐻𝑉 =
𝑉 𝑉 1 + 𝑃𝑇 𝐸𝑇 − 1 + 𝑃𝑅 𝐸𝑅 − 1
𝑃𝐻𝐹 = 𝑞 = 1760
𝑉 = 0.81
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑉
𝑃𝐻𝐹 × 𝑁 × 𝑓𝐻𝑉 × 𝑓𝑝 𝑃𝐻𝐹
= 1760 From flow-
speed curve
1760
= Assume N 𝐅𝐅𝐒 𝑣𝑝 LOS
𝑁 × 0.81 × 0.8
2 100.8 1358 C

3 lanes per direction 3 103.9 905 B

should be provided for 4 106.9 679 A
LOS B
5 109.6 543 A
 References
■ James H. Banks (2002); Introduction to
Transportation Engineering, 2rd Edition,
McGraw Hill
■ Transportation Research Board. (2000).
Highway Capacity Manual 2000. National
Research Council, Washington, D.C.
■ Fred L. Manerrring and Scott S. Washburn
(2013); Principles of Highway Engineering and
Traffic Analysis, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons