ENERGY AND ENERGY EFFECT I

Energy and Chemical Reaction

Energy is the ability to do work. The total energy of a system is the sum of potential and kinetic energy.
Potential energy is stored energy as a result of the position of particles contained in a substance. Kinetic
energy is the energy of motion, that is, the particles of the substance are in motion.

The various forms of energy include heat, light, sound, electrical, chemical, mechanical, and nuclear. The
various forms of energy are interconvertible, that is energy can be converted from one form to another.
For example, the chemical energy stored in the food inside our body can be converted into heat energy
which warms our body, and kinetic energy which enables us to do work.

When energy changes from one form to another, the total amount of energy before and after the change
is always the same. This is in line with the law of conservation of energy which states that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to another.

Heat Content or Enthalpy

Enthalpy is a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system.
Thermodynamics means the flow of heat energy. It is a branch of physics that deals with the
relationship between heat and other forms of energy. Enthalpy changes are heat changes accompanying
physical and chemical changes.
The symbol of heat change or enthalpy change is ∆H, where ∆ stands for change and H stands for heat.
An enthalpy change is a difference between the sum of the heat contents of products and the sum of
heat contents of reactants.

ΔHproducts – ΔHreactants
∆Hθ = ∑Hθpr – ∑Hθr
The unit of ∆H = KJmol-1 or Kcal mol-1
KJ = kilojoule
Kcal = kilocalorie
The two types of Heat change are:
1. Exothermic reaction
2. Endothermic reaction
Exothermic and Endothermic Reaction
Exothermic Reaction:
This is a chemical reaction in which heat is liberated or given off to the surrounding. The surrounding
becomes hotter at the end of the reaction. Heat change [∆H] in an exothermic reaction is negative.
Examples of exothermic processes include
(a) Dissolution of pellets of NaOH or KOH or CaO in water.
(b) Neutralization reaction
(c) Displacement reaction
(d) Addition of concentrated acid to water
(e) All combustion reactions
(f) Passing SO2 gas into water
In the energy profile diagram of an exothermic reaction, note that the product is formed at lower energy
than the reactant. ∆H = negative, since Hr ≥ Hpr.

Energy profile diagram of Exothermic reaction.

Endothermic Reaction:
This is a chemical reaction in which heat is absorbed from the surrounding, hence the surroundings
become cooler at the end of the reaction. Heat change [∆H] in an endothermic reaction is positive.
Examples of endothermic processes include:
(a) Thermal decomposition of potassium trioxochlorate(V) [KCLO3]
(b) Thermal dissociation of ammonium chloride [NH4Cl]
(c) The formation of Nitrogen(II)oxide from its elements, Nitrogen, and Oxygen
(d) Dissolution of crystals of Ammonium chloride [NH4Cl], Ammonium trioxonitrate[V] [NH4NO3],
Potassium trioxonitrate[V] KNO3

Energy profile diagram of Endothermic reaction.

In the energy profile diagram of the Endothermic reaction, note that the product is formed at a higher
energy than the reactant. ∆H is positive, since Hpr ≥ Hr.
The study of heat change accompanying physical and chemical processes is thermochemistry; a branch
of thermodynamics. Example of chemical reactions involving Exothermic and Endothermic changes:
Factors affecting Enthalpy change [∆H]
1. Physical states of reactants and products
2. Concentration of reactants
3. Temperature
4. Pressure [for gaseous reactants and products]

Standard Conditions for Energy Changes

1. Temperature at 298k or 25°C
2. Pressure must be 1.01 x 105 Nm-2, or 1 atm, or 760mmHg
3. The solution must have a concentration of 1 mol/dm3
4. The substance involved must be in their normal physical state at the temperature chosen.
Types of Heat Change in Chemical Reaction
The heat of reaction or enthalpy change obtained under standard condition is given the symbol, ΔHθ
[θ means standard conditions].

Heat of reaction: This is the heat change when all the substances involved in a reaction have reacted
completely. It is the heat content of a reaction i.e the amount of heat involved in a reaction. ΔHθpr – Hθr.
Standard enthalpy change ΔHθ is a state function. It depends on the initial and final states of the system.
ΔHθ = H2 – H1
Enthalpy or heat changes are mostly encountered in formation, neutralisation, combustion, solution,
fusion, hydrogenation, hydration, vaporization.

1. Heat of Formation ∆Hθf

The standard enthalpy [heat] of formation is the heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of substance
is formed from its elements under standard conditions. The standard heat of formation could be
endothermic or exothermic i.e positive or negative. Example
i. Standard enthalpy of formation of water:
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O (g) ∆Hθf = -285KJ mol-1
ii. Standard enthalpy of formation of hydrogen iodide:
½ H2(g) + ½ I2 → HI(g) ∆Hθf = +26.0KJ mol-1
iii. Standard enthalpy of formation of carbon(IV)oxide:
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆Hθf = -393KJ mol-1
Thus, the more exothermic the standard heat of formation of a compound, the greater is its energetic
stability. Hence CO2 is more stable with respect to its elements than H2O because more heat is liberated
during the formation of CO2 than water. Enthalpy of formation is zero for elements in their normal state,
e.g carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, iodine, etc.

Calculation Based on Heat of Formation:

1. When 5g of liquid water was formed by burning hydrogen gas, +65KJ of heat was given off. Calculate
the standard heat of formation of water.

H2(g) + ½O2(g) → H2O(l) ∆Hθf = ?KJ mol-1

[H = 1, O = 16] H2O = 18
Solution:
If 5g of water produces +65KJ of heat

2. When 4.5g of liquid water was formed by burning hydrogen gas in oxygen -72KJ of heat was given off.
Calculate the standard heat formation of water.
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(l) ∆Hθf = ?
[H= 1, O = 16, H2O = 18]
Solution:
If 4.5g of liquid water produces -72KJ of heat

2. Heat of Neutralization ∆Hθn:

Standard heat of neutralization is the amount of heat evolved when 1 mole of hydrogen ion from an acid
reacts with 1 mole of hydroxyl ion from an alkali to form 1 mole of water under standard conditions.
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l), ∆Hθn = -57KJ mol-1
A neutralization reaction is exothermic because it is always accompanied by the evolution of heat. The
heat of neutralization, of a strong acid and strong base, is approximately -57.4KJ mol-1. This is because
there is complete dissociation of the acid and base, while the salt is formed.
In a dibasic acid, the enthalpy of neutralization is 2 x 57.4KJ/mol
e.g 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
∆H0n = [2 x 57.4] KJmol-1
The neutralization of a weak acid and weak base is not constant because the dissociation is incomplete.
They also have a low value of heat of neutralization.
E.g. HCN(aq) + NH4CN(aq) + H2O(l) ∆Hθn = -41.4KJmol-1

Calculation on Heat of Neutralization:

1. -57.4KJmol-1 of heat was given off when 1 mole of hydrogen ion [H+] of a strong acid neutralized 1
mole of a hydroxyl [OH–] of a strong base. Calculate the heat evolved when:
a. 2 mole of H+ reacts with excess alkaline in dilute solution.
b. 0.5 mole of H+ reacts with excess alkaline in dilute solution.
c. Calculate the number of moles of H+ that would be produced by the liberation of -5.7KJmol-1

H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l) ∆Hθ = -57.4KJmol-1

Solution:
a. 1 mole of H+ neutralizes 1 mole of OH–
= 1 x -57.4 = -57.4KJmol-1 .
Therefore when 2 moles of H+ neutralizes 2 moles of OH–
= 2 x -57.4 = -114.8KJmol-1 of heat was liberated.

b. 0.5 mole of H+ neutralizes 0.5KJmol-1 of OH–

= -57.5 x 0.5
= -28.7KJmol-1 of heat was liberated.
c. -57.4KJmol-1 of heat gives 1 mole of H+
therefore -5.7KJmol-1 will give

= 0.1 moles of H+

[Link] of combustion ∆HθC:

The standard enthalpy of combustion is the amount of heat evolved or liberated when 1 mole of a
substance is burnt completely in excess oxygen under standard conditions.
e.g (i) C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆Hθc = -393KJmol-1
(ii) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ∆Hθc = -891KJmol-1
Thus, the standard heat of formation of CO2 is equal to the standard heat of combustion of carbon.
The standard enthalpy of combustion is usually negative i.e the reaction is exothermic. The bomb
calorimeter is the equipment used in the accurate determination of the heat of combustion of chemical
substances.
A bomb calorimeter consists of a combustion chamber (where a known mass of the substance of
interest is completely burnt) and is immersed in water of known mass contained in a calorimeter which
is equipped with a sensitive thermometer, a stirrer, ignition coil, screw valve, and test substance. The
heat evolved by the known mass of the substance causes a rise in the temperature of water in the
calorimeter.
The heat of combustion of the substance can then be calculated knowing the heat capacity of the whole
system, (which includes bomb calorimeter, water, thermometer, calorimeter, and stirrer), the
temperature rises, and the heat generated by the Ignition current.

The bomb calorimeter

Measurement of Heat Capacity:
Heat capacity is measured using calorimeter.
Heat lost = Q
Q = MC∆T
Q = Heat lost
M = Mass of water or solution
C = Specific heat capacity
∆T = Temperature rise
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.21JKg-1 k-1 or 4.2JK °C-1 or 4.2Jg-1 °C-1

Calculation on Heat of Combustion:

When 2g of Ethane (C2H6) is burnt, the heat liberated raises the temperature of 50g of water from 35°C
to 45.5°C. What is the heat of combustion of ethane given that the specific heat capacity of water is
4.2Jg-1 °C-1

[C=12, H=1]
Solution:
Mass of water (m) = 50g
Specific heat capacity (C) = 4.2Jg-1°C-1
Temperature rise (∆T) = 45.5°C – 35°C = 10.5°C
Heat lost [Q] = MC∆T
Molar mass of C2H6 = (12 x 2) + (1 x 6) = 30gmol-1
50 x 4.2 x 10.5 = -2205J or -2.205KJ
If 2g of Ethane liberates -2205J, therefore 30g of Ethane liberates

= 147J or 0.147KJ/mol.
Therefore heat of combustion of Ethane = 0.147KJ/mole

4. Heat of Solution (ΔHθs)(ΔHsθ)

The standard heat of solution is the heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is
completely dissolved in large volume of solvent to form a solution of stated concentration.
The heat change may be exothermic or endothermic
Example
I. NaCl(s) + H2O(l) → NaCl(aq)
ΔHθs = + 4KJ/mol (endothermic)
II. HCl(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq)
ΔHθs = -75KJ/mol (exothermic)

Calculation on Heat of Solution:

1. The heat of solution of ammonium trioxonitrate (v) solution is 26.3kjmol-1.
Calculate the quantity of heat absorbed when:
(a) 2moles
(b) 5g of ammonium trioxonitrate(v) solid
dissolves in a large volume of water.
Solution:
Equation of reaction
NH4NO3[S] + H2O → NH4NO3[aq]
∆HθS = 26.3KJmol-1
a. 1 mole of NH4NO3 produces 26.3KJmol-1 of heat.
Therefore 2 moles of NH4NO3 will produce:

b. Molar mass of NH4NO3 = 14 + (1 x 4) + 14 + (16 x 3) = 80gmol-1

80g of NH4NO3 produces 26.3KJmol-1 of heat.
Therefore 5g will produce;

5. Heat of Fusion, ∆Hθfus:

This is the heat change when one mole of a solid is melted. Eg the standard enthalpy of fusion of solid
sulphur +2.0KJmol-1
S(s) → S(l) ∆Hθfus = +2.0KJmol-1
Calculation on Heat of Fusion:
The heat of fusion of sulphur is 45.5KJmol-1. Calculate the quantity of heat required to fuse;
(a) 3 moles of solid sulphur
(b) 4g of solid sulphur
(c) Determine the mass of sulphur that would require 23KJmol-1 of heat for fusion.
Solution:
a. S(s)→ S(l) ∆Hθfus = +45.5KJmol-1
1 mole of sulphur required +45.5KJmol-1.
Therefore 3 moles of sulphur will require

b. molar mass of sulphur = 32g

32g of sulphur required 45.5KJmol-1 of heat.
Therefore 4g of sulphur will require

c. 45.5KJmol-1 of heat-fused 32g of sulphur.

Therefore 23KJmol-1 of heat will fuse

6. Heat of Hydrogenation ∆Hθhydro:

This is the heat change when one mole of an unsaturated organic compound is converted to the
corresponding saturated organic compound by reaction with hydrogen at standard conditions of
temperature and pressure. The standard enthalpy of hydrogenation of Ethane is -126KJmol-1
C2H4(g) + H2(g) → C2H6(g) ∆Hθhydro = -126KJmol-1

7. Heat of hydration ∆Hθh:

This is the heat change that occurs when one mole of a gaseous ion dissolves in water to give a dilute
solution. Example;
H+(g) + water → H+(aq) ∆Hθh =1075KJmol-1

8. Heat of vapourization [∆Hθv]:

This is the heat change when one mole of a liquid is vaporized. It is always endothermic.
H2O(l) → H2O(g) ∆Hθv = +41.4KJmol-1
Calculation on Heat of Reaction:
1. CO(g)+ H2O(g) → CO2(g) + H2(g)
From the reaction above, calculate the standard heat change, if the standard enthalpies of formation of
CO2(g), H2O(g) and CO(g) in KJmol-1 are -394, -242, and -110 respectively.
Solution:
Standard heat change, ∆Hθ
= ∑H [products] – ∑H [reactants]
∑H [products] = Hco2 + HH2
Hco2 = -394KJmol-1
HH2 = 0
Therefore ∑H [products] = Hco2 = -394KJmol-1
∑H [reactants] = Hco[g] + HH2O[g]
Hco[g] = -110KJmol-1
HH2O[g] = -242KJmol-1
∑H [reactants] = -110 + [- 242]
= -110 – 242 = -352
∆Hθ = -394 – [-352]
= -394 + 352 = -42KJmol-1

2. Tetraoxosulphate(VI)acid is prepared using the chemical reaction;

SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(l)
Given the heats of formation of SO3(g) , H2O(l) and H2SO4(l) as -395KJmol-1, -258KJmol-1 and
-811KJmol-1 respectively, calculate the enthalpy change accompanying this reaction.
Solution:
Enthalpy change, ∆H = ∑H[products] – ∑H[reactants]
∑H [products] = ∑HH2SO4[l] = -811KJmol-1
∑H [reactants] = HSO3[g] + HH20[L]
= [-395] + [-286]
= -395 – 286 = -681KJmol-1
∆H = -811 – [- 681]
= -811 + 681
= -130K
Evaluation Questions
Question 1:
[a] Explain the terms exothermic and endothermic reactions. What is the sign of ∆H in each of the
reactions?

[b] Draw an energy profile diagram for each of the following reactions.
i. H2[g] + I2[s] → 2HI[g] ∆H = +53.6KJmol-1
ii. C[s] + O2[g] → CO2[g] ∆H = -480KJmol-1

Question 2:
[a]
[i]. Define enthalpy of combustion.
(ii)Why is the heat of combustion always negative
(iii)Name the instrument used for the determination of heat of combustion in the laboratory.
(iv)When 0.06 mole of methane is burnt in air, the heat liberated raises the temperature of 100g of
water from 70°C to 85°C.
What is the heat of combustion of methane? [ specific heat capacity = 4.2Jg-1 °C-1]

Question 3:
Define the following terms
i. Standard heat of formation
ii. Heat of solution
iii. Heat of neutralization
iv. Heat of combustion

Question 4:
(a). Explain why the heat of neutralization between strong acid and strong alkali pair is of an
approximate value of -57KJmol-1.
(b). when 1 mole of hydrochloric acid neutralized 1 mole of potassium hydroxide, -57.5KJ of heat was
given off. Calculate the heat evolved when
i. 1.5 mole of hydrochloric acid
ii. 3 moles of hydrochloric acid react with excess potassium hydroxide solution.
Question 5:
[a] The heat of formation of carbon[iv]oxide is -382KJ/mole. Calculate the heat given off when carbon is
burnt to form 8g of carbon[iv]oxide gas. [C = 12, O = 16]

[b] The enthalpy change of a reaction is as follows:

CH4[g] + 2O2[g] → CO2[g] + 2H2O[g] is -890.7KJ

Given that
∆Hθf [CO2] = -193.3KJmol-1
∆HθF [H2O] = -286.1KJmol-1
Calculate the heat of combustion of methane

[c] In an experiment, 2 g of methanol was burned completely in air.

i. Write an equation for the combustion of methanol
ii. Using your equation and the data given below, calculate the ∆cH (standard
enthalpy change of combustion) for methanol.
iii. Comment on whether this is an endothermic or exothermic reaction (using
your answer to (b))
Data:
The enthalpy changes of formation are as follows:
Substance Standard Enthalpy Change of Formation
(∆fH) / kJ mol–1
CH3OH(l) –234
CO2(g) –394
H2O(l) –286

Question 6:
The enthalpy change of formation of NaCl was under investigation. 75 cm3 of 1 M
HCl was poured into a beaker then 75 cm3 NaOH 1 M was added to the HCl.
(a) Write an equation for the neutralisation of HCl by NaOH.
(b) Using your equation and the data given above, calculate the ∆rH of this
reaction
(c) Comment on the sign and magnitude of the value calculated in part (b).
Data:
The enthalpy changes of formation are as follows:
Substance Standard Enthalpy Change of Formation / kJ mol–1
H2O(l) –286
HCl(aq) –167
NaOH(aq) –425
NaCl(aq) –411

SOLUTION
Question 1
[a] Explain the terms exothermic and endothermic reactions. What is the sign of ∆H in each of the
reactions?
Answer:
Exothermic reaction is one which releases energy as heat to the environment ∆H= -ve
Endothermic reaction is one which gains energy as heat from the surrounding ∆H= +ve

[b] Draw an energy profile diagram for each of the following reactions.
i. H2[g] + I2[s] → 2HI[g] ∆H = +53.6KJmol-1
Answer:
ii. C[s] + O2[g] → CO2[g] ∆H = -480KJmol-1
Answer:

Question 2
[a]
(i). Define enthalpy of combustion.
Answer: This is the amount of heat evolved or liberated when 1mole of a substance is burnt completely
in excess oxygen under standard conditions
(ii) Why is the heat of combustion always negative
Answer: Because its an exothermic reaction (Energy is lost)
(iii)Name the instrument used for the determination of heat of combustion in the laboratory.
Answer: Bomb calorimeter
(iv)When 0.06 mole of methane is burnt in air, the heat liberated raises the temperature of 100g of
water from 70°C to 85°C.
What is the heat of combustion of methane? [ specific heat capacity = 4.2Jg-1 °C-1]
Solution:
Q = mC∆T
Q = 100 x 4.2 x (85 – 70)
= 6300Jmol-1
= 6.3KJmol-1
Question 3
Define the following terms
i. Standard heat of formation
Answer: This is the heat absorbed or evolved when one mole of substance is formed from its elements
under standard conditions.
ii. Heat of solution
Answer: This is the heat evolved or absorbed when one mole of a substance is completely dissolved in a
large volume of solvent to form a solution of stated concentration.
iii. Heat of neutralization
Answer: This is the amount of heat evolved when 1mole of hydrogen ion from an acid reacts with
1mole of hydroxyl ion from an alkali to form 1mole of water, under standard conditions.
iv. Heat of combustion
Answer: This is the amount of heat evolved or liberated when 1mole of substance is burnt completely
in excess oxygen under standard conditions.

Question 4
(a). Explain why the heat of neutralization between strong acid and strong alkali pair is of an
approximate value of -57KJmol-1.
Answer: This is because there is a complete dissociation of thhe acid and base, while salt is formed.
(b). when 1 mole of hydrochloric acid neutralized 1 mole of potassium hydroxide, -57.5KJ of heat was
given off. Calculate the heat evolved when
i. 1.5 mole of hydrochloric acid
Solution
1mole of HCl and 1mole of POH gives -57.5kJ
1.5mole of HCl
x = 1.5 x- 57KJ
= 86.25KJ
ii. 3 moles of hydrochloric acid react with excess potassium hydroxide solution.
Solution:
1mole of HCl – 57.5KJ
3moles of HCl – x
x = 3 x -57.5
= 172.5KJ
Question 6
The enthalpy change of formation of NaCl was under investigation. 75 cm3 of 1 M
HCl was poured into a beaker then 75 cm3 NaOH 1 M was added to the HCl.
Data:
The enthalpy changes of formation are as follows:
Substance Standard Enthalpy Change of Formation / kJ mol–1
H2O(l) –286
HCl(aq) –167
NaOH(aq) –425
NaCl(aq) –411
Solution:
(a) Write an equation for the neutralisation of HCl by NaOH.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

(b) Using your equation and the data given above, calculate the ∆rH of this
reaction
Solution:
∆rH = Σv∆fH(products) – Σv∆fH(reactants)
∆rH = (–411 + –286) kJ mol–1 – (–425 + –167) kJ mol–1
∆rH = –697 k J mol–1 – (–592) kJ mol–1
∆rH = –697 k J mol–1 + 592 kJ mol–1
∆rH = –105 kJ mol–1
(c) Comment on the sign and magnitude of the value calculated in part (b).
Answer:
The negative sign indicates that heat is created and given out during the reaction and consequently, the
reaction is exothermic.