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ADVANCED HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

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ADVANCED HYDRAULIC
STRUCTURES
Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa Khassaf

University of Basrah College of Engineering Civil Department

University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Contents
DESIGN OF TRANSITION........................................................................................................................................... 2
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................. 3
PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF TRANSITION ............................................................................................................... 5
TYPES OF TRANSITION MOST COMMONLY USE IN SUBCRITICAL FLOW ....................................................................... 21
PROBLEMS ...................................................................................................................................................... 23
WEIRS................................................................................................................................................................. 24
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 25
PRACTICAL PURPOSE OF WEIRS........................................................................................................................... 26
HYDRAULICS AND THEORIES OF WEIRS ................................................................................................................ 27
PROBLEMS ...................................................................................................................................................... 49
DAMS ................................................................................................................................................................. 50
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 51
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GRAVITY DAMS ......................................................................................... 52
FACTORS GOVERNING SELECTION TYPE OF DAMS .................................................................................................. 54
GALLERIES ...................................................................................................................................................... 58
PROBLEMS ...................................................................................................................................................... 78
SPILLWAY ............................................................................................................................................................ 80
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 81
OGEE SPILLWAY (OVERFLOW SPILLWAY) ............................................................................................................. 81
CREST OF SPILLWAY ......................................................................................................................................... 83
DYNAMIC FORCE ON SPILLWAY ........................................................................................................................... 90
PROBLEMS ...................................................................................................................................................... 95
HYDRAULICS OF CULVERT ...................................................................................................................................... 97
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 98
ENTRANCE AND OUTLET STRUCTURES:- .............................................................................................................. 101
BRIDGES ............................................................................................................................................................ 110
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 111
SCOUR DEPTH UNDER THE BRIDGE ...................................................................................................................... 116
PROBLEMS ..................................................................................................................................................... 119
DIMENSION ANALYSIS AND HYDRUALIC SIMILITUDE ............................................................................................... 122

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 123

METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS........................................................................................................... 137
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC SIMILARITY ................................................................................................................. 137
HYDRAULIC SIMILITUDE ................................................................................................................................ 137
CLASSIFICATION OF MODELS ......................................................................................................................... 137
APPENDIX: GLOSSARY OF SOME COMMON TERMS ................................................................................................... 138

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Design of Transition

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Design of Transition

Introduction
The transition in channel: is a structure design to change the shapes or cross
sectional area of the flow, the function is to avoid excessive of energy losses
to element cross-waves and other turbulence and to provide safety for structure
& water way.

The common types of transitions

1. Inlet & outlet transition between canal & flume.
2. Inlet & outlet transition between canal & tunnel.
3. Inlet & outlet transition between canal & siphon.

Rules should be considered in design of transition:

1. The optimum max. Angle between the channel axis & a line connecting
the channel sides between entrance and exit section is (12.5˚).
2. Losses: the energy losses in a transition consist of
a) Friction losses, which may be estimated by, mean of any uniform flow
formula, such as manning formula:
n2 ∗ v 2
s= 4
R3

b) Conversion loss, is generally expressed in terms of the changes in

velocity head between entrance & exit section.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Inlet structures
The entrance velocity is less than exit velocity
∆y = drop in water
Bern. Between (1) & (2)

v12 v22
y1 + = y2 + + ∆E
2g 2g
v22 v12 k1 ∗ (v22 − v12 )
y1 − y2 = − +
2g 2g 2g
v22 v12
∆yi = ( − )(1 + k1 )
2g 2g
k1 = coefficient of inlet losses

Outlet structures

Bern. Between (3) & (4)

v32 v42
y3 + = y4 + + ∆E
2g 2g

v32 v42
y4 − y3 = − − ∆E
2g 2g

v32 v42 k 2 ∗ (v32 − v42 )

∆yo = ( − ) −
2g 2g 2g

v32 v42
∆yo = ( − ) (1 − k 2 )
2g 2g

k 2 =coefficient of inlet losses

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Procedure for design of transition

1. From the fig. the contraction transition start from section (1-1) & finish in
section (2-2).The flume section continues from sect. (2-2) to sect. (3-3) .the
expansion transition starts at sect. (3-3) and finishes at sect. (4-4) & from
sect. (4-4) on wards the channel flows in its normal cross section & the
conditions at this section are completely known.

2. Full supply level (F.S.L) at section (4-4) = B.L of sec (4-4) + y4

(known)
v24
T.E.L of sec (4-4) =F.S.L at sec (4-4) + (known)
2g

3. Between sec (3-3) &sec (4-4), there is an energy loss in the expansion
which is equal to
v23 v24
k2( − )
2g 2g

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

v23 −v24
T.E.L at sec (3-3) =T.E.L at sec (4-4) + k 2 ( )
2g

The trough dimension at sec (3-3) known and v3 is also known

T.E.L can be computed.
v23
F.S.W.L=T.E.L at sec (3-3) −
2g

B.L at sec (3-3) =F.S.W.L − y3

4. Between sec (2-2) & sec (3-3), the channel flow in trough of constant cross
section .the loss in trough (hl ) is the friction loss which can be computed
with manning formula:
n2 ∗v2
hl = S ∗ L S= 4
R3

T.E.L at sec (2-2) =T.E.L at sec (3-3) +hl

𝑉2
F.S.W.L=T.E.L −
2g

B.L= F.S.W.L − y2
5. Between sec (1-1) & (2-2)
v22 −v21
Energy loss between sec (1-1) &sec (2-2) = k1 ( )
2g

v22 −v21
T.E.L of sec (1-1) =T.E.L of sec (2-2) + k1 ( )
2g

v21
F.S.W.L =T.E.L (1-1) -
2g

B.L= F.S.W.L - y1

6. Draw T.E.L assume it is straight line between adjusted sections.

7. B-line also drew assuming straight line.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

8. Water surface in transition:

In contraction transition between
sect. (1-1) and (2-2) there will be
drop in water surface due to drop
in energy line & due to increase
in velocity head at sec(2-2).this
drop in surface has smooth curve
of two parabolic meeting
tangentially at the center.
L=length of transition.
L=2X1
∆y = 2y1 = total difference in water level between sec(1 − 1) &
(2 − 2)
Bc −Bf
( ) 1
2
=n L = 2X1
L

∆y = higher F. S. W. L – lower F. S. W. L = 2y1

y = cx 2 Parabolic equation
y1 y1
c= = ✓ y= ∗X general equation
x21 x21

9. Plot the water surface for expansion & contraction.

10. Velocity head hv = vertical distance between T.E.L & F.S.W.L at any
point.

11. find velocity = v = 2√2ghv

12. the cross sectional area = 𝑄/𝑣

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

13. in trapezoidal channel of water depth y, the bed width B, Top or mean
width 𝐵𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝐵𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 & side slope 1:Z
A = By + Zy 2
𝐵𝑇𝑜𝑝 =B+2Zy
Wetted perimeter = B+2y√1 + 𝑧 2
14. side slope brought to vertical (slope is 0:1) from initial slope (Z : 1)

Example
Design transition (expansion &contraction) with following data:

_Canal discharge=30.0 m3 /s
_Bed width canal=23.0m
_Depth of water=1.7m
_Bed level=230.0
_Side slop of canal=1.5:1
_Warped transition with
_𝑘1 =0.2, 𝑘2 =0.3

_for flume:
_Bed width = 11.0m
_Contraction slope = 2:1
_Expansion slope = 3:1
_Manning coefficient = 0.016
_Length of flume=133.5m

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Solution:

Acanal = by + zy 2 = 23 ∗ 1.7 + 1.5 ∗ 1.72 = 43.435 m2

Aflume = by = 11 ∗ 1.7 = 18.7 m2

m3
Q = 30
s

Q 30
v1 = v4 = = = 0.69 m/s
A 43.435
Q 30
v2 = v3 = = = 1.6 m/s
A 18.7
v2
hv1= hv4= = 0.0245
2g

v2
hv2= hv3= = 0.1305
2g

At section (4-4):
B.L. =230m
F.S.W.L. =230+1.7=231.7m
v24 0.692
T.E.L= F.S.W.L. + = 231.7+ = 231.724m
2g 19.62

At section (3-3):
v23 −v24 1.62 −0.692
𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.3−3 =𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.4−4 + k 2 ( )= 231.724+0.3( )
19.62 19.62

=231.756m
v23 1.62
F.S.W.L. =T.E.L - = 231.756- = 231.626
19.62 19.62

B.L=231.626-1.7=229.926m

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

At section (2-2):
2
𝑣𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∗ 𝑛2 ∗ 𝐿
𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.2−2 = 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.3−3 + (hl 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 4 )
R3
1.62 ∗ 0.0162 ∗ 133.5
= 231.756 + ( ) = 231.818
18.7 43
( )
14.4

v22 1.62
F. S. W. L. = 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.2−2 − = 231.818 − = 231.687
2g 19.62

B. L = F. S. W. L. −1.7 = 231.687 − 1.7 = 229.987

At section (1-1):

v22 − v12
𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.1−1 = 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.2−2 + k1 ( )
19.62
(1.6)2 −(0.69)2
= 231.818 + [0.2 ∗ ]
19.62

= 231.839
v12 0.692
F. S. W. L. = 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.1−1 − = 231.839 −
2g 19.62
= 231.815
B. L = 231.815 − 1.7 = 230.115

Expansion portion [from 𝑠𝑒𝑐.(3−3) to 𝑠𝑒𝑐.(4−4) ]

B − Bf
( c ) 1
2 =
L 3
23−11
( 2
) 1
= ⟹ L = 18m ⟹ X1 = 9m
L 3

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 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

0.074
∆y = 231.7 − 231.626 = 0.074 y1 = = 0.037
2
y1
y= ∗ x2 y = 0.0004568x 2
x21

The above equation y = 0.0004568x 2 used up to

∆x → (𝑥1 = 9𝑚). After that the following expression will
be used to calculate ∆y

∆y@𝑥>𝑥1 = ∆y𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − [0.0004568(𝐿 − 𝑋)2 ]

for example:
∆y@𝑥=15 = 0.074 − [0.0004568(18 − 15)2 ] = 0.07

The same procedure should be followed to calculate ∆y in contraction portion

𝐅. 𝐒. 𝐖. 𝐋. −𝐁. 𝐋.
Dist. ∆𝐲 𝐐 𝑨 Side Bed
from 𝐜𝐱 𝟐 = 𝟐√𝟐𝐠𝐡𝐯 = F.S.W.L. =
𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽 𝒚 slope width
𝒔𝒆𝒄.𝟑−𝟑

Side
∆𝐱 ∆𝐲 ∆𝐡𝐯 𝐡𝐯 v A W.L. B.L. y 𝐁𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐧 B
slope z

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

0 0 0 0.1305 1.6 18.7 231.626 229.926 1.7 11 0:1 11

3 0.0041 0.00586 0.125 1.566 19.16 231.63 229.928 1.692 11.324 0.1:1 11.15

6 0.0164 0.0234 0.107 1.449 20.7 231.642 229.95 1.692 12.243 0.5:1 11.39

9 0.037 0.0528 0.077 1.235 24.3 231.663 229.963 1.7 14.294 0.75:1 13.02

12 0.058 0.0828 0.0477 0.967 31 231.684 229.975 1.71 18.13 1:1 16.42

15 0.07 0.1 0.0305 0.77 38.96 231.696 229.987 1.71 22.78 1.25:1 20.65

18 0.074 0.106 0.0245 0.69 43.478 231.7 230 1.7 25.57 1.5:1 23

Page | 11
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Procedure
For explaining the table of expansion transition
Line (1) ∆x =0
Col (1) distance of expansion transition from 𝑠𝑒𝑐.3−3 each 3.0 m.
Col (2) find ∆y = cx 2 = 0
∆y
Col (3) ∆hv = =0
1−k
𝑣32
Col (4) hv = =0.1305 @ sec (3-3)
2𝑔

Col (5) v = 2√2ghv = 1.6

Col (6) A=Q/V=30/1.6=18.7 m2
Col (7) free surface water level =231.626 m
Col (8) bed elevation =229.926 m
Col (9) water depth =F.S.W.L.-B.L.=1.7
Col (10) mean width =A/y =11
Col (11) side slope @ 𝑠𝑒𝑐.3−3 =0:1 (H:V)
A−zy2
Col (12) bed width = Bmean − 𝑧𝑦 or = = 11𝑚
y
_________________________________________
Line (2) ∆x =3
Col (1) 3 m distance from 𝑠𝑒𝑐.3−3

Col (2) ∆y = cx 2 = 0.0041

∆y 0.0041
Col (3) ∆hv = = = 0.00586
1−k 0.7

Col (4) hv ∆x=0 − ∆hv = 0.1305 − 0.00586 = 0.125

2
Col (5) v = 2√2ghv = √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.125 = 1.566

Col (6) A=Q/V=30/1.566=19.16m2

Col (7) 𝐹. 𝑆. 𝑊. 𝐿.∆x=3m = 𝐹. 𝑆. 𝑊. 𝐿.∆x=0 + ∆y = 231.626 + 0.0041
= 231.63
| P a g e 12
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

230−229.926
Col (8) bed elevation = 229.926+[( ) ∗ (∆x = 3)] = 229.938
18

Col (9) Water depth=𝐹. 𝑆. 𝑊. 𝐿.∆x=3 − 𝐵. 𝐿.∆x=3 =1.692 m

Col (10) mean width= A/y = 19.16/1.692 = 11.324 m
Col (11) side slope (By linear interpolation between side slope of channel
and transition length)
Col (12) bed width = B − Zy = 11.324 − (0.1 ∗ 1.692) = 11.15 m

Contraction transition
L=12m x1 = 6m
∆y = 0.128 y1 = 0.064
y = 0.00178x 2
23−11
2 1
=2 L = 12m L = 2x1 x1 = 6m
L

∆y = F. S. W. L.(1−1) − F. S. W. L.(2−2) = 231.815 − 231.687 = 0.128m

∆y = 2y1 y1 = 0.064
General eq. = 0.00178x 2

Side
∆x ∆y ∆hv hv v A W.L. B.L. y Bmean slope B
z
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

0 0 0 0.1305 1.6 18.7 231.687 229.98 1.7 11 0:1 11

3 0.016 0.0133 0.1172 1.516 19.79 231.703 230.02 1.68 11.76 0.375:1 11.13

6 0.064 0.0533 0.077 1.23 24.39 231.751 230.052 1.7 14.35 0.75:1 13.1

9 0.112 0.093 0.0375 0.858 34.97 231.8 230.08 1.72 20.37 1.125:1 18.4

12 0.128 0.106 0.0245 0.69 43.478 231.815 230.115 1.7 25.57 1.5:1 23

| P a g e 13
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Procedure
For explaining the table of contraction transition
Line (1)
Col (1) ∆x = 0 distance from contraction 𝑠𝑒𝑐.2−2
Col (2) ∆y = cx 2 =0
∆y
Col (3) ∆hv = =0
1+k
v22
Col (4) hv = =0.1305
2g
2
Col (5) v = 2√2ghv = √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.1305 = 1.6

Col (6) A=Q/V=30/1.6=18.7 m2

Col (7) free water surface level @ 𝑠𝑒𝑐.2−2 =231.687 m
Col (8) bed level @ 𝑠𝑒𝑐.2−2 =229.98 m
Col (9) water depth =F.S.W.L.-B.L=231.687-229.98=1.7 m
Col (10) mean width(Bmean )=A/y=18.7/1.7 =11 m
Col (11) side slope =0:1
Col (12) bed width = B = Bmean − 𝑧𝑦 = 11𝑚

Line (2) @∆x = 3

Col (1) ∆x = 3 from 𝑠𝑒𝑐.2−2
Col (2) ∆y = cx 2 = 0.000178 ∗ 3 ∗ 3 = 0.016
∆y 0.016
Col (3) ∆hv = = = 0.01335
1+k 1.2

Col (4) hv = hv ∆x=0 − ∆hv =0.1305-0.016=0.1172

2
Col (5) v = 2√2ghv = √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.1172 = 1.516

Col (6) A=Q/V=30/1.516=19.79 m2

| P a g e 14
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Col (7) F. S. W. L∆x=3 = F. S. W. L∆x=0 +∆y=231.687+0.016=231.703

B.L.sec1−1 −B.L.sec2−2
Col (8) Bed level∆x=3 = B. L.∆x=0 +[( ) ∗ ∆x]
12
230.115−229.98
= 229.98 +[( ) ∗ 3]=230.02
12

Col (9) Water depth=F. S. W. L.∆x=3 -B. L.∆x=3 =1.68 m

Col (10) mean width=A/y=19.79/1.68 =11.324 m
Col (11) side slope (linear interpolation between side slope of canal and
contraction transition length)
Col (12) bed width =Bmean -Zy=11.76-0.375*1.68=11.13 m

Q/Design transition by hind method for following data:

_F.S.W.L. of canal at exit=202.3m

_normal width of canal=20m
_normal water depth=2.3m
_flumed width of canal=8.3
_flumed depth=3m
_full supply discharge=50 𝑚3 /𝑠
_splay in contraction transition=2:1
_splay in expansion transition=3:1
_length of flumed trough=60m
_normal side slopes of canal=0.5:1
_loss of head in trough=0.28

| P a g e 15
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

𝐴𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑧𝑦 2 = 20 ∗ 2.3 + 0.5 ∗ 2.32 = 48.645 𝑚2

𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝐵 + 2𝑧𝑦 = 20 + 2 ∗ 0.5 ∗ 2.3 = 22.3

𝑝 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦√1 + 𝑧 2 = 20 + 2 ∗ 2.3 ∗ √1 + (0.5)2 = 25.143 𝑚

____________________________________________________
𝐴𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 8.3 ∗ 3 = 24.9 𝑚2
𝑝𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 14.3 𝑚
____________________________________________________

| P a g e 16
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

𝑄 50
𝑉1−1 = 𝑉4−4 = = = 1.028
𝐴𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙 48.65
𝑄 50
𝑉2−2 = 𝑉3−3 = = = 2.008
𝐴𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 24.9
𝑣 2 1.0282
ℎ𝑣 (1−1) = ℎ𝑣 (4−4) = = = 0.054
2𝑔 19.62
𝑣 2 2.0082
ℎ𝑣 (2−2) = ℎ𝑣 (3−3) = = = 0.206
2𝑔 19.62

sec(4−4)

F.S.W.L. =202.3 m
B. L. = F. S. W. L. − y = 202.3 − 2.3 = 200 m
T. E. L. = 202.3 + hv 4 = 202.3 + 0.054 = 202.354

v32 − v42
he = loss due to expansion = k 2 ( )
2g
2.0082 − 1.0282
ℎ𝑒 = 0.3 ( ) = 0.045
19.62

sec(3−3)
𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿. = 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.4−4 + ℎ𝑒 = 202.354 + 0.045 = 202.4

F.S.W.L. = 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿. − ℎ𝑣 3 = 202.4 − 0.206 = 202.194

B.L. = F.S.W.L.−𝑦3 = 202.194 − 3 = 199.194

hL = loss due to friction in trough = 0.28 m

| P a g e 17
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

@ sec(2-2)

𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿. = 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.3−3 + ℎ𝐿 = 202.4 + 0.28 = 202.68 𝑚

F.S.W.L. = 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿. − ℎ𝑣 2 = 202.68 − 0.206 = 202.474

B.L. = F.S.W.L.−𝑦2 = 202.474 − 3 = 199.474

hc = loss due to contraction

𝑣22 − 𝑣12 2.0082 − 1.0282

ℎ𝑐 = 𝑘1 ( ) = 0.2 ( ) = 0.03
2𝑔 19.62

@ sec(1-1)

𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿. = 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿.2−2 + ℎ𝑐 = 202.68 + 0.03 = 202.71 𝑚

F.S.W.L. = 𝑇. 𝐸. 𝐿. − ℎ𝑣 1 = 202.71 − 0.054 = 202.656

B.L. = F.S.W.L.−𝑦1 = 202.656 − 2.3 = 200.356

Expansion transition
Bc − Bf
( ) 1
2 =
L 𝑛
20 − 8.3
( ) 1
2 = L = 17.55
L 3
∴L = 17.55 , x1 = 8.775 𝑚
∆𝑦0 = 202.3 − 202.194 = 0.106
𝑦1 = 0.053
𝑦 = 0.0006883𝑥2
| P a g e 18
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Bed
B Slope
X ∆Y ∆hv hv V A F.S.W.L B.L Y width
mean Z
b

0 0.000 0.000 0.206 2.008 24.900 202.194 199.194 3.000 8.300 0:1 8.300

3 0.006 0.009 0.197 1.970 25.381 202.200 199.332 2.868 8.850 0.085:1 8.600

6 0.025 0.035 0.171 1.830 27.322 202.219 199.470 2.749 9.939 0.171:1 9.500

8.775 0.053 0.076 0.130 1.600 31.250 202.247 199.597 2.650 11.792 0.25:1 11.150

11.55 0.081 0.116 0.090 1.330 37.594 202.275 199.724 2.551 14.737 0.329:1 13.900

14.55 0.100 0.143 0.063 1.110 45.045 202.294 199.862 2.432 18.522 0.415:1 17.500

17.55 0.106 0.151 0.054 1.028 48.645 202.300 200.000 2.300 21.150 0.5:1 20.000

Contraction transition

Bc − Bf
( ) 1
2 =
L 𝑛

20 − 8.3
( ) 1
2 = L = 11.7
L 2

∴L = 11.7 , x1 = 5.85 𝑚

∆𝑦 = 0.182 y1 = 0.091

𝑦 = 0.002659𝑋 2

| P a g e 19
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Bed
Slope
X ∆Y ∆hv hv V A F.S.W.L B.L Y B mean width
Z
b

0 0.000 0.000 0.206 2.008 24.900 202.474 199.474 3.000 8.300 0:1 8.300

3 0.024 0.020 0.186 1.910 26.178 202.498 199.700 2.798 9.356 0.128:1 8.600

5.85 0.091 0.076 0.130 1.597 31.309 202.565 199.915 2.650 11.815 0.25:1 9.500

8.7 0.158 0.132 0.074 1.205 41.494 202.632 200.130 2.502 16.584 0.372:1 11.150

11.7 0.182 0.152 0.054 1.028 48.645 202.656 200.356 2.300 21.150 0.5:1 20.000

| P a g e 20
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Types of transition most commonly use in subcritical flow

1-cylinder quadrant:
It is common one simple construction.
it is use for low velocity &for small structure.
k1 =0.15 , k 2 =0.25

2-wedge type transition:

It is use for small velocity .it is efficient transition usually use for
medium regulator.
k1 =0.14 k 2 =0.24

4 3 1
2

3-warped transition:
it is a most efficient transition but it is difficult to construct .it is
use for medium and big structure
k1 =0.2 k 2 =0.3

| P a g e 21
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

4-square corner entrance:

It is recommended.
k1 =0.3 k 2 =0.75

5-vertical straight line:

It is recommended.

k1 =0.2 k 2 =0.5

| P a g e 22
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Problems

Q1 /What do you mean by transition structure? Explain with all details.

Q 2 /Tunnel of 15 m2 cross area connected to trapezoidal canal by contraction

transition, if water depth is 1.8m and bed level at contraction point 28m.
The concrete canal (Top width of water =20m, and depth of water =2.5m
at slope (1/900). k1 = 0.1 , k 2 = 0.2
Find the length of transition, equation of water profile and draw L-
section?

Q 3 /Design transition with following data:

1-Normal bed width of canal =20m
2-Flume width =10m
3-Splay in contraction= 2:1
4-Splay in expansion= 3:1
5-Bed level of canal= 200
6-F.S.W.L. of canal = 203
7-Supply discharge rate = 100 𝑚3 /𝑠
8-Assume any other data, if required.

Q 4 /Design an expansion transition with the following data:

Discharge=50cumecs, bed width of canal=25m, bed width of flume=15m,
Expansion=3:1, bed level of canal=200m, water depth=2m, side slope of
canal=1.5:1 and k=0.3
(Assume any value if you need to solve the problem).

| P a g e 23
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

WEIRS

| P a g e 24
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

WEIRS
Introduction
Any flow taking place over a hydraulic structure (over shoot) under free surface
conditions is analyzed with the weir formula. Weirs are good flow measuring
devices.

Weirs are commonly constructed as:

1) Sharp – crested weirs : with opening of the shapes :
a) Rectangular b) triangular c) trapezoidal (cipolletti weir)

2) Broad – crested weirs :

Where the flow is significantly influenced by viscous drag which is
enumerated in the form of A discharge – coefficient.

Weirs also classified as:

a) Contracted weirs: where the width of the channel is greater than the width of
the weir opening

b) Suppressed weirs: where the width of the channel and the width of the weir
opening are equal.

a b

| P a g e 25
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Practical purpose of weirs

Weirs are used for the following purposes:
1) To maintain high water level in order to divert water into a diversion channel
for irrigation or Power purpose.

2) To gauge the discharge of branch channel at their intakes, the discharge of

drains at their escape & the discharge , of canals funding power houses
3
Q = f(H)
2

3) Water can be stored for a short period

4) To reduce the head acting on a barrage

5) To reduce the water slope in case of a very steep land

6) To escape the water in canal automatically

7) To control silt movement into the canal system, we can use the weir to many
purpose at the same time.

H.W.: State the difference between weir and barrage in hydraulic structures Eng.

| P a g e 26
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Hydraulics and theories of weirs

1) Rectangular sharp – crested weirs:
Hydraulic equation of this type can be simplified to:
(Theoretical)
2 3
q = √2g H 2 … (ideal)
3

For real weir flow

2 3
q = Cd ∗ √2g H 2 … (real)
3

Cd : is an experimentally determined coefficient including the effects of the many

simplifications disregard in the derivation of eq. , i.e. , C is the factor which
transforms the simplified weir flow in to the rear weir
flow (on is primarily coeff. of contraction )
The experimental work of (rehbock) Led to an
empirical formula for C of well- ventilated sharp-
crested rectangular weir:

H
C = 0.611 + 0.08
P

H
For water, the above expression is true only for values of
P
up to approximately (5)

H.W.: State the factors that affect cd value specification, and explain the way for
determination of cd value.

| P a g e 27
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

The effective width (b):

This is considered as:

1) (b) for suppressed rectangular weir (R.W)

2) (b – n* 0.1 H ) for contracted (R.W)

n: number of contractions (usually one to each side)

b
b

H H

P P

2) Triangular weir or V- notch:

This type is widely used as measuring device for small flow rates. A simplified
analysis yield the fundamental formula:
8 5
Q=C∗ tan α √2g H 2
15
C ≈ 0.59 for weir of 2α = 90
Coeff. (C) For lenz is:
0.7
C = 0.56 +
IR0.165 W 0.17
IR: Reynolds No. , W: Surface tension
The conditions of (C) for lenz is:
1) H > 0.06 2) IR > 300 3) W > 300

H.W.: State the optimum angle value of triangular weir.

| P a g e 28
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

3) Trapezoidal weir (cipolletti weir): (S.S 1:4):

This can be considered as one rectangular notch of
width (b) and two half V- notch (angle = α =14) the
discharge eq. may be written as:

2 3 8 5
( )
Q = Cd1 √2g b − 0.2H H +
2 Cd √2g tan α H 2
3 15 2

Due to presence of 2 ends contractions.

- when we use this type of weir, we can obtained W.L more stability than The
type of rectangular Weir because that (b) increase with increase of the depth &
give a greater discharge & keep the W.L At stable , therefore ; its use in the
escape weir .

Broad crested weirs:

Assume that a flow runs over top of a high frictionless broad – crested weir:
The flow rate will remain increases with the gate is lifted clear of the flow
(position C). With constant Specific energy exist, the flow occurring without
gate is maximum, & that the depth on the crest is, therefore, the critical depth:

2
yc = H
3
We have also
3
2 2 3
q = √gyc3 = √g ( H) = 0.577 ∗ √2g H 2
3 3
3 2 1 2 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2
( ) =( ) ∗( ) =( ) ∗( ) ∗( )
3 3 3 3 3 1
2 3
q = 0.577 ∗ √2g H 2
3

| P a g e 29
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

This eq. is compared with the standard weir eq. i.e.

2 3
q = Cd ∗ √2g H 2 for real flow … … … … (1)
3

The weir coefficient C=0.577 is higher than those obtained in experimental

(Which lies between 0.5 & 0.57) This is because of neglect of friction in the
analysis.

*Above eq. in case H=E

However, broad – crested weir as an inline canal structure and flow measuring
device:

3
3
2 2 3 2
√
q = g ( E) = ( ) ∗ √g ∗ E 2 for ideal flow … … … … (2)
3 3

Now: q real = Ci ∗ q ideal

Or Eq. (1) = Ci Eq. (2)

3
2 3 2 2 3
i. e. ⇒ Cd ∗ √2g H 2 = Ci ∗ ( ) ∗ √g ∗ E 2
3 3
3
Cd 2 3 2 2 3
∗ √2g H 2 = ( ) √g E 2
Ci 3 3
3
2 3 2 2 3
C̅ ∗ √2g H 2 = ( ) ∗ √g ∗ E 2
3 3
3
1
E 2
C̅ = ( )
√3 H

| P a g e 30
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Now:
1) For very high weir:

P E
=∞ , E=H , =1
H H
1
& C̅ → = 0.577 represented reservoir case
√3

2) For lower weir:

P E
≠∞ , E>H , >1
H H

C̅ = 0.577

Notes:

1) Weirs may be classified as free flow or submerged a low the first allows
air to circulate between the weir & the under site of the nappe. However,
in a suppressed weir the sides of the structure prevent the air from
circulating under the nappe so the underside has to be vented.

2) Weirs should be designed to discharge freely rather than submerged

because of grater measurement accuracy although a slight submergence
dose not appreciably effect the discharge as much as the lock of
ventilation under the nappe.

3) In rectangular broad – crested weirs when the D/S water level (H2 )
exceeds the crest height, it may influence the discharge over the weir,
preventing water from passing by free fall.

H.W.: State the conditions for right consideration as submerged weir or free flow
weir, And as narrow crested weir or broad crested weir.

| P a g e 31
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

There are two such conditions:

i. As H2 increases gently, H1 is used in the

discharge eq.

2 3
Q=C b √2g H1 2
3

ii. ii) With further increase of H2 :

Hd = H1 − H2 is used in the discharge eq.

2 3
Q = C b√2g Hd2
3

The following fig. explain the D/S effect on the discharge:

For one typical weir shape, the range of free over fall, free or submerged
hydraulic jump, or subcritical over flow can be shown as in the fig. above

| P a g e 32
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
Determine the discharge over a sharp crested weir 4.5m long with no lateral
constrictions (suppressed) the measured head over the crest being 0.45m & the
sill height of the weir is 1m?

Solution:
3
2
Q = C b√2g H 2
3
H
Cd = 0.611 + 0.08
P
0.45
= 0.611 + 0.08 = 0.647
1
3
2
Q = 0.647 √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 4.5(0.45) ≈ 2.61 2
3

Example:
A 6 m long weir was measured to carry a 1.4 𝑚3 /𝑠 discharge when the crest is
over topped by 0.2 m of water. Determine the discharge coefficient of the weir?

Solution:
Q 1.4
Cd = 3 = 3 = 0.883
2 2
b 2g H 2 ∗ 6 ∗ √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (0.2)2
3 √ 3
Example:
Water is flowing over a rectangular sharp crested weir of 4 meters long under a
head of 1 meter. Compute the discharge, if the coefficient of discharge for the weir
is 0.6.
Solution:
Given,
L=4 m
H=1 m
Cd = 0.62
2 3 2 3
Q = ∗ Cd . L√2g ∗ H = ∗ 0.62 ∗ 4 ∗ √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 12
2
3 3
3
m
Q = 7.32 ∗ 1 = 7.32
sec
m3
Discharge =7.32
sec
| P a g e 33
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
A narrow-crested weir of 10 meters long is discharging water under a constant
head of 400 mm. Find discharge over the weir in liters/s. Assume coefficient of
discharge as 0.623.
Solution:
Given,
L=10 m
H= 400 m= 0.4 m
Cd = 0.623

We know that the discharge over the weir,

2 3
Q = ∗ Cd . L√2g ∗ (H)2
3
2 3
= ∗ 0.623 ∗ 10 ∗ √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (0.4)2
3
m3
Q = 18.4 ∗ 2.53 = 46.55 = 4655 liters/s
sec

Example:
An ogee weir 4 meters long has 500 mm head of water. Find the discharge over
the weir, if Cd = 0.62
Solution:
Given,
L=4 m
H= 500 m= 0.5 m
Cd = 0.62

The discharge over the weir,

2 3
Q = ∗ Cd . L√2g ∗ (H)2
3
m3
= 7.323 ∗ 0.354 = 2.59 = 2590 liters/s
sec
| P a g e 34
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
The daily record of rainfall over a catchment area is 0.2 million cubic meters. It
has been found that 80% of the rain water reaches storage reservoir and then passes
over a rectangular weir. What should be the length of the weir, if the water is not
to rise more than 400 mm above the crest?
Assume the value of coefficient of discharge of the weir as 0.61.

Solution:
Given,
m3 6
Rainfall = 0.2 ∗ 10
day
Discharge into the reservoir = 80% of rain water
H = 400 mm = 0.4m
Cd = 0.61
Let, L=Length of the water in meters
We know that the volume of water which reaches the reservoir from the
catchment area,

6)
m3
Q = 0.8 ∗ (0.2 ∗ 10
day
m3 0.16 ∗ 106
6
m3
⇒ Q = 0.16 ∗ 10 = = 1.85
day 24 ∗ 60 ∗ 60 s
We also know that the discharge into the reservoir over the rectangular weir (Q),
2 3
1.85 = ∗ Cd . L√2g ∗ H 2
3
2 3
= ∗ 0.61 ∗ L√2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (0.4)2 = 0.456 L
3
1.85
L= = 4.06 m
0.456
Length of the weir = 4.06 m
| P a g e 35
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
A weir of 8 m long is to be built across a rectangular channel to discharge a flow
of 9 𝑚3 /𝑠. If the maximum depth of water on the upstream side of weir is to be
2 m, what should be the height of the weir? Adopt Cd = 0.62

Solution:

Given,
L=8m
m3
Q=9
s
Depth of water = 2m
Cd = 0.62

Let, H=Height of water above the sill of the weir.

So, the discharge over the weir,

2 3
Q= ∗ Cd . L√2g ∗ (H)2
3
2 3 3
9 = ∗ 0.62 ∗ 8√2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (H) = 14.65H2
2
3
3 9
⇒ H2 = = 0.614
14.65
⇒ H = 0.72m

Therefore height of weir should be = 2.0 – 0.72 = 1.28 m

| P a g e 36
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
Calculate the top width and depth of triangular notch capable of discharging
maximum quantity of 700 liters/s .The weir discharge 5.7 liters/s when the head
over the crest is 7.5 cm, take Cd=0.62

Solution: T

8 ∅ 5
Q= ∗ Cd ∗ √2g ∗ tan ∗ (H)2
15 2 H
8 5 α α
0.0057 = ∗ 0.62 ∗ √19.62 ∗ tan α ∗ (0.075)2
15

tan α = 2.52628 ⟹ α = 68.4044°

8 5
Q= ∗ Cd ∗ √2g ∗ tan α ∗ (H)2
15
8 5
0.7 = ∗ 0.62 ∗ √19.62 ∗ 2.52628 ∗ (H)2
15

H = 0.514 m

0.5T
⟹ tan α =
0.514

⟹ 0.5T = 0.514 ∗ 2.52628

⟹ T = 2.6 m

| P a g e 37
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
A 30 m long weir is divided into 10 equal bays by vertical posts each 0.6 m
wide. Calculate the discharge over the weir, under an effective head of 1 m?
Cd = 0.623

Solution:

Sometimes the total length of a weir is divided into a number of bars or span by
vertical posts in such case, the number of bays, or span, into which the weir is
divided.

No. of bays = 10 m (30 m length of weir)

Width of each post = 0.6 m
Effective length L = (30 − 9 ∗ 0.6) = 24.6m
No. of end contractions, n = 2*10 = (some bays have two end contractions)

2 3
Q = Cd(L − 0.1nH)√2g H 2
3
2 3
= ∗ 0.623 ∗ √2g ∗ (24.6 − 0.1 ∗ 20 ∗ 1) ∗ 12
3
3
m
= 41.6
sec

| P a g e 38
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
A submerged sharp crested weir 0.8 m height stands clear across a channel
having vertical sides and a width of 3 m. The depth of water in the channel of
approach is 1.25 m, and 10 m downstream from the weir, the depth of water is
1 m. Determine the discharge in litters per minute? Cd =0.6

Solution:
Depth of water on the upstream side of weir H1 = 1.25 − 0.8 = 0.45m
Depth of water on the downstream of weir H2 = 1 − 0.8 = 0.2m
Q1 = discharge through the free portion, and

Q 2 = discharge over the submerged portion

2 3
Q1 = Cd. L. √2g(H1 − H2 )2
3
2 3 m
3
L
= ∗ 0.6 ∗ 3 ∗ √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ (0.45 − 0.2)2 = 0.664 = 664
3 sec sec

Q 2 = Cd. L. H2 √2g(H1 − H2 )

m
3
L
= 0.6 ∗ 3 ∗ 0.2√2 ∗ 9.81(0.45 − 0.2) = 0.797 = 797
sec sec
L L
Q total = Q1 + Q 2 = 1461 = 87660
sec min

| P a g e 39
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
A rectangular sharp-crested weir is to be constructed in a testing station with
small stream in which the discharge varies from 50 liters/s and 1250 liters/s. Find
the suitable length of the weir, if the minimum head to be measured is 50 mm and
the maximum head on it does not exceed one-third of its length.

Solution:
Given,
litres m3
Q min = 50 = 0.05
s s
litres m3
Q max = 1250 = 1.25
s s
Hmin = 50 mm = 0.05 m

Let, H=Length of weir in meters

L
∴ Maximum head of water, Hmax =
3
We know that the minimum discharge over the weir (Q min )
2 3
0.05 = ∗ Cd . L√2g ∗ (H)2
3
2 3
( )
⇒ 0.05 = ∗ Cd . L√2g ∗ 0.05 2 … … … … … … … (1)
3
And maximum discharge over the weir (Q max )
3
2 L 2
1.25 = ∗ Cd . L√2g ∗ ( ) … … … … … … … … … . (2)
3 3
Dividing equation (2) by (1)
3
2 L 2 3
1.25 ∗ Cd . L√2g ∗ ( ) L2
= 3 3
3 ⇒ 25 = 3
0.05 2
∗ Cd . L√2g ∗ (0.05)2 (3 ∗ 0.05)2
3
3
L2
⇒ 25 =
0.058
∴ L = 1.28m
Length of weir =1.28 m
| P a g e 40
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
Determine the maximum discharge over a broad-crested weir 60 meters long
having 0.6 m height of water above its crest. Take coefficient of discharge as
0.595. Also, determine the new discharge over the weir, considering the velocity
of approach. The channel at the upstream side of the weir has a cross-sectional
area of 45 sq. meters.
Solution:
Given,
L = 60 m
H = 0.6 m
Cd = 0.595
A = 45 m2
Maximum Discharge over the Weir without Considering the Velocity of
Approach
We know that the maximum discharge over the weir,
3 m3 3
Q max = 1.705Cd . L ∗ (H)2
= 1.705 ∗ 0.595 ∗ 60 ∗ = 28.3 (0.6)2
s
Maximum Discharge over the Weir Considering the Velocity of Approach
We know that velocity of approach,
Q 28.3 m
v= = = 0.63
A 45 s
And the head due to velocity of approach,
v2 0.632
Hv = = = 0.0202m
2g 2 ∗ 9.81
∴ Total head, H1 = H + Hv = 0.6 + 0.0202 = 0.6202m
The maximum discharge over the weir,
3 3 3
Q= 1.705Cd . L(𝐻 2 ) = 1.705 ∗ 0.595 ∗ 60 ∗ (0.6202 −
2 0.02022 )

m3
= 29.55
s

| P a g e 41
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Design of Escape Weir :-

Let AB be the normal water line in the canal which should be ended at a natural
drain of point B. to avoid a sudden drop in water, weir is constructed (escape
weir). For the determination of the dimensions of this weir, knowing
(alternatively) either b or p the remaining dimension (p or b) can be directly
obtained from the weir formula:

2 3
Q = Cd ∗ √2g H2
3

Regarding that
P=D−H or H=D−P
As Q & H are given

On the other hand, knowing both the canal properties & the range of max.
& min. water depth (D max, D min)

Then two cases at four D ranges can be chosen:

| P a g e 42
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

1
D1 = Dmin + (Dmax − Dmin )
4
3 1
D2 = Dmin + (Dmax − Dmin ) ⇒ or D2 = Dmax − (Dmax − Dmin )
4 4

Now: if the corresponding discharges for D1 & D2 are Q1 & Q 2 and

corresponding depth over sill are H1 & H2

3 3
Q1 = CbH12 = Cb(D1 − P)2 … … … … … (1)
3 3
Q2 = CbH22 = Cb(D2 − P)2 … … … … … (2)
2
Where C = Cd. √2g
3

From which b & P are found

Example: Given an open channel of the following properties:

_Min water depth = 1 m (0.7 𝑄)
_Max water depth = 2.5 m (1.2 𝑄)
_Bed width = 2 m
_Bed slope = 15 cm/km
_Side slope = 1.1
_Manning’s roughness = n = 0.03
It is required to design an escape weir at the end of this channel assuming that:
2
C= Cd√2g = 1.6
3

| P a g e 43
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Solution:

1 1
D1 = Dmin + (Dmax − Dmin ) = 1 + (2.5 − 1) = 1.375 say 1.5m
4 4
3 3
D2 = Dmin + (Dmax − Dmin ) = 1 + (2.5 − 1) = 2.125 say 2.0m
4 4
Using the manning’s eq. with the canal properties:
1 2 1
Q = AR3 S 2 ; A = b. d + zd2 or (b + zd)d
n
2
1 (2 + 1.5 ∗ 1) ∗ 1.5 3 1
Q1 = (2 + 1 ∗ 1.5)1.5 [ ] ∗ (0.00015)2
0.03 2 + 2√2 ∗ 1.5
m3
Q1 = 1.91 (min)
sec
2
1 (2 + 2 ∗ 1) ∗ 1.5 3 1
Q2 = (2 + 1 ∗ 2)2 [ ] ∗ (0.00015)2
0.03 2 + 2√2 ∗ 2
3
m
Q 2 = 3.364
sec
Using the weir formula:
3 3
Q1 = CbH12 = Cb(D1 − P)2

3 3
Q2 = CbH22 = Cb(D2 − P)2

1.91 = 1.6 ∗ b ∗ (1.5 − P)1.5 … … … … … (1)

3.364 = 1.6 ∗ b ∗ (2 − P)1.5 … … … … … (2)
2−P
2
(1.76)3 =
1.5 − P
From which P = 0.41 m & then b=1.865 m
| P a g e 44
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
Given an open channel of the following properties:
_min. discharge = 2 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
_bed width = 2.3 𝑚
_bed slope = 10 cm/km
_Side Slope = 1.5: 1
_n = 0.015

It is required to design an escape weir at the end of this channel, take C = 1.7

Solution:
Q min 2 m3
Q min = 0.7Q normal ⟹ Q normal = = = 2.857
0.7 0.7 sec
3
m
Q max = 1.2Q normal = 1.2 ∗ 1.857 = 3.43
sec
1 2 1 Qn 2
Q = AR3 S 2 ⟹ 1 = AR
3
n
S2

Find Dmin
2
(2.3D + 2 )3
2 ∗ 0.015 1.5D
= (2.3D + 1.5D2 ) ∗ 2
√0.0001
(2.3 + 2D√1 + 1.52 )3
Dmin = 1.03 m

Find Dmax
2
3.43 ∗ 0.015 (2.3D + 1.5D2 )3
= (2.3D + 1.5D2 ) ∗ 2
√0.0001
(2.3 + 2D√1 + 1.5 )3
2

Dmax = 1.3569 m

| P a g e 45
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

1 1
D1 = Dmin + (Dmax − Dmin ) = 1.03 + (1.3569 − 1.03)
4 4
D1 = 1.1117 ⟶ say D1 = 1

3 3
D2 = Dmin + (Dmax − Dmin ) = 1.03 + (1.3569 − 1.03)
4 4
D2 = 1.275 ⟶ say D2 = 1.3

Use manning equation:

2
2 3
1 2.3 ∗ 1 + 1.5 ∗ 1
Q1 = (2.3 ∗ 1 + 1.5 ∗ 12 ) ∗ [ ] ∗ √0.0001
0.015 2.3 + 2 ∗ 1 ∗ √1 + 1.52
m3
Q1 = 1.888
sec
2
2 3
1 2.3 ∗ 1.3 + 1.5 ∗ 1.3
Q2 = (2.3 ∗ 1.3 + 1.5 ∗ 1.32 ) ∗ [ ] ∗ √0.0001
0.015 2.3 + 2 ∗ 1.3 ∗ √1 + 1.52
m3
Q 2 = 3.15
sec

Using weir formula

2
Q= CbH 3
3
1.888 = 1.7 ∗ b ∗ (1 − P)2 … … … … … … (1)
3
3.15 = 1.7 ∗ b ∗ (1.3 − P)2 … … … … … . . (2)
Dividing

1.3 − P
1.4067 =
1−P
1.4067 − 1.4067P = 1.3 − P ⟹ P = 0.262 m
b = 1.752 m

| P a g e 46
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Trapezoidal Notch-Fall Escape:

In the previous type of escape weir the canal cannot be drained totally unless a
pipe is provided at bed level. This pipe adds a certain variable to the prob.
A solution which is more simple
being to adopt a v – notch fall on
which the inclination of the sides
takes the place of the depth (p) as
a variable:
nD
tan θ = =n or n = tan θ
D
Two values of Q & D must be known to
Determine the two unknowns (b) & (h) from an equation which may be derived
as follows:
The eq. of the trapezoidal weir was previously given as:
2 3 8 5
Q = C1 ∗ √2g ∗ b ∗ H 2 + ∗ 0.6 ∗ √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ n ∗ H2
3 15

For a very low rectangular weir:

P
C1 = 1.06 (1 + ) P=0
H
= 1.06(1 + 0) = 1.06 ≈ 1.0
Assume C2 ≈ 0.6
There the last eq. may approximate in SI units as:
2 3 8 5
Q = 1 ∗ √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ b ∗ H + 2 ∗ 0.6 ∗ √2 ∗ 9.81 ∗ n ∗ H2
3 15
In which n = tan θ
Or:
3 5
Q= 2.95bH2+ 1.417H 2
Rearranging (out of brackets)
3
Q = 2.95H2 (b + 0.48nH)
But we have:
P=0 no. sill
H=D
Finally:
3
Q= 2.95D2 (b + 0.48nD)
| P a g e 47
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example: for the previous example it is required to design a trapezoidal notch

escape?

Solution:

From manning’s equation it has been found that:

For:
m3
D1 = 1.5m Q1 = 1.91
sec
m3
D2 = 2.0m Q 2 = 3.364
sec

Using equation:
3
Q= 2.95D2 (b + 0.48nD)
3
1.91 = 2.95 ∗ 1.52 (b + 0.48n ∗ 1.5) … … … … … (1)
3
3.364 = 2.95 ∗ 22 (b + 0.48n ∗ 2) … … … … … … (2)
From eq. (1) & (2)
b = 0.352 − 0.72n … … … … … (1)
b = 0.403 − 0.96n … … … … … (2)
from which n = 0.2125 = tanθ
θ = 12°
& b = 0.352 − 0.72 ∗ 0.2125 = 0.2m

| P a g e 48
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Problems

1. Water flows through a rectangular channel 1 m wide and 0.5 m deep and
then over a sharp trapezoidal weir of crest length of 0.6 m. If the water
level in the channel is 0.225 m above the weir crest, calculate the
discharge over the weir. Take cd = 0.6

2. A rectangular notch of crest width 0.4 m is used to measure the flow of

water in a rectangular channel of 0.6 m wide and 0.45 m deep. If the water
level in the channel is 0.25 m above the weir crest, find the discharge in
the channel. For the notch, assume Cd = 0.6

3. A 5m wide rectangular channel with 1.2 m depth of flow, a sharp- crested

weir of 2.5 m length and 0.6 m height is fixed symmetrically across the
channel width. If it flows free, determine the discharge.

4. A sharp crested weir of 1 m height is fixed across 5 m wide channel. The

depth of flow on the upstream and downstream sides of the weir is 1.5 m
and 1.2 m respectively. Find the discharge over the weir.

| P a g e 49
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Dams

| P a g e 50
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Dams
Introduction
The dam is a barrier constructed across the river to store water on its
upstream side due to construction of a dam the water level large areas lying
upstream of the dam get submerged. Dams are constructed to store the river
water in form of an artificial lake or reservoir. The stored water can be utilized
for generation of hydro-electric power, water supply, and irrigation or for any
other purpose.
Classification of Dams
Dams may be classified in several way as follows:
1- Classification based on materials of construction:
a- Earth fill dams.
b- Rock fill dams.
c- Concrete dams.
d- Masonry dams.
e- Steel dams.
f- Timber dams

2- Classification based on flow over its top:

a- Over flow dams.
b- Non over flow dams.

3- Classification based on the use of the dams:

a- Storage dams.
b- Diversion dams.
c- Detention dams.
d- Multi-purposes dams.

4- Classification based on the mode or resistance offered by the dams

against external forces:
a- Gravity dams.
b- Buttress dams.
c- Arch dams.

5- Classification based on rigidity of the dams:

a- Rigid dams.
b- Non-rigid dams.

| P a g e 51
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Advantages and Disadvantages of Gravity dams

Advantages:
1- Maintenance cost is negligible.
2- They are especially suitable for deep steep valley conditions where no
other dam is possible.
3- If suitable foundation is available, such dams can be constructed for
very large heights.
4- Because they can be constructed in very large heights, they can store
more amount of water.
5- If suitable separate place is not available for installation of spillways,
they can be installed in the dam section itself.
6- This dam gives prior indication of instability. If remedial measures are
taken in time-unsafe dams may even be rendered safe. Even if they
cannot be made safe they give sufficient time for the people to move
out the area likely to be submerged due to failure of the dam.
7- Silting rate of the reservoir can be reduced considerably by installing
under sluices in the dam near the bed of the reservoir. Sluices can be
operated from time to time and silt may be scoured out of the reservoir.
8- They are not affected by very heavy rainfall. Earth dams cannot sustain
very heavy rainfall because of heavy erosion.

Disadvantages:
1- They are very costly in initial construction.
2- They take lot of time to construct.
3- They require skilled laborer for construction.
4- Such dams can be constructed only on good foundation.
5- If height of the dam is to be raised, it cannot be done unless provision
for it had been made in the construction of the lower part of the dam.

| P a g e 52
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Earth fill and Rock fill Dams:

Advantages:
1- They can be constructed on any type of foundation.
2- They can be constructed in comparatively less time.
3- They do not require skilled labour.
4- Initial cost of construction is low as locally available soils, and rock
boulders are normally used.
5- Their height can be increased without any difficulty.
6- They are especially suitable for condition where slopes of river banks
are very flat. Gravity dams under such conditions are not found suitable.

Disadvantages:
1- The fail all of a sudden without giving any per-warning.
2- Flood water affect the dam safety.
3- Spillways have to be located independent of the dam.
4- They cannot be constructed as over flow dams.
5- They require continuous maintenance.
6- They cannot be constructed in narrow steep valleys.
7- They cannot with stand heavy rains unless properly protected.
8- They cannot be constructed in large height. The usual height is 30m for
which most of the earthen dams are

| P a g e 53
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Factors governing selection type of Dams

 Topography: such as V-shape nor row valley select arch dam. (Top width
of the valley less than 1/4 height).
 Narrow U-shape valley indicates choice of over flow concrete dam.
 A low, rolling plan suggest earth dam.

 Geology &Foundation:
 Solid rock-foundation: select any type.
 Gravel &coarse sand foundation: select earth dam or Rock fill dam.
 Silt & fine sand foundation: select earth dam or low concrete dam
up to 8m.
 Clay foundation: select earth dam with special treatment.

 Availability of materials of construction:

 If sand, gravel and stone is available, concrete gravity dam may be
suitable.
 If coarse and fine grained soils are available, on earth dam may be
suitable.

 Length and height of dam

 If the height of the dam is very long and its height is low, an earth
dam would be a better choice. If the length is small and height is
more, gravity dam is preferred.

 Spillways :
 Separate spillway -----earth dam
 Large spillway with dam concrete gravity dam and

 Road way over the dam:

 We can constructed earth or gravity dam

 Generation of hydro-electric power:

 Concrete or masonry gravity dams because can be constructed at-
height level and develop sufficient head for running the turbines.

| P a g e 54
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Concrete Dams:
Is a structure which is designed in such a way that its weight resist the
force exerted up on it. It may constructed of concrete or masonry

Gravity Dam Section-Dimension

𝑎

| P a g e 55
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

1- Critical height of low gravity dam

fa
Hcritical =
𝛾𝑤 (𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛 − 𝐶 + 1)
Where
fa ∶ 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 (𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 )
𝛾𝑤 ∶ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 )
𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛 ∶ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 (𝑇𝑜𝑛/𝑚3 )
𝐶 ∶ 𝑈𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

2- Width of low gravity dam

𝐻
- For No-tension basis 𝐵1 =
√𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛 −𝐶
𝐻
- For No-Sliding basis 𝐵2 =
𝜇(𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛 −𝐶)

𝐵 = 𝐵1 𝑜𝑟 𝐵2 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟.

Where
H: Dam height (m)
𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛 ∶ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 (𝑇𝑜𝑛/𝑚3 )
𝐶 ∶ 𝑈𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
= 1 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
= 0 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑.
𝜇 ∶ 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 (0.65 − 0.75)

3- Slope of D/S face

Value of (Z) in the slope of D/S Vary from (0.7- 0.8) for practical
consideration.

4- Top width of dam

Value of (a) which is top width of dam is considered as 14% of H or more.
5- Free board
Free board above max water level is considered as (3-4) % of H, but no less
than 1m.

| P a g e 56
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Practical Profile of Gravity Dam

2𝑎√𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛

3.1𝑎√𝛾𝑐𝑜𝑛

Extra
concrete
added

𝑎
16

Forces action on gravity dams:

1. Water pressure
2. Uplift pressure
3. Silt pressure
4. Wave pressure
5. Pressure due to earth quake force
6. Ice pressure
7. Weight of the dam

| P a g e 57
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

1. Water pressure
1 2
𝑃= 𝛾ℎ
2
If the upstream face is partially
vertical and partially inclined
The resultant water pressure can
be solved in two components
1 2
→𝑃= 𝛾ℎ & 𝑃1 = 𝛾𝑣 ↓
2
1
← 𝑃2 = 𝛾ℎ12 & 𝑃3 = 𝛾𝑣1 ↓
2
2. Uplift pressure
Without gallery
With gallery
1 2ℎ1 + ℎ
𝛾ℎ1 + (𝛾ℎ − 𝛾ℎ1 ) = 𝛾 ( )
3 3

Galleries
Small passage in a dam for providing an access to the interior of the dam. It’s
usually rectangular in shape with its top and bottom either flat or semi-circular.
The galleries should provide adequate working space to accommodate the
movement of staff and their equipment. Generally, the galleries sizes varies from
1.5 – 1.8 width and 2.2 – 2.4 height.

| P a g e 58
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Type of galleries:
1) foundation galleries
2) drainage galleries
3) grouting galleries
4) inspection galleries
5) gate galleries

| P a g e 59
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Functions of a gallery
The gallery may serve one or more of the following purposes:
1. The gallery can be used as a drainage gallery to permit drainage of water
percolating from the upstream of the dam into the body of the dam or its
foundation.
2. A gallery can be used for providing space for equipment required for
drilling holes and grouting the holes to form a grout curtain in the
foundation.
3. A gallery provides an access to the interior of the dam for inspection and
maintenance.
4. A gallery also provides space for installing various instruments in the
dam to study its structural behavior.
5. A gallery can provide space for the mechanical and electrical equipment
for the operation of gates for outlet conduits, penstocks or spillways.

6. The piping system for post cooling of concrete can be accommodated in

the gallery.

7. The gallery can be used for placing equipment used for grouting of
contraction joints.

8. The gallery provides an access through the dam for control cable and
power cables.

9. The gallery provides access to the interior of the dam to the visitors.

H.W; state the worst load combination applied on the gravity dam

| P a g e 60
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

3. Silt pressure
1
𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 = 𝛾𝑠 ℎ𝑠2 𝑘𝑎
2

Where:
1 − sin ∅
𝑘𝑎 =
1 + sin ∅

𝛾𝑠 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

ℎ𝑠 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑡

If the upstream face of the dam is inclined, the vertical weight of silt supported
on the slope also acts as vertical force.
4. Wave pressure
Wave pressure depends on the height of the wave (ℎ𝑤 ) developed.

4
ℎ𝑤 = 0.032√𝑉 ∗ 𝐹 + 0.763 − 0.27 √𝐹 … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐹 ≤ 32 𝑘𝑚

ℎ𝑤 = 0.032√𝑉 ∗ 𝐹 … . 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐹 ≤ 32 𝑘𝑚

Where:
ℎ𝑤 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝑉 = 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑚/ℎ𝑟)
𝐹 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑚)

 Wave pressure is
2
𝑃𝑤 = 2000𝛾ℎ𝑤 𝑘𝑔/𝑚
2
= 2𝛾ℎ𝑤 𝑇𝑜𝑛/𝑚

This force acts at distance (3ℎ𝑤 /8)

above the reservoir surface.

| P a g e 61
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

5. Pressure due to earth quake force

1- Effect of vertical acceleration:

When the acceleration is vertically upward the inertia force; 𝐹 = 𝑊 𝑘
(where W = weight of the dam and 𝑘 = coff. Of earth quake) acts vertically
downwards, these increasing the downwards weights.
When the acceleration is vertically downward the inertia force acts
upwards and decrease the downward weight.
Net Weight = W(1 ± 𝑘𝑣 ) ; 𝑘𝑣 coff. Of earth quake of ver. dir.
+ For acceleration is ver. upward.
- For acceleration is ver. downward.

2- Effect Of Horizontal acceleration

I- Hydrodynamic pressure
The horizontal acceleration of the dam and foundation
towards the reservoir causes a momentary increase in the water
pressure. The increase in water pressure (𝑃𝑒 ) is given by:
4ℎ
𝑃𝑒 = 0.55𝑘ℎ 𝛾ℎ2 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡
3𝜋
Where
𝑘ℎ =coff. Of earth quake horizontal dir.

II- Horizontal Inertia force

The inertia force acts in a direction opposite to the
acceleration imparted by the earth quake forces

𝐹𝐻 = W. 𝑘ℎ
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
W = weight of the dam
This force can be considered at the center of gravity of the
mass.

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 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

6. Ice pressure

The coefficient of the thermal expansion of ice being five times

more than that of concrete. The ice force acts linearly along the length
of the dam at the reservoir level.
The average value of (5 𝐾𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 ) or (50 𝑇𝑜𝑛/𝑚2 ) may be taken as an
ice force 5 𝐾𝑔/𝑐𝑚2

7. Weight of the dam

W1 = V1 γcon ; W2 = V2 γcon ; W3 ……

Wdam = ∑ W = W1 + W2 + W3 + …..

Structural Stability of Gravity Dams

Failure and inertia for structural stability of concrete gravity dam due to the
following reasons:

1- overturning of the dam

2- compression or crushing of the dam
3- sliding of the dam
4- development of tension in the dam

| P a g e 63
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

1- Failure by overturning:
If the resultant of all forces acting on a dam at any section of its sections
passes outside the toe, the dam shall rotates and overturning about the toe.
The factor of safety against overturning is:

∑ Righting moments
(𝐹. 𝑆)𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
∑ Overturning moments
∑MR
(𝐹. 𝑆)𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
∑MO

The value of F.S against overturning should not be less than (1.5)

2- Compression or crushing
A dam may fail by the failure of its materials, the compressive stress
produced may exceed the allowable stress and dam material may get
crushed.
The vertical stress distribution at the base is
given by:

∑V 𝑀𝐶
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ±
𝐵 𝐼
∑V 6e
= (1 ± )
𝐵 𝐵
∑V
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ = 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐵
𝑀𝐶 6Ve
± = 2 ∶ Bending stress
𝐼 𝐵
Ve 6Ve
Bending stress = = 2
1 2 𝐵
𝐵
6
+ will be used for calculating normal stress at the toe
- will be used for calculating normal stress at the heel
e: eccentricity of the resultant from the center of the base
∑ V: total vertical force
B: base width of the dam

| P a g e 64
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

3- Sliding (Shear failure):

Sliding occur when the net horizontal force at the base of the dam
exceeds the frictional resistance developed at the level
μ ∑(V−U)
𝐹. 𝑆 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = > 1.0
∑H
Where:
∑ (V-U) = net vertical force = ∑ V
∑ H = sum of horizontal forces causes the sliding
μ: coefficient of friction = (0.65 – 0.75)

4- Tension

From the present equation:

∑𝑉 6𝑒
𝑃ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = (1 − )
𝐵 𝐵

𝐵
If e > , the normal stress at the heel will be (−ve) or tension
6
while the reservoir of U/S is full.

The drawing will be up to down if the reservoir of U/S is empty

No tension should be permitted at any point of the dam

𝐵 𝐵
The eccentricity (e) should be less than (𝑒 < ) → the resultant should
6 6
always lie within the middle third.

| P a g e 65
 University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example
Determine the heel and toe stresses and the sliding factor for the dam
section shown in the figure for the following loading conditions:
- horizontal earth quake (𝑘ℎ ) = 0.1
- normal uplift pressure (drain working)
- silt deposit up to 30 m height
- no wave pressure and no ice pressure
- unit weight of concrete = 2.4 𝑇𝑜𝑛/𝑚3
- unit weight of silty water = 1.4 𝑇𝑜𝑛/𝑚3
- submerged weight of silt = 0.9 𝑇𝑜𝑛/𝑚3
- coeff. of friction = 0.65
- angle of reporse = 25
(+↓) (-↑) (- →) (+ ←)

| P a g e 66
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Name of forces Magnitude La (m) Moment toe

1- vertical forces
W1 (126+140) * 0.5 * 1*2.4 = 21168 + 84 +1778112
W2 150 * 8 *1*2.4 = 2880+  130 374400
W3 (30+6)*0.5*1*2.4 = 216+ 136 29376
W4 (30+6)*0.5*1*1.4 = 126+ 138 17388
W5 114 *6*1*1 = 684 + 137 93708
∑W + 25074 ∑ M = 2292984
2- uplift pressure
U1 ⅓ (1)(144)(21)(1) = - 1008 ↑ 129.5 - 130536
U2 ½ (⅓ *1*144)*119*1 = - 2856 ↑ 79.33 - 226566.48
U3 ½ (⅔*1*144)*21*1 = -1008 ↑ 133 - 134064

∑U - 4872 ∑ M = -491166.48
3- horizontal forces
P1 = ½γh2 0.5 * 1442 * 1*1 = - 10368 → 144/3 - 497664
Ps = ½γs h 2 k 0.5 *0.9 * 302 *0.4058 = - 164.35 → 30/3 - 1643.49
s a

∑H - 10532.4 ∑ M = - 499307.49
4- earth quake
F1 = W1 * Kh 21168 *0.1= - 2116.8 → 140/3 - 98784
F2 = W2 * Kh 2880*0.1 = - 288 → 150/2 - 21600
F3 = W3 * Kh 216 *0.1 = - 21.6 → 30/3 - 216
Hydrodynamic (Pe) 0.55 * 0.1 *1 * 1442 = - 1140.48 → 4ℎ
= 61.1465
- 69736.36
(0.55 kh γ h2) 3π

∑E - 3566.88 ∑ M = - 190336.36

∑𝑀 = +2292984 – 499307.49 – 190336.36 – 491166.48

= 1112173.67 𝑇𝑜𝑛 . 𝑚
∑𝑉 = ∑𝑊 − ∑𝑈 = 25074 – 4872 = 20202 𝑇𝑜𝑛

𝐵 𝐵 ∑𝑀
𝑒= − 𝑋́ = −
2 2 ∑𝑉

140 1112173.67
𝑒= − = 14.95 𝑚
2 20202
∑V 6e
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (1 ± )
𝐵 𝐵
20202 6 ∗ 14.95
= (1 ± )
140 140

| P a g e 67
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 236.755 𝑇𝑜𝑛/𝑚2

𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 51.845 𝑇𝑜𝑛/𝑚2

μ ∑(V − U)
𝐹. 𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = > 1.0
∑H

0.65 ∗ 20202
= = 0.933 < 1 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑂𝐾.
10532.35 + 3566.88
∑MR 2292984 2292984
(𝐹. 𝑆)𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = = 1.94 > 1.5 𝑂𝐾.
∑MO 𝑀𝑢 + 𝑀𝐻 + 𝑀𝐸 1180810.33

The dam is not safe due to sliding effect

| P a g e 68
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example
Check the stability of gravity dam show in the figure below, for the reservoir
empty and full conditions. Also find the maximum and minimum stresses at the
toe and heel of the dam. Assume =0.75, consider only the weight of dam, water
pressure and uplift pressure. Also check the stability of the dam
(i) when the uplift pressure doesn’t act
(ii) when the drains are choked.

7m

35 m Pv1
32 m
W2
65 m

50 m
Pv2
PH 30 m W3

W1

3m 7m 40 m
8m

8m 42 m

𝛾𝑤 H𝑑 u1 u3

𝛾𝑤 (62 − H𝑑 )

| P a g e 69
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Solution
For uplift pressure distribution
8m 42 m

𝑢3
𝑢1 𝐻𝑑
62𝛾𝑤
𝑢2

1 1 62
𝐻𝑑 = (2𝐻1 + 𝐻 ) = (0 + 62) = = 20.667 𝑚
3 3 3
𝐻1 = 0, 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Name of Lever arm from the Moment

forces Magnitude of force (kN) about toe
toe La (m) (kN.m)
1- vertical
forces
1
W1 ∗ 3 ∗ 30 ∗ 24 = +1080 ↓ 1+7+40=48m +51840
2
7
W2 + 40 = 43.5m +475020
7 ∗ 65 ∗ 24 = +10920 ↓ 2
2
W3 1 ∗ 40 = 26.67m +640000
∗ 40 ∗ 50 ∗ 24 = +24000 ↓ 3
2
3 +45675.36
𝑃𝑉1 3 ∗ 32 ∗ 9.81 = +941.76 ↓ + 7 + 40 = 48.5𝑚
2
1 2
𝑃𝑉2 ∗ 30 ∗ 3 ∗ 9.81 = +441.45 ↓ ∗ 3 + 7 + 40 = 49𝑚 +21631.05
2 3
∑ = + 37383.21 kN ↓ = +1234166.4
2 - Horizontal
force 1 62
∗ 9.81 ∗ 622 = −18854.82 [→] = 20.67 - 389666.28
𝑃𝐻 2 3
3 – uplift
8
pressure ( + 42) = 46
2 - 74608.32
U1 9.81 ∗ 8 ∗ 20.667 = − 1621.92 
2
U2 ( ∗ 8 + 42) = 47.33
3 - 76770.88
9.81 ∗ 0.5 ∗ 8 ∗ (62 − 20.667)

= −1621.92  2
∗ 42 = 28
1 3
U3 ∗ 42 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 20.667 = −4257.54 
2 - 119211.12
∑ - 7501.38 = - 270590.32

| P a g e 70
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

1. When the reservoir is empty

Only weight of dam act.

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 @ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 @ 𝑡𝑜𝑒

∑V 6e
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (1 ± )
𝐵 𝐵
𝐵 ∑𝑀 51840 + 475020 + 640000
𝑒= − 𝑋́ , 𝑋́ = =
2 ∑𝑉 36000
𝑋́ = 32.41 𝑚

50
𝑒= − 32.41 = −7.41 𝑚 (𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑈/𝑆)
2
36000 6 ∗ 7.41
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 @ 𝑡𝑜𝑒 = (1 − ) = 79.776 𝑘𝑝𝑎
50 50

36000 6 ∗ 7.41
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 @ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = (1 + ) = 1360.224 𝑘𝑝𝑎
50 50

Also;

𝐵
= 8.33 > 𝑒 ∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
6

- Check the overturning

There is no need for the overturning check, since there is no overturning
force.

- Check the sliding

There is no need for sliding check, since there is no sliding force.

The dam is safe

| P a g e 71
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

2. When reservoir is full, considering uplift pressure.

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 @ 𝑡𝑜𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 @ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙

∑𝑀 1234166.4 − 389666.28 − 270590.32 573909.8

𝑋́ = = = = 19.21 𝑚
∑𝑉 37383.21 − 7501.38 2988183

𝐵
𝑒= − 𝑋́ = 25 − 19.21 = 5.79 𝑚
2
∑V 6e 29881.83 6 ∗ 5.79
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 @ 𝑡𝑜𝑒 = (1 + ) = (1 + ) = +1012.87 𝑘𝑝𝑎
𝐵 𝐵 50 50
∑V 6e 29881.83 6 ∗ 5.79
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 @ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 = (1 − ) = (1 − ) = +182.4 𝑘𝑝𝑎
𝐵 𝐵 50 50
𝐵
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 <
6

- check the overturning

∑MR 1234166.4
𝐹. 𝑆𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = 1.87 > 1.5 ⟶ 𝑂𝐾
∑MO 389666.28 + 270590.32

- check for sliding

μ ∑V 0.75 ∗ 29881.83
𝐹. 𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = 1.19 > 1 ⟶ 𝑂𝐾
∑H 18854.82

The dam is safe

| P a g e 72
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

3. When the reservoir full condition, no uplift

In this situation, the uplift force 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 &𝑈3 will not act.
∑𝑀 1234166.4 − 389666.28
𝑋́ = = = 22.59 𝑚
∑𝑉 37383.21

𝐵
𝑒= − 𝑋́ = 25 − 22.59 = 2.41
2
𝐵 𝐵
= 8.33 , 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 < , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟
6 6
∑V 6e 37383.21 6 ∗ 2.41
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 @ 𝑡𝑜𝑒 = (1 + ) = (1 + ) = +963.89 𝑘𝑝𝑎
𝐵 𝐵 50 50
∑V 6e 37383.21 6 ∗ 2.41
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 @ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 = (1 − ) = (1 − ) = +531.44 𝑘𝑝𝑎
𝐵 𝐵 50 50

- check the overturning

1234166.4
𝐹. 𝑆𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = 3.17 > 1.5 ⟶ 𝑂𝐾
389666.28

- check for sliding

μ ∑V 0.75 ∗ 37383.21
𝐹. 𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = 1.49 > 1 ⟶ 𝑂𝐾
∑H 18854.82

The dam is safe

| P a g e 73
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

4. Check for the reservoir full condition, drain choked

When the drain are choked, full uplift pressure acts on the base.
𝑘𝑁
The intensity of uplift pressure at heel = 62 * 𝛾𝑤 = 62 * 9.81 = 608.22 2
𝑚
The intensity at the toe = Zero, because there is no tail water.
1
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = ∗ 608.22 ∗ 50 = 15205.5 𝑘𝑁
2
2
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 @ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∗ 50 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑒
3
2
so, the lever arm = ∗ 50 = 33.333 𝑚
3
The moment due to uplift force about the toe =15205.5 * 33.33=506850 kN.m
∑V = +37383.21 − 15205.5 = +22177.71 𝑘𝑁
∑MR = +1234166.4 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
∑MO = −(389666.28 + 506850) = −896516.28 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
∑M = 1234166.4 − 896516.28 = +337650.12 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
∑𝑀 337650.12
́
𝑋= = = 15.22 𝑚
∑𝑉 22177.71
𝐵
𝑒 = − 𝑋́ = 25 − 15.22 = 9.78 𝑚
2
𝐵 50 𝐵
= = 8.33 𝑚 , 𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑒 > , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟
6 6 6
22177.71 6 ∗ 9.78
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 @ 𝑡𝑜𝑒 = (1 + ) = 964.11 𝑘𝑝𝑎
50 50
22177.71 6 ∗ 9.78
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 @ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 = (1 − ) = −77 𝑘𝑝𝑎
50 50
- check the tension
𝐵 𝑘𝑁
since e > , the tension will developed @ heel by value = 77
6 𝑚2
- check for the overturning
∑MR 1234166.4
𝐹. 𝑆𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = 1.38 < 1.5 ⟶ 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑂𝐾
∑MO 896516.28
- check for sliding
μ ∑(V − U) 0.75 ∗ 22177.71
𝐹. 𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = 0.88 < 1 ⟶ 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑂𝐾
∑H 18854.82
 , We noted that when the drains of dam are choked, it will develop very
serious unsafe condition for the dam.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example
Check the stability of gravity dam shown in previous example, considering
the seismic forces, in addition to self-weight, water pressure and uplift pressure
Assume av = 0.1 and ah = 0.2
a) Consider only vertical acceleration
b) Consider only horizontal acceleration
- Consider the full reservoir condition.
Solution

Name of force Magnitude of Lever arm from Moment about toe

force (kN) the toe La (m) (kN.m)
1- Vertical forces
+ 37383.21 ↓ + 1234166.4
From previous example
2- Horizontal force
- 18854.82  - 389666.28
From previous example
3- uplift force
From previous example - 7501.38  - 270590.32

4- a vertical acceleration

𝑊1 = 0.1 ∗ 1080 - 108  48 - 5184

𝑊2 = 0.1 ∗ 10920 - 1092  43.5 - 47502

𝑊3 = 0.1 ∗ 24000 - 2400  26.67 - 64008

𝑃𝑉1 = 0.1 ∗ 941.76 - 94.18  - 4567.73

48.5
𝑃𝑉2 = 0.1 ∗ 441.45 - 2163.35
- 44.15  49

∑ - 3738.33 - 123425.08
4- b Horizontal acceleration

𝑊1 = 0.2 ∗ 1080 - 216  10 - 2160

𝑊2 = 0.2 ∗ 10920 - 2184  32.5 - 70980
𝑊3 = 0.2 ∗ 24000 50 - 80000
- 4800  = 16.67
3
𝑃𝑒 = 0.55 ∗ 𝛾𝑤 ∗ 𝑘ℎ ∗ ℎ2 4ℎ 4 ∗ 62
= - 109219.5
= 0.55 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.2 ∗ 62 2 - 4148.1 3𝜋 3 ∗ 3.14
= 26.33

∑ - 11348.1 - 262359.5

| P a g e 75
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

a) Consider inertia force due to vertical acceleration only.

∑𝑀 1234166.4 − 389666.28 − 270590 − 32 − 123425.08
𝑋́ = =
∑𝑉 37383.4 − 7501.38 − 3738.33
𝑋́ = 17.23 𝑚
𝑒 = 0.5𝐵 − 𝑥̅ = 25 − 17.23 = 7.77
𝐵 50
= = 8.33
6 6
𝐵
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 < , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑
6
∑V 6e 26143.5 6 ∗ 7.77
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 @ 𝑡𝑜𝑒 = (1 + ) = (1 + )
𝐵 𝐵 50 50
𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 @ 𝑡𝑜𝑒 = 1010.4 2
𝑚
26143.5 6 ∗ 7.77 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 @ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = (1 − ) = 35.35 2
50 50 𝑚

- check for tension

𝐵
since e < , there is no tension
6

- check for overturning

∑MR 1234166.40
𝐹. 𝑆𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = =
∑MO 389666.28 + 270590.32 + 123425.08
= 1.57 > 1.5 ⟶ 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒

- check for sliding

μ ∑(V − U) 0.75(37383.21 − 3738.33 − 7501.38
𝐹. 𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = =
∑H 18854.82
= 1.04 > 1 ⟶ 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

b) Considering inertia force due to horizontal acceleration only.

∑𝑀 1234166.4 − 389666.28 − 270590.32 − 262359.5

𝑋́ = =
∑𝑉 37383.4 − 7501.38 − 3738.33
= 10.43 𝑚
𝐵
𝑒 = 0.5𝐵 − 𝑥̅ = 25 − 10.43 = 14.57 > = 8.33
6

∑V 6e 29881.83 6 ∗ 14.57
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 @ 𝑡𝑜𝑒 = (1 + ) = (1 + )
𝐵 𝐵 50 50
𝑘𝑁
= 1642.54 2
𝑚

∑V 6e 29881.83 6 ∗ 14.57
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 @ ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = (1 − ) = (1 − )
𝐵 𝐵 50 50
𝑘𝑁
= −447.27
𝑚2

- check for tension

𝐵
Since 𝑒 > , the tension will be developed by value of maximum
6
𝑘𝑁
tension = 447.27 at heel
𝑚2

- check for overturning

∑MR 1234166.40
𝐹. 𝑆𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 = =
∑MO 389666.28 + 270590.32 + 262359.5
= 1.34 < 1.5 ⟶ 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒

- check for sliding

μ ∑(V − U) 0.75 ∗ 29881.83
𝐹. 𝑆𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = 0.74 < 1 ⟶ 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒
∑H 30202.92

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Problems
1) A gravity dam is 10 𝑚 high. It has a top width of 1 𝑚 and base width 9 𝑚,
the front face is vertical with inclined of downstream face, the water is stored
up to the top of the dam. (take density of concrete 2400 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
a- Test the stability against overturning.
b- Determine compressive stresses at the toe and heel of the dam

2) A diagram of a concrete dam shown in fig. (1). Check the dam for stability
of sliding and overturning. Assume only horizontal effect of the earthquake
if the acceleration coeff. = 0.1, density of concrete = 2400 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , safe shear
stress for concrete 14 𝑘𝑔/𝑐𝑚2 , coeff. of fraction = 0.75. (Check when
reservoir is full and uplift is acting).

3) Is there any tension occur in the concrete dam shown in fig. (2)? Consider
the weight of the dam and water pressure only with a full condition of the
reservoir. What’s the worst condition of the dam when it design?

4) A gravity dam is 10 m high. It has a top width of 1 m and base width 9 m.

The front face is vertical. Assume that the weight of concrete is 2400 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
and the water stored up to the top of the dam.
a) Test the stability against overturning and sliding, take coff. of friction =
0.65.
b) Determine compressive stresses at the toe and heel of the dam.
Consider only self-weight of dam and water pressure.
390m
387m
383m 6m
3m
10m
327m
0.75
27m 1
300m
10m 8m
68m 21m
Fig. (1) Fig. (2)

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College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

SPILLWAY

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College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Spillway
Introduction
A spillway is a structure constructed at a dam site, for effectively disposing
of the dam surplus water from upstream and downstream just after the reservoir
gets filled up. Up to the normal pool level, water starts flowing over the top of
the spillway crest (which is generally kept at normal pool level) . A spillway
is essentially a safety valve from a dam.
A spillway can be located either within the body of the dam or at one end of
it or entirely away from it.
The spillways can be classified of the following major type, depending upon
the type of the structure constructed for disposing of the surplus water:

1. Straight drop spillway

2. Ogee spillway (overflow spillway)
3. Chute spillway (open channel spillway)
4. Side channel spillway
5. Shaft spillway
6. Siphon spillway

Ogee spillway (overflow spillway)

Ogee spillway is an improvement upon the free over fall spillway, and is
widely used with concrete, arch and buttress dams.

Discharge formula for the ogee spillway:

The discharge passing over the ogee spillway is given by the equation:
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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf
3
𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐿𝑒 𝐻𝑒 2
Where:
Q : discharge
C : coefficient of discharge
𝐿𝑒 : effective length of the spillway crest
𝐻𝑒 : total head over the crest (𝐻𝑎 + 𝐻𝑑 )
𝑉𝑎2 𝑄
𝐻𝑎 = , 𝑉𝑎 =
2𝑔 (𝐻 + 𝐻𝑑 )𝐵
Where B: width of canal
𝐿𝑒 = 𝐿 – 2 [𝑘𝑝 . 𝑁 + 𝑘𝑎 ] 𝐻𝑒
Where:
L : the net clear length of the spillway crest
𝑘𝑝 : pier contraction coeff.
𝑁 : number of piers
𝑘𝑎 : abutment contraction coeff.

Pier shape 𝑘𝑝

Square nosed piers without any rounding 0.10

Square nosed piers with rounding on radius = 0.1 of pier thickness 0.02

Rounded nose piers and 90° cut water nosed piers 0.01

Pointed nose piers 0.00

Abutment shape 𝑘𝑎

Square abutment with head wall at 90° to the direction of flow 0.2

Rounded abutment with head wall at 90° to the direction of flow 0.1

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

For high spillway the velocity is very small and it can be neglected
(ℎ𝑎 = 0) (𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑑 )
H
If, > 1.33 (High ogee spillway)
𝐻𝑑

Crest of Spillway
For spillway having a vertical face the D/S crest is given by:

𝑋1.85 = 2𝐻𝑑 0.85 𝑦

The U/S profile may be designed as the equation:

0.724(𝑋 + 0.27𝐻𝑑 )1.85

𝑦= 0.85 + 0.126𝐻𝑑 − 0.4315𝐻𝑑 0.375 (𝑋 + 0.27𝐻𝑑 )0.625
𝐻𝑑

a= 0.175 𝐻𝑑

b= 0.282 𝐻𝑑

𝑟1 = 0.5 𝐻𝑑

𝑟2 = 0.2 𝐻𝑑

Vertical U/S profile

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example
Design ogee spillway for concrete gravity dam having downstream face sloping
at (0.781H:1V), the discharge for the spillway is (8000 𝑚3 /sec) the height of
spillway crest is kept at level (204 m) the average river level at the site is (100
m), the spillway length consist (6) span having clear width (10 m) each with
pier thickness = 3 m, 𝑘𝑝 = 0.01, 𝑘𝑎 = 0.1 , 𝐶 = 2.2

Solution
𝑁=5
𝐿 = 6 ∗ 10 = 60 𝑚
𝐿𝑒 = L − 2 [N𝑘𝑝 + 𝑘𝑎 ]𝐻𝑒 = 60 − 2[(5 ∗ 0.01) + 0.1]𝐻𝑒 = 60 − 0.3𝐻𝑒
3 3
𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐿𝑒 𝐻𝑒 2 ≫ 8000 = 2.2 ∗ (60 – 0.3𝐻𝑒 ) ∗ (𝐻𝑒 2 )

By trial and error

𝐻𝑒 = 16.3 m
Let 𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑑
𝑄
𝑉𝑎 =
(𝐻 + 𝐻𝑑 )𝐵
8000
𝑉𝑎 = = 0.887 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
((204 − 100) + 16.3)(60 + 5 ∗ 3)
𝐻⁄ 204 – 100
𝐻𝑑 = 16.3
= 6.4 > 1.33 » 𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦

‫𝐻(أسوأ حالة تعطي أقل رقم للمقدار‬⁄𝐻 )

𝑑
𝑉𝑎2
𝐻𝑎 =
2𝑔
0.8872
= = 0.04 𝑚
2 ∗ 9.81
∴ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑.

D/S profile
𝑋1.85 = 2𝐻𝑑 0.85 𝑦
𝑋1.85 𝑋1.85 𝑋1.85
𝑦= 0.85 = 2(16.3)0.85 = 21.45
2𝐻𝑑

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
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𝑑𝑦 1.85 ∗ 𝑋 0.85
=
𝑑𝑥 21.45
1
= 0.0862𝑋 0.85
0.781
𝑋 = 23.913 𝑚
‫( و هكذا يرسم المقدم عمودي و المؤخر لكل مسافة‬x) ‫(نسقط‬y)‫ ونوصلها لينتج مقطع المسيل المائي‬.

The coordinates of the D/S profile are:

𝑿 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
𝒚 = 𝑋1.85 /21.45 0 0.17 0.61 1.28 2.18 3.3 4.62 6.15

𝑿 16 18 20 22 22.4 23 23.913

𝒚 = 𝑋1.85 /21.45 7.87 9.79 11.90 14.19 14.67 15.41 16.56

U/S profile

0.724(𝑋 + 0.27𝐻𝑑 )1.85 0.375

𝑦= 0.85 + 0.126𝐻𝑑 − 0.4315𝐻𝑑 (𝑋 + 0.27𝐻𝑑 )0.625
𝐻𝑑

0.724(𝑋 + 0.27 ∗ 16.3)1.85

𝑦= 0.85
+ 0.126 ∗ 16.3 − 0.4315 ∗ 16.30.375 (𝑋 + 0.27 ∗ 16.3)0.625
16.3

0.724(𝑋 + 4.4)1.85
𝑦= + 2.0538 − 1.229 ∗ (𝑋 + 4.4)0.625
10.72
The values U/S profile extends up to

𝑋 = −0.27 ∗ 𝐻𝑑 = −0.27 ∗ 16.3 = −4.4 𝑚

X 0 - 0.5 -1 - 1.5 - 2.0 - 2.5 - 3.0 - 3.5 - 4.0 - 4.4

Y 0 0.014 0.0628 0.147 0.271 0.44 0.663 0.96 1.373 2.0538

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example
Design an overflow spillway for discharge of 1500 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐. The upstream water
level is 240 m and upstream channel floor is 200 m. The spillway having vertical
face is 50 m long, 𝐶𝑑 = 0.49 and D/S slope = 1: 0.7
Solution
3 3
𝑄 = 𝐶 √2𝑔 𝐿𝑒 𝐻𝑒 2 ≫ 1500 = 0.49 ∗ √19.62 ∗ 50 ∗ 𝐻𝑒 2
𝐻𝑒 = 5.76 𝑚
Assume high spillway 𝐻𝑒 ≅ 𝐻𝑑 = 5.76 𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 @ 𝑢/𝑠, (𝐻) = 240 – 200 = 40 𝑚
𝑄 1500
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ (𝑉𝑜 ) = = = 0.75 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 40 ∗ 50
𝑉𝑜 2 0.752
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = = = 0.0287 𝑚
2𝑔 19.62
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 (𝐻𝑑 ) = 𝐻𝑒 − 𝐻𝑎 = 5.76 − 0.0287
= 5.73 𝑚

𝐻⁄ = 40 = 6.98 > 1.33 ⟹ ∴ 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦

𝐻𝑑 5.73
D/S profile

1.85 0.85 𝑋1.85 𝑋1.85

𝑋 = 2𝐻𝑑 𝑦 ⟹𝑦= ⟹𝑦=
2𝐻𝑑 0.85 2 ∗ 5.730.85
𝑦 = 0.1134𝑋1.85
𝑑𝑦
= 0.1134 ∗ 1.85𝑋 0.85
𝑑𝑥
1
= 0.1134 ∗ 1.85𝑋 0.85
0.7
𝑋 = 9.55

D/S profile while 𝑦 = 0.1134𝑋1.85

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

X (m) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Y (m) 0.113 0.409 0.865 1.474 2.227 3.12 4.15 5.313 6.61

U/S profile
a = 0.175 𝐻𝑑 = 0.175 * 5.73 = 1

b = 0.282 𝐻𝑑 = 0.282 * 5.73 = 1.62

𝑟1 = 0.5 𝐻𝑑 = 0.5 * 5.73 = 2.865

𝑟2 = 0.2 𝐻𝑑 = 0.2 * 5.73 = 1.146

0.724(𝑥 + 0.27𝐻𝑑 )1.85 0.375

𝑦= 0.85 + 0.126𝐻𝑑 − 0.4315𝐻𝑑 (𝑥 + 0.27𝐻𝑑 )0.625
𝐻𝑑

𝑦 = 0.164(𝑥 + 1.547)1.85 + 0.72198 − 0.83(𝑥 + 1.547)0.625

The U/S profile of spillway extend up to:
𝑥 = 0.27𝐻𝑑 = 0.27 ∗ 5.73 = 1.547 𝑚
𝑦 = 0.126𝐻𝑑 = 0.126 ∗ 5.73 = 0.722 𝑚
X -0.5 -1 -1.5 -1.55
Y 0.046 0.206 0.6 0.722

Example
Design an ogee spillway with following data
 height of spillway crest above river bed = 100 m
 Design discharge = 12000 cumecs
 Number of span = 6
 clear distance between piers = 15 m
 Thickness of pier = 3 m
 Slope of D/S side = 1:0.8
 Assume any other data…
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Solution
𝐿 = 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑦 = 15 ∗ 6 = 90 𝑚
𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝐶 = 2.2 , 𝐾𝑝 = 0.02 , 𝐾𝑎 = 0.2
𝐿𝑒 = 𝐿 – 2 (𝐾𝑝 ∗ 𝑁 + 𝐾𝑎 )𝐻𝑒  𝐿𝑒 = 90 – 2 (0.02 ∗ 5 + 0.2)𝐻𝑒
𝐿𝑒 = 90 – 0.6 𝐻𝑒
3
𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐿𝑒 𝐻𝑒 2
3
12000 = 2.2 ∗ (90 – 0.6 𝐻𝑒) ∗ 𝐻𝑒  𝐻𝑒 = 16.72

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑑 𝑎𝑠 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦

𝐻⁄ = 100 = 5.98 > 1.33 ∴ ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦
𝐻𝑑 16.7

𝑄 12000
𝑉𝑜 = = = 0.98 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 (100 + 16.7)(90 + 5 ∗ 3)
𝑉𝑜 2 0.982
= = 0.05 𝑚 , 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
2𝑔 19.62
𝐻𝑒 ≅ 𝐻𝑑

D/S profile
𝑋1.85
𝑦= 0.85 ≫ 𝑦 = 0.0457𝑋1.85
2𝐻𝑑
𝑑𝑦
= 0.0457 ∗ 1.85𝑋 0.85
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 0.0845𝑋 0.85
𝑑𝑥
1
= 0.0845𝑋 0.85
0.8
𝑋 = 23.8 𝑚

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8

y 0 0.046 0.165 0.349 0.594 0.897 1.257 2.141

x 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 23.8

y 3.235 4.533 6.483 7.719 9.6 11.663 13.912 16.091

U/S profile

0.724(𝑥 + 0.27𝐻𝑑 )1.85

𝑦= 0.85 + 0.126𝐻𝑑 − 0.4315𝐻𝑑 0.375 (𝑥 + 0.27𝐻𝑑 )0.625
𝐻𝑑

𝑦 = 0.06614(𝑥 + 4.509)1.85 + 2.1042 − 1.2402(𝑥 + 4.509)0.625

The U/S profile of spillway end at:

x = 0.27𝐻𝑑 = 4.509 m

y = 0.126𝐻𝑑 = 2.1042 m

x - 0.5 -1 - 1.5 -2 - 2.5 -3 - 3.5 -4 -4.509

y 0.0133 0.0609 0.1429 0.2631 0.4266 0.6419 0.9242 1.31 2.1042

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Dynamic force on spillway

When water flows over the curved surface of ogee spillway, there is
continuous change of velocity and hence there is change in momentum from
section to section.
According to Newton's second low of motion, this change in momentum
, causes a force on the spillway structure this force is known as the (dynamic
force).

Example:

The ogee spillway shown in the figure below which discharge water with head of
1.2 m over crest, taking C=2.2.
Compute the dynamic force on the curved section AB which has a constant radius
of 3 m and Ө = 60

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College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Solution
3
𝑄 = 𝐶 𝐿𝑒 𝐻 2
3
𝑄 2.2 ∗ 𝐿(1.2)2
𝑞= = = 2.9 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚
𝐿 𝐿
2
𝑣𝑢/𝑠 𝑝𝑢/𝑠 𝑣𝑜2 𝑝𝑜 𝑣12 𝑝1
+ + 𝑧𝑢/𝑠 = + + 𝑧𝑜 = + + 𝑧1
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣𝑜2 𝑣12 𝑝1
11.2 = + 𝑦𝑜 cos 60 + 𝑧𝑜 = + + 𝑧1
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣𝑜2 𝑣12
11.2 = + 𝑦𝑜 cos 60 + 1.5 = + 𝑦1
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑣𝑜 𝑦𝑜 = 𝑣1 𝑦1 = 2.9
2.9 2.9
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣1 =
𝑦𝑜 𝑦1
2
2.9
11.2 = + 0.5 𝑦𝑜 + 1.5
19.62𝑦𝑜2
𝑦𝑜 = 0.212 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜 = 13.7 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣12
11.2 = + 𝑦1
2𝑔
2.92
11.2 = + 𝑦1
19.62𝑦12
𝑦1 = 0.197 𝑚 𝑣1 = 14.7 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

Momentum equations
∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑜 cos 𝜃)
∑𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄(0 − 𝑣𝑜 sin 𝜃)
1
𝐹𝑜 = ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑦𝑜2
2
1
𝐹𝑜𝑥 = ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑦𝑜2 cos 60
2
= 0.5 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.2122 ∗ 0.5
= 0.11 𝑘𝑁 ⟶
1
𝐹𝑜𝑦 = ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑦𝑜2 sin 60
2
√3
= 0.5 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.2122 ∗
2
= 0.191 𝑘𝑁 ↓
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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
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1
𝐹1𝑥 = ∗ 𝛾 ∗ 𝑦12 = 0.5 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.1972 = 0.19 𝑘𝑁 ⟵
2
0.212 + 0.197 60
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑉 = 9.81 ∗ ∗ ∗ 2𝜋 ∗ 3 = 6.3 𝑘𝑁 ↓
2 360
∑𝐹𝑥 = 𝜌𝑄(𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑜 cos 60)
0.11 − 0.19 + 𝐹𝐻 = 1 ∗ 2.9 ∗ (14.7 − 13.7 cos 60)
𝐹𝐻 = 22.845 𝑘𝑁 ⟶

∑𝐹𝑦 = 𝜌𝑄(0 − 𝑣𝑜 sin 60)

−6.3 − 0.19 + 𝐹𝑉 = 1 ∗ 2.9 ∗ (−13.7 sin 60)
𝐹𝑉 = −27.917 𝑘𝑁
 The direction of vertical component is ()
𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝐻2 + 𝐹𝑉2 = √22.8452 + 27.9172 = 36.073 𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝑉 27.917
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1 = 50.7°
𝐹𝐻 22.845

Example:

For the overflow section shown in fig. below, determine the dynamic force
on the curved surface. Take the coefficient of discharge of the spillway as 2.1 and
the radius of the bucket (curved section) as 4m.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Solution:

Discharge intensity,
3
𝑞 = 𝐶𝐻 2
3
= 2.1 ∗ 0.52 = 3.86 𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑐𝑠/𝑚

Let 𝑑1 and 𝑑2 be the thickness of sheet of water at point 1 and 2, respectively,

and 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 be the corresponding velocities. Applying Bernoulli’s equation to
point 3 on the upstream water level and points 1 and 2, taking datum at the
riverbed.

𝑣12 𝑣22
13.5 = 2.0 + 𝑑1 cos 𝜃 + = 𝑑2 + … … … … (𝑎)
2𝑔 2𝑔
Taking 𝑉1 𝑑1 = 𝑉2 𝑑2 = 𝑞 = 3.86, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 60°, 𝑒𝑞. (𝑎) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
3.86 2 1 3.86 2 1
13.5 = 2.0 + 𝑑1 cos 60° + ( ) ∗ = 𝑑2 + ( ) ∗
𝑑1 2𝑔 𝑑2 2𝑔
Solving by trial and error,
𝑑1 = 0.258 𝑚, 𝑉1 = 14.96 𝑚/𝑠, 𝑑2 = 0.239 𝑚, 𝑉2 = 16.15 𝑚/𝑠.

Weight of water in the control volume,

9.81 ∗ 60 ∗ 2𝜋 ∗ 4 0.258 + 0.239
𝑊= ∗( ) = 10.21 𝑘𝑁
360 2

Hydrostatic force at face bc,

𝐹1 = 0.5𝛾𝑤 𝑑12 cos 60° = 0.5 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.2582 ∗ 0.5 = 0.16 𝑘𝑁
Hydrostatic force at face ad,
𝐹2 = 0.5𝛾𝑤 𝑑22 = 0.5 ∗ 9.81 ∗ 0.2392 = 0.28 𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑤
∑𝐹𝐻 = 𝑞 (𝑉2𝐻 − 𝑉1𝐻 )
𝑔
9.81 ∗ 103 1
= ∗ 3.86 ∗ (16.15 − 14.96 ∗ cos 60°) ∗
9.81 1000
= 3.86 ∗ (16.15 − 7.48) = 33.47 𝑘𝑁
∑𝐹𝐻 = 0.16 cos 60° − 0.28 + 𝑃́𝐻 = 33.47
𝑃́𝐻 = 33.67 𝑘𝑁 (𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑑/𝑠)
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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
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𝛾𝑤 9.81 ∗ 103
∑𝐹𝑉 = 𝑞 (𝑉2𝑉 − 𝑉1𝑉 ) = ∗ 3.86 ∗ (0.0 + 14.96 ∗ sin 60°) ∗ 10−3
𝑔 9.81
= 3.86(0 + 12.96) = 50.01
∑𝐹𝑉 = 𝑃́𝑉 − 0.16 sin 60° − 𝑊 = 50.01
∑𝐹𝑉 = 𝑃́𝑉 − 0.14 − 10.21 = 50.01
𝑃́𝑉 = 60.36 𝑘𝑁 (+𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑)

𝑃𝐻 = 33.67 𝑘𝑁 (𝑡𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑢/𝑠)

𝑃𝑣 = 60.36 𝑘𝑁 (𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠)

2 2
𝐹𝑅 = √𝑃́𝐻 + 𝑃́𝑉 = √33.672 + 60.362 = 69.12 𝑘𝑁

𝑃𝑉
𝜃 = tan−1 = 60.85°
𝑃𝐻

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Problems
1) An overflow ogee spillway with upstream face vertical is to be designed for
a flood of 2100 cumecs. The level of the spillway crest is at RL of 130 m and
the river bed is a RL 100 m, the end walls of the spillway are 79 m apart, and
three are four round nosed piers wide, determine the total head over the crest
and design the spillway (downstream slope 0.5:1).
Take 𝐶𝑑 = 2.2 and 𝑘𝑎 = 0.1

2) Design a spillway which having the sloping 0.7H : 1V, discharge 8000
cumecs, the height of the crest 240 m. River bed level = 100 m. The spillway
length consists of 6 spans having a clear width of 10 m each. Thickness of
each pier may be taken to be 2.5 m. 𝐶𝑑 = 2.2 , 𝑘𝑎 = 0.1 , 𝑘𝑝 = 0.01.
(Sketch and make a table for your design).

3) For the overflow of ogee spillway as shown in fig. (1), determine the dynamic
force on the curved surface. The head 1.5 m and upstream vertical face = 12
m, take 𝐶𝑑 = 2.1 and the radius is 4 m.

1.5 𝑚

12 𝑚
60°
𝜃 = 30°
4𝑚
2𝑚

Fig. (1)

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HYDRAULICS OF CULVERT

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HYDRAULICS OF CULVERT

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College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

HYDRAULICS OF CULVERT
Introduction
A culvert is a conduit passing under a road or highway. In Section, culverts may
be circular, rectangular, or oval .Culverts may operate with either a submerged
entrance (fig. 1) or a free entrance (fig. 2).

Submerged Entrance:-
In the case of submerged entrance there are three possible regimes of flow as
indicated in (fig. 1). Under conditions (a) and (b) of the figure the culvert is said
to be flowing under outlet control, while condition (c) represents entrance
control. In (a) the outlet is submerge possibly because of inadequate channel
capacity downstream or due to back water from a connecting stream. In (b) the
normal depth 𝑦𝑜 of the flow is greater than the culvert height D, causing the
culvert to flow full. The same equation is applicable to both cases (a) and (b),
namely

Figure (1) Flow condition in culverts with submerged entrance.

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College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Where ∆ℎ is define in (fig.1a) , and (fig.1b) , ℎ𝑒 is the entrance head loss , ℎ𝑓 is

the friction head loss in the culvert barrel , and ℎ𝑣 is the velocity head loss
at submerged discharge in case (a) or the residual velocity head at discharge in
case (b).

Entrance loss is a function of the velocity head in the culvert, while friction loss
may be computed using Manning's equation. Thus, in BG units,

Outlet control
Case (a) or (b):
𝑉 2 𝑛2 𝑉 2 𝐿 𝑉 2
∆ℎ = 𝐾𝑒 + 4 + 2𝑔
2𝑔
2.21𝑅ℎ3
This expression in BG units can be reduced to outlet control,

2𝑔𝑛2 𝐿 𝑉2
∆ℎ = (𝐾𝑒 + 4 + 1)
2𝑔
𝑅ℎ3

The entrance coefficient 𝐾𝑒 about 0.5 for a square-edged entrance and about
0.05 if the entrance is well rounded.

If the outlet is submerged, the head loss may be reduced somewhat by flaring the
culvert outlet so that the outlet velocity is reduced and some of the velocity head
recovered. Tests show that the flare angle should not exceed about 60 for
maximum effectiveness.

To determine which of cases (b) or (c) occurs when the outlet is free (not
submerged), we need to find if normal flow in the barrel will fill it. Usually the
discharge is known or assumed. For rectangular culverts the normal depth can be
solved in the usual way from Manning's eq. by trial and error. For circular cross
sections it is easier to use Manning's equation to find the diameter which would
𝐷
just flow full (𝑅ℎ = ), and to compare that with the actual or proposed diameter.
4
If alternative slops are being considered with a giber barrel diameter. If alternative
slops are being considered with a given barrel diameter, the algebra can be
rearranged to solve for the slope that just causes the barrel to flow full.

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If normal depth in the culvert is less than the barrel condition (c) illustrated in
(fig. 1c) will normally result.

This culvert is said to be flowing under entrance control. i.e., the entrance will not
admit water fast enough to fill the barrel and the discharge is determined by the
entrance conditions. The inlet functions like an orifice for which Entrance control,

Case (c):
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴√2𝑔ℎ
Where h is the head on the center of the orifice and 𝐶𝑑 , is the orifice coefficient
of discharge. The head required for a given flow Q is therefore Entrance control,
1 𝑄2
Case (c): 𝑘=
𝐶𝑑2 2𝑔𝐴2

It is impractical to cite appropriate values of 𝐶𝑑 , because of the wide variety of

entrance conditions which may be encountered: for a specific design this must be
determine from model tests or tests of similar entrances. For a sharp-edged
entrance without suppression of the contraction 𝐶𝑑 = 0.62, while for a well-
rounded entrance 𝐶𝑑 approaches unity. If the culvert is set with its invert at
stream-bed level, the contraction is suppressed at the bottom. Flared wing walls
may also cause partial suppression of the side contractions.

Free Entrance:
Some box culverts may be designed so that the top of the box forms the road way.
In this case the head water show not submerge inlet and one of the flow conditions
of (Fig.2) (free entrance) will exist. In cases (a) and (b) critical depth in the barrel
controls the head water elevation, while in case (c) the tail water elevation is the
control. In all cases the head water elevation may be computed using the
principles of open-channel flow discussed in this chapter with an allowance for
entrance and exit losses.
When the culvert is on a steep slope [case (b)], critical depth will occur at about
1.4𝑦𝑐 downstream from the entrance. The water surface will impinge on the head
water when the head water depth is about 1.2𝐷 if 𝑦𝑐 is 0.8𝐷 or more. Since it
would be inefficient to design a culvert with 𝑦𝑐 much less than 0.8𝐷, a head water
depth of 1.2𝐷 is approximately the boundary between free-entrance conditions
(Fig.2) and submerged-entrance conditions (Fig.1).

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
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Figure (2) flow conditions in culverts with free entrance.

Entrance and outlet structures:-

The geometry of the entrance structure is an important aspect of culvert design.
Entrance structures (Fig.3) serve to protect the embankment from erosion and, if
properly designed, may improve the hydraulic characteristic of the culvert. The
straight end wall (a) is used for small culverts on flat slopes when the axis of the
stream coincides with the culvert axis. If an abrupt change in flow direction is
necessary, the L end wall (b) is used. The U-shaped end wall (c) is the least
efficient form from the hydraulic view point and has the sole advantage of
economy of construction. Where flows are large, the flared wing wall (d) is
preferable.

The flare should, however, be made from the axis of the approaching stream (e)
rather than from the culvert axis. Some hydraulic advantage is gained by warping
wing walls into a smooth transition, but the gain is not usually sufficient to offset
the cost of the complex forming required for such warped surfaces.

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Figure (3): culvert end walls and wing walls.

The purpose of the culvert outlet is to protect the downstream slope of the fill
from erosion and prevent undercutting of the culvert barrel. where the discharge
velocity is low or the channel below the outlet is not subject to erosion, a
straight end wall or a U-shaped end wall may be quite sufficient at higher
velocities, lateral scour of the embankment or channel banks may result from
eddies at the end of the walls, especially when the culvert is much narrower than
the outlet channel. With moderate velocities, flaring of outlet wing walls is
helpful, but the flare angel β must be small enough so that the stream from the
culvert will adhere to the walls of the transition.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example:
A culvert under a road must be 30 m long, have slope of 0.003, and carry
4.3 𝑚3 /𝑠. If the max. Permissible head water level is 3.6 m above the culvert
invert, what size of corrugated-pipe culvert (n=0.025) would you select? Neglect
velocity of approach. Assume a square-edged inlet with 𝐾𝑒 = 0.5 and 𝐶𝑑 =
0.65. The outlet will discharge freely.
Solution:
Assume D < 3 𝑚 ,
i.e., that head water depth /𝐷 > 3.6/3 = 1.2 , i.e., assume that the entrance is
submerged. Given the discharge is free, so (Fig.1.a) cannot apply. Conditions
are those of either (Fig.1.b) or (1.c.)
Assume case (b), (Fig.1), i.e., that the barrel flows full
𝑄 4.3 5.47 𝐷
𝑉= = = ; 𝑅 =
𝐴 𝜋𝐷2 𝐷2 4
4
𝑉2 𝑉2
∆ℎ = ℎ𝐿 1−3 + = (𝑦1 − 𝑦3 ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧3 ) +
2𝑔 2𝑔
2
5.47
( 2)
= 𝑦1 − 𝑦3 + 𝑆𝑜 𝐿 + 𝐷
2𝑔
5.47 2 1
= 3.6 − 𝐷 + 0.003(30) + ( 2 ) ∗
𝐷 2(9.81)
1.528
∆ℎ = 3.69 − 𝐷 + … … … … … … (1)
𝐷4
19.62(0.025)2 ∗ 30 5.472
∆ℎ = [0.5 + + 1] ∗ … … … … … (2)
𝐷 4/3 2(9.81)𝐷4
( )
4
2.34 1.528
= (1.5 + 4 ) ∗
𝐷4
𝐷3
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ∆ℎ 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔
2.34 1.528
3.69 = 𝐷 + (0.5 + 4 ) ∗
𝐷4
𝐷 3
By trial and error or by equation solver, D=1.107 m. Thus
the first assumption (𝐷 < 3𝑚) is ok.
Now to determine is we have case (b) or case (c) ; find the diameter 𝑑𝑜 that just
flows full with normal (uniform) flow:-
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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
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2
1 𝜋𝑑𝑜2 𝑑𝑜 3 1
4.3 = ∗ ∗ ( ) ∗ (0.003)2
0.025 4 4
⟹ 𝑑𝑜 = 1.994 𝑚

As 𝑑𝑜 > 𝐷 the culvert runs full, we do have case (b), as assumed. The above
assumption and analysis are valid.
D =1.107 m. Use standard D =1.2 m

Example:-
A culvert under a road must carry 4.5 𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐.
(a) If the culvert length is 32 m, longitudinal slope is 0.004, and the max.
Permissible headwater level above the culvert invert is 3.8 m. What is the
size of corrugated-pipe culvert (n=0.025) would you select? The outlet
will discharge freely. Neglect velocity of approach. Assume square-edged
entrance with 𝐾𝑒 = 0.5, 𝐶𝑑 = 0.65.
(b) Repeat for a culvert length of 110 m.

Solution
(a)
Assume D < 3.17 m
𝐻𝑤
∴ > 1.2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑.
𝐷
𝑄 4.5 5.73
𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 ⟹ 𝑉 = = 𝜋 = 2
𝐴 𝐷2 𝐷
4
2
5.73
𝑉2 ( 2)
∆ℎ = ℎ𝐿 1−2 + = (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) + 𝐷
2𝑔 2𝑔

1.67
∆ℎ = 3.8 − 𝐷 + 0.004 ∗ 32 +
𝐷4

1.67
∆ℎ = 3.928 − 𝐷 + … … … … … . (1)
𝐷4

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124.6𝑛2 𝐿 𝑉2
∆ℎ = (𝐾𝑒 + 4 + 𝐾𝑜 ) , 𝐾𝑒 = 0.5 & 𝐾𝑜 = 1
2𝑔
𝐷3
2.492 1.67
∆ℎ = (1.5 + 4 )∗ … … … … … … (2)
𝐷4
𝐷3
eq. (1) = eq. (2)

1.67 2.492 1.67

3.928 − 𝐷 + = (1.5 + 4 ) ∗
𝐷4 𝐷4
𝐷 3

1.67 2.492 1.67

3.928 = 0.5 ∗ + 4 ∗ 𝐷4 + 𝐷
𝐷4
𝐷3
0.835 4.162
3.928 = + 16 + 𝐷 ; 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙 & 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝐷4
𝐷3

D =1.12 m < 3.17 OK

And the entrance is submerged

_Since outlet discharge is freely, so the culvert is either b or c type with

submerged entrance
1 1 2
𝑄 = 𝑆 2 𝑅3𝐴
𝑛
2
1 1 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑜 3
4.5 = ∗ 0.0042 ∗ ∗( )
0.02 4 4
𝑑𝑜 = 1.922 𝑚

_Since 𝑑𝑜 > 𝐷 ,  𝐶𝑢𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 (𝑏)

_𝐷 = 1.12 ≈ 1.2 𝑚

(b) Now use the same procedure above for condition of culvert length equal to
110 m
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Example
1.5 m diameter culvert (concrete barrel, square-edge nose) that is 20 m long, with
slope 𝑆 = 0.02 and 𝑄 = 9.5 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐. The inlet is submerged but not the outlet.
Determine the depth that will result upstream (above the invert) during will result
upstream (above the invert) during the design. Take 𝐾𝑖 = 0.5 , 𝐾𝑜 = 1 , 𝑛 = 0.015.
Solution
𝐷 = 1.5 𝑚 , 𝐿 = 20 𝑚 , 𝑆 = 0.02 𝑚 , 𝑄 = 9.5 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐.
124.6𝑛2 𝐿 𝑄2
∆ℎ = (𝐾𝑒 + 𝐾𝑜 + 4 ) 2
𝐴 ∗ 2𝑔
𝐷3
124.6 ∗ 0.0152 ∗ 20 9.52
∆ℎ = (0.5 + 1 + 4 )∗
(0.785 ∗ 1.52 )2 ∗ 19.62
1.53
∆ℎ = 2.693
𝑄2
∆ℎ = 2.693 = (𝑦1 − 𝐷) + 𝑆𝑜 ∗ 𝐿 + 2
𝐴 ∗ 2𝑔
9.52
2.693 = 𝑦1 − 1.5 + 0.02 ∗ 20 +
(0.785 ∗ 1.52 )2 ∗ 19.62
𝑦1 = 2.32
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦1 > 𝐷  𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑏

Example
Find the discharge of freely pipe culvert which has length equal to 30 m, S = 0.003
and maximum permissible head of water above the invert of culvert is 3.6 m,
manning coefficient n = 0.025, cross section area = 1.13 𝑚2 , 𝐾𝑖 = 0.05 , 𝐾𝑜 =
1 , 𝐶 = 0.65 and consider outlet free condition.
Solution
124.6𝑛2 𝐿 𝑄2
∆ℎ = (𝐾𝑒 + 𝐾𝑜 + 4 ) 2
𝐴 ∗ 2𝑔
𝐷3
124.6 ∗ 0.0252 ∗ 30 𝑄2
∆ℎ = (0.05 + 1 + 4 )∗
1.132 ∗ 19.62
1.23
∆ℎ = 0.115𝑄 2 … … … … (1)

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

𝑄2
∆ℎ = (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + 𝑆𝑜 ∗ 𝐿 + 2
𝐴 ∗ 19.62
𝑄2
∆ℎ = (3.6 − 1.2) + 0.003 ∗ 30 +
1.132 ∗ 19.62
∆ℎ = 2.4 + 0.09 + 0.04𝑄 2 = 2.49 + 0.04𝑄 2 … … … … (2)
eq. (1) = eq. (2)
0.115𝑄 2 = 2.49 + 0.04𝑄 2 ⟹ 𝑄 = 5.76 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

Example
Concrete box culvert (1.22*1.22) m with n=0.013, 𝐾𝑒 = 0.05 , 𝐾𝑜 = 1 , 𝑆 =
0.005 , 𝐿 = 36.6 𝑚, 𝐻𝑤 = 1.83 𝑚, what is the discharge capacity of culvert
if 𝐶𝑑 = 0.95, the tail water elevation is 0.304 m above the top of box at the outlet
(Assume any value if you need to solve the problem)
Solution

2𝑔 ∗ 𝑛2 𝐿 𝑄2
∆ℎ = 𝐾𝑒 + 𝐾𝑜 + 4 𝐴2 ∗ 19.62
𝐷 3
( )
( 4 )

19.62 ∗ 0.0132 ∗ 36.6 𝑄2

∆ℎ = (1.05 + 1 + )∗
1.22 4/3 1.224 ∗ 19.62
( )
4
∆ℎ = 0.0373𝑄 2 … … … … (1)
∆ℎ = (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ) = (1.83 − 1.22) + 0.005 ∗ 36.6
∆ℎ = 0.793 … … … (2)
eq. (1) = eq. (2)
0.793 = 0.0377𝑄 2 ⟹ 𝑄 = 4.586 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 2 1
𝑄 = 𝑅3 𝑆 2𝐴
𝑛

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

1 0.5
(1.22𝑦)2/3
4.586 = ∗ 0.005 ∗ (1.22𝑦) ∗
0.013 (1.22 + 2𝑦)2/3
𝑦𝑛 = 1.252 𝑚

_Since 𝑦 > 𝐷 , 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 (𝑏) 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

∆ℎ = 0.793 − 0.304 = 0.489

2𝑔 ∗ 𝑛2 𝐿 𝑄2
∆ℎ = 𝐾𝑒 + 𝐾𝑜 + 4 𝐴2 ∗ 19.62
𝐷 3
( )
( 4 )

19.62 ∗ 0.0132 ∗ 36.6 𝑄2

∆ℎ = (1.05 + 1 + )∗
1.22 4/3 1.224 ∗ 19.62
( )
4
∆ℎ = 0.489 = 0.038𝑄 2 ⟹ 𝑄 = 3.58 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐

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College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

BRIDGES

Side view of stream showing backwater and hydraulic variables at and upstream from bridge.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
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BRIDGES
Introduction
The presence of a bridge across a stream creates constricted flow through its
opening because of:
1- The reduction in the width of the stream due to piers and their associated end
contractions.
2- The fluming of the stream itself (in the case of wide streams with flood
plains) to reduce the costs of the structure.

Apart from (local) Scour around The piers and possible bed erosion, there is a
considerable back water effect of The Bridge. The corresponding afflux (rise in
upstream water level) depends on The type of flow (Subcritical or supercritical ),
As most bridges are designed for subcritical flow conditions in order to minimize
scour and chocking problems , further discussions here are mainly confined to
subcritical flow.

The establishment of afflux levels is extremely important for design of upstream

dykes and other protective works and also for the location of safe bridge deck
levels (to avoid the flooding of the deck and any consequent structural damage).

It is equally important to determine the minimum Clear length of span (economic

Considerations) which will not Cause undesirable afflux levels .In order to
establish permissible upstream stage levels, detailed investigations of the
properties along the stream have be investigated.

Downstream of the bridge the water level are only influenced by The nearest
Control section blew the bridge. These levels can therefore be established by
backwater Computation.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Backwater Level Bridges at long Contractions

In The Case where the bridge has number of larger piers and ∕ or long approach
embankments contracting the water width, the backwater effect is Considerable.
Yarnell's experimental data on the flow through bridge Piers resulted in the
following empirical equation:
∆𝑦
= 𝐾𝐹𝑟32 (𝐾 + 5𝐹𝑟32 − 0.6)(𝛼 + 15𝛼 4 )
𝑦3
Where,
𝑏
𝛼 =1−𝜎 =1− ( 𝑆𝑒𝑒 𝐹𝑖𝑔. (1) )
𝐵
And K is a function of the pier shape (Table (1))
∆𝑦: 𝐴𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 , 𝑦3 : 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Table (1) values of K as a function of pier shape
Pier shape K
Semicircular 0.9
Lens – shaped 0.9
Cylinder 0.95
90º triangular 1.05
Square nose 1.25

The above equation is valid only if σ is large the Contraction Cannot setup critical
flow conditions between piers and choke the flow .If the flow becomes chocked
by excessive Contraction the afflux increases Substantially (Fig.(1)) The
limiting value of σ (assuming uniform velocity at section 2) for critical flow at
section (2) Can be written as:
3
1 𝐹𝑟34
𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = (2 + )
𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 (1 + 2𝐹𝑟32 )3
𝑏
𝜎𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 = , 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 > 𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒
𝐵
Notes:
1. If length: breadth is 4, ∆𝑦 = ∆𝑦𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
2. If length: breadth is 7, ∆𝑦 = 1.05 ∗ ∆𝑦𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
3. If length: breadth is 13, ∆𝑦 = 1.1 ∗ ∆𝑦𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

In the case of chocked flow the energy loss between Section (1) and (2) (Fig (1))
was given.
𝑉12
𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = 𝐶𝐿
2𝑔
Where
𝐶𝐿 = 0.35 for square pier
= 0.18 for rounded pier
*For a pier length; width ratio to (4).

From the last eq. upstream 𝑦1 Can be Calculated From which the afflux Δy is
obtained as (𝑦1 − 𝑦3 )

Fig (1) Flow profile through bridge with contracted channel (subcritical flow)

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example
Road bridge of six equal span length crosses a 102 m wide river. The pier
diameter is 2 m with cylindrical body. The ratio of length: breadth is 13. The
stream flow rate is 450 cumecs, and the depth of flow downstream is 2.7 m.
Determine the afflux upstream of bridge.

Solution

∆𝑦
= 𝐾𝐹𝑟32 (𝐾 + 5𝐹𝑟32 − 0.6)(𝛼 + 15𝛼 4 )
𝑦3

102 15
𝐵= = 17𝑚 , 𝑏 = 17 − 2 = 15 𝑚 , 𝜎𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 = = 0.882
6 17
𝑄 450
𝑦3 @𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚 = 2.7 𝑚 , 𝑉= = = 1.634 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴 2.7 ∗ 102
𝑉3 1.634
𝐹𝑟3 = = = 0.317
√𝑔𝑦3 √9.81 ∗ 2.7

𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 0.3174
3 = = 0.00583
1 (1 + 2 ∗ 0.3172 )3
(2 + )
𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 0.4456

𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 < 𝜎𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 ⟹ ∴ 𝑂. 𝐾

𝛼 = 1 − 𝜎𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 1 − 0.882 = 0.118

∆𝑦
= (0.95 ∗ 0.3172 )(0.95 + 5 ∗ 0.3172 − 0.6)(0.118 + 15 ∗ 0.1184 )
2.7

∆𝑦 = 0.0266 ∗ 1.1 = 0.02926 𝑚

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structure
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example
A road bridge of seven equal span lengths crosses a 106 m wide river. The piers
are 2.5 m thick, each with Semicircular noses and tails, and their length: breadth
ratio is 4. The stream flow data are given as Follows: discharge = 500𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐,
depth of flow downstream of the bridge=2.50m. Determine the afflux upstream
of the bridge.

Solution
∆y
= KFr32 (K + 5Fr32 − 0.6)(α + 15α4 )
y3
K = 0.9
Q 500
𝑉3 = = = 1.887 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
A 106 ∗ 2.5
𝑉3 1.887
𝐹𝑟3 = = = 0.381
√𝑔𝑦3 √9.81 ∗ 2.5
𝛼 =1−𝜎
𝑏 13 106
𝜎𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 = = = 0.839 , Where; 𝐵= ≈ 15.5 𝑚
𝐵 15.5 7
𝑏 = 15.5 − 2.5 = 13 𝑚
3
1 𝐹𝑟34
𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = (2 + )
𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 (1 + 2𝐹𝑟32 )3
𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝐹𝑟34 0.3814
= =
1 3 (1 + 2𝐹𝑟32 )3 (1 + 2 ∗ 0.3812 )3
(2 + )
𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
= 0.00981 ⟹ 𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 0.55
1 3
(2 + )
𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝜎𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 0.55 < 𝜎𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 0.839 ; 𝑂. 𝐾.
𝑏
𝛼 = 1 − 𝜎 = 1 − = 1 − 0.839 = 0.161
𝐵
∆𝑦
= (0.9 ∗ 0.3812 )(0.9 + 5 ∗ 0.3812 − 0.6)(0.161 + 15 ∗ 0.1614 )
2.5
 ∆𝑦 = 0.0573
 𝑦1 = 𝑦3 + ∆𝑦 = 2.5573 𝑚
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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Scour depth under the bridge

If the Contracted width (i.e. the bridge length, L ) is less than the regime width
1
(W) (The minimum stable width of an alluvial Channel (𝑊 = 4.75𝑄 ⁄2 ) where
(B) is the want way width (measured along the water surface and right angles
to the banks in m, and Q The max. flood discharge in (𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐), the normal
Scour depth, 𝐷𝑛 under the bridge is;
𝑊 0.61
𝐷𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠 ( )
𝐿
Where
Q 1
𝑅𝑠 = regime scour depth = 0.475( )3 If B > regime width (W)
f
1
q2 3
= 1.35 ( ) If B < regime width (W)
f

f = Lacy’s silt Factor =1.76 √𝑑(𝑚𝑚)

The max Scour depth in single span bridge (no piers) with a straight approach is
about (25%) more than 𝐷𝑛 , where as in Case of multi-span structure With Curve
Approach it is (100%) Than 𝐷𝑛 .
𝑤 1.56
If The Construction is predominant; 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅𝑠 ( )
𝐿
W = regime width
L = length of bridge

Local scour around bridge piers

Several formula based on experimental results have been proposed to predict the
max .scour depth (𝑦𝑠 , below bed level) around bridge piers, In general, these
assume the relationship
𝑦𝑠 𝑦𝑜 𝑑
= 𝐹( , 𝐹𝑟 , )
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
Where
b = the pier width
𝑦𝑜 = the U/S flow depth
d = sediment size

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

𝑦𝑠 𝑦 0.78
= 4.2 ( 𝑜 ) 𝐹𝑟 0.52 Laursen’s formulas
𝑏 𝑏
“Clear water”

5 Live bed (bed load transport)

𝑦𝑠 𝐵 7
=( ) −1 i.e. laden water with sediment
𝑦𝑜 𝑏

Although the presence of scour tends to reduce the backwater levels upstream of
the bridge, the damage to the foundations of the structure may far outweigh the
possible benefit. Hence protective measures, both to minimize the scour and
prevent under mining of the foundations, have to be taken. Piers with base
diaphragms (horizontal rings) and multiple cylinder type piers have been found
to minimize the Scour Considerably. The normal practice for protection of the
foundation is to provide thick protective layers of stone or concrete aprons around
the piers.

On the abutment can applied khassaf’s formula

2
𝐷𝑠
= 16.826 𝐹𝑟3 𝛼 −1 𝜃 −0.325
𝑦
2
𝐷𝑠 Khassaf's formula
= 3.96 𝐹𝑟3 𝛼 −1
𝑦
𝜃 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘)
𝐵−𝑏
𝛼 ∶ 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐵
Or you can use the following equation of Laursens
𝑆 𝑎 0.4 0.33
= 1.1 ( ) 𝐹𝑟1
𝑑1 𝑑1
Where
𝑎 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑑1 = 𝑈/𝑆 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑆 = 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Rang of Froude No. 0.09 → 0.22 subcritical
Opening ratio 0.6 → 0.85
D50 → 0.25 mm
Rip-Rap can be used for protection from scouring with following
dimensions:
1
Width = 6 b, Length = 7 b, Thick = 𝑏 , 𝑑 = 0.06 − 0.033𝑉 + 0.04𝑉 2
3

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Example
For previous question of bridge with seven equal span length, which crosses 106
m river. Determine the maximum normal scour under the bridge and local scour
under the piers if clear water condition.
Solution
𝑊 0.61
𝐷𝑛 = 𝑅𝑠 ( )
𝐿
1 1
𝑊= 4.75𝑄 2
= 4.75 ∗ = 106.2 𝑚 5002
𝐿 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 106 𝑚
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑊 > 𝐵 = 106.2 > 106
1
2 3
𝑞
𝑅𝑠 = 1.35 (
)
𝑓
𝑄 500
𝑞= = = 4.7 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚
𝐵 106
𝑓 = 1.76√𝑑(𝑚𝑚) 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
1
2 3
4.7
𝑅𝑠 = 1.35 ( ) = 3.79
1
106.2 0.61
𝐷𝑛 = 3.79 ( ) = 3.794 𝑚
106
((Due to existence of multi-span case in the bridge))
𝐷𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 ∗ 3.794 = 7.588 𝑚

Local scour under piers

Assume clear water
𝑦𝑠 𝑦𝑜 0.78 0.52
= 4.2 ( ) 𝐹𝑟
𝑏 𝑏
𝑄 500
𝑦𝑜 = 2.5573 , 𝑏 = 2.5 , 𝐹𝑟 = =
𝐴√𝑔𝑦1 106 ∗ 2.5573√9.81 ∗ 2.5573
𝐹𝑟 = 0.368
𝑦𝑠 2.5573 0.78
= 4.2 ( ) ∗ 0.3680.52
2.5 2.5
𝑦𝑠 = 6.36 𝑚

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Problems
1. Given the following data:

Clear span between piers = 8 m, center to center between piers = 9.5 m,

discharge = 250 cumecs, length of bridge = 60 m, width of pier = 2 m with
semicircular noses, upstream water depth = 4 m, downstream water depth
= 2.5 m, Lacy’s silt factor f = 1.5. (Assume any other value if you need to
solve the problem) Required:

a- Determine afflux upstream of the bridge

b- Calculate the max. scour depth under the bridge.
c- Find the max. depth of scour under the piers.

2. A road bridge of six equal span lengths crosses a 100 m wide river, the
piers are 2.0 m thick, each with semicircular noses and tails, and their
length: breath ratio is 4. The discharge of stream = 450 cumecs, depth of
flow downstream of the bridge = 2.5 m. Determine the afflux upstream of
bridge.
(Take coeff. of pier shape = 0.9).

3. A bridge at six equal span length crosses a 96 m wide river. The discharge
of the river is 450 cumecs at depth of floe downstream of the bridge equal
2.4 m, the piers at 2.1 m thick, each with square nose and tails, and their
length: breadth ratio 7:1, the function of pier shape 1.25. Determine the
afflux upstream of the bridge, state the importance of calculation of the
afflux in design of the bridge, and also find the maximum scour under the
bridge.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

DIMENSION ANALYSIS
AND
HYDRUALIC SIMILITUDE

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Introduction
Methods of dimensional analysis
Hydraulic Similitude

Types of hydraulic similarity

Classification of models
University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Appendix: Glossary of some common

terms

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

Appendix: Glossary of some common terms

1. Rating curve
Ii is a graph of discharge versus stage for a
given point on a stream, usually at gauging
stations, where the stream discharge is
measured across the stream channel with a flow
meter.

2. Apron
Ground covering of concrete or any other material, which used to protect underlying earth
surface from water erosion, such apron used in approaches of hydraulic structures to protect
from scouring due to turbulence flow or scouring by seepage pressure.

3. Back water curve

It is the longitudinal profile of the water surface in an open channel where the depth of flow
has been increased by obstructions, an increase in channel roughness, and decrease in channel
width or flattering of the bed slope.

4. Barrage
It is a type of low-head structure, consist of a number of large gates that can be opened or
closed to control the amount of water passing through.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

5. Berm
It is a long horizontal ledge cut between foot and top of embankment; berm uses to stabilize
the slope by intercepting sliding earth surface, transforming materials and for maintenance
purpose.

6. Blanket
It is a horizontal impervious layer constructed from rocks or concrete putting in front of or
behind the structure to increase the water path to reduce the seepage.

7. Nappe
It is the sheet of water leaving the weir crest
or the V-notch.

8. Alternative depth
Two depth have same specific energy, one is subcritical and the other is supercritical.

9. Min. specific energy

It is occur when the depth of flow is critical.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

10. Coffer-Dam
A watertight temporary structure in a river, lake. For keeping the water away from an enclosed
area that has been pumped dry, so that any hydraulic structure like dam, pier may be
constructed properly.
11. Levee
It is one of control flooding walls, earthen dyke or embankment. It is a sort of an earthen dam
constructed along river. In general, levees should satisfy the criteria of earth dam.

12. Control section

It is section in open channel where critical depth occurs, so that the (Fr =1). In addition,
considered as best location for measuring the discharge flowrate.
13. Dike
Walls or embankment of earth and/or rooks, run along or parallel to the body of water. Built
to protect the land behind from flooding, hold irrigation water for agricultural purpose, and
increase depth of water for navigation purpose.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

14. Groyne
Rigid hydraulic structure made out from wood, concrete or stones. Built perpendicular to the
shoreline to interrupt water waves, thus limiting movement of sediments. Generally, it is used
to keep shore and riverbanks from drafting and increase water depth for navigation purpose.

15. Afflux
The rise in water level above the normal level in open channels (or rivers), occurs on the
upstream of the structures, which have built across the channel like bridges.
16. Breaching section
Low earth bund or dike which is washed out as soon as it is overtopped by water, used as valve
so that main structure (like dam) is not damage, it is also called fuse-plug dike.
17. Dead storage
The storage of water in the reservoir below minimum pool level. The dead storage cannot be
normally used for any purpose.
18. Surcharge storage
Volume of water between max water level and full reservoir level. The surcharge storage exist
only during high floods, and it cannot be retained for later use.
19. Baffle Pier
It is used to stabilize the jump and increase turbulence by assisting in dissipation of energy.
20. Retrogression Phenomena
It is a temporary phenomenon occurs during first few years after the construction of barrage
or weir in the river, which caused lowering d/s riverbed along a few kilometers. The reason is
the water flowing through the barrage have less silt, which will picks up silt from d/s bed and
causing lowering d/s bed. The values vary (0.6m – 2.5m).

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

21. Diversion head work

It is a structure constructed across the river for rising the water level so that it can be diverted
by the off taking canals. It is generally constructed on Perennial River, which has adequate
flow through the year, and therefore there is no necessity of creating a storage reservoir.

22. Stop log

One of a set of usually square pieces (wood or metal), that serve to form a dam or to check the
flow of water.

23. Quay
A stretch of paved bank or a solid artificial landing place parallel to the navigable waterway,
for use in loading and unloading vessels.

24. Revetments
Cover or facing of erosion resistant materials placed directly on existing slope, embankment
or dike to protect the area from waves and strong currents.

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University of Basrah Advanced Hydraulic Structures
College of Engineering – Civil Dept. Prof. Dr. Saleh Issa. Khassaf

25. Free board

It is the vertical distance between the top of dam and full reservoir level; it is called the gross
freeboard. The net freeboard is vertical distance between the top of the dam and maximum
water level. In case of canals, the free board is vertical distance between the top of the bank
and full supply level.

26. Chutes
An inclined channel, as a trough or shaft, for conveying water, grain, etc. to lower level. A
waterfall or steep descent, as in a rivers.

27. Cross –Works

It is a structure built on a canal, where is crosses natural drainage such as a stream
or a river, sometimes a cross drainage work is required when the canal crosses
another canal and required to dispose of the drainage water so that canal supply
remains uninterrupted.
Types of cross work:
1. Canal over the drainage
 Aqueduct
 Syphon aqueduct
2. canal below the drainage
 Super passage
 Canal syphon

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