Q.

1 Explain working of radio transmitter with block diagram

Radio transmitter is used to produce radio signal & transmit
signal wirelessly. There are 2 types of transmitter based on
modulation are as follows

a. FM Transmitter

b. AM Transmitter

a. FM Transmitter

Fig (a): FM Transmitter

1. FM means Frequency Modulation. FM transmitter circuit is

used to produce and transmit the Radio Frequency signal
wirelessly. FM transmitter circuit can produce the radio
frequency waves which are transmitted through the antenna.

2. Fig (a) shows block diagram of FM Transmitter. The main

function of an FM Transmitter Circuit is to transmit the sound
using radio waves. FM Transmitter Circuit converts the sound
or audio into radio wave then it transmits.
3. The microphone is a Transducer which can convert the
sound energy into an audio signal in the form of electrical
energy. So microphone is a source of an audio signal.

4. The next block is Audio Pre-amplifier. The audio pre-

amplifier is used to amplify the audio signal coming from the
microphone.

5. The next one is the Modulator. The modulator circuit is the

main part of an FM transmitter circuit. It converts the audio
signal into a radio signal which is to be transmitted.

6. The modulator circuit takes two signal as input one is the

audio signal coming from the audio pre-amplifier and another is
carrier signal from crystal oscillator.

7. The carrier signal is a pure radio wave that is produced by

the crystal oscillator circuit. The modulator circuit modulates
the RF signal according to the audio signal and produces the
modulated RF signal as the output.

8. The modulated radio signal coming from the modulator

circuit has a very low amplitude so it cannot be transmitted for
a long distance. So, RF amplifier is used to amplify the radio
signal which can be easily transmitted for a long distance. Then
the amplified radio signal is fed to the antenna for the
transmission of signal.
B. AM Transmitter

Fig (b): AM Transmitter

1. AM means Amplitude Modulation. AM transmitter circuit is

used to produce and transmit the Radio Frequency signal
wirelessly. AM transmitter circuit can produce the radio
frequency waves which are transmitted through the antenna.

2. Fig (b) shows block diagram of AM Transmitter. The main

function of an AM Transmitter Circuit is to transmit the sound
using radio waves. AM Transmitter Circuit converts the sound
or audio into radio wave then it transmits.

3. The microphone is a Transducer which can convert the

sound energy into an audio signal in the form of electrical
energy. So microphone is a source of an audio signal.

4. The next block is Audio Pre-amplifier. The audio pre-

amplifier is used to amplify the audio signal coming from the
microphone.
5. The next one is the Modulator. The modulator circuit is the
main part of an AM transmitter circuit. It converts the audio
signal into a radio signal which is to be transmitted.

6. The modulator circuit takes two signal as input one is the

audio signal coming from the audio pre-amplifier and another is
carrier signal from crystal oscillator.

7. The carrier signal is a pure radio wave that is produced by

the crystal oscillator circuit. The modulator circuit modulates
the RF signal according to the audio signal and produces the
modulated RF signal as the output.

8. The modulated radio signal coming from the modulator

circuit has a very low amplitude so it cannot be transmitted for
a long distance. So, RF amplifier is used to amplify the radio
signal which can be easily transmitted for a long distance. Then
the amplified radio signal is fed to the antenna for the
transmission of signal.
Q.2 Explain working of radio receiver (Super heterodyne) with
block diagram

Definition: Super heterodyne receiver works on the principle

of heterodyning which simply means mixing. It is a type of
receiver which mixes the received signal frequency with the
frequency of the signal generated by a local oscillator.

Fig (a): Radio Receiver (Super heterodyne)

1. Receiving antenna: The receiving antenna receives the

signal which was sent by the transmitter. Incoming amplitude-
modulated radio waves (thousands of them at different
frequencies from different broadcasting stations) are received
by the antenna.

2. RF amplifier: The received signal is fed to the RF amplifier

stage so as to amplify it, as the signal gets attenuated during
long-distance transmission. Radio frequency (RF) amplifier
amplifies the selected broadcast signal.
3. Local Oscillator: This circuit basically generates a signal
with a fixed frequency and the output is then fed to the mixer.
A local oscillator ganged with the RF amplifier produces an RF
signal that is combined with the incoming wave by the
frequency mixer to produce an output signal that contains the
sum and the difference frequencies of the two signals.

4. Mixer: A mixer simply mixes the carrier frequency with the

frequency of the signal generated by the local oscillator.

5. IF amplifier: This section basically amplifies the output of

the mixer. IF amplifier provides sensitivity(gain) and selectivity
(bandwidth requirement) to the receiver.

6. Detector: Detector is placed exactly after the IF amplifier

so that the constant frequency signal is detected and the
message signal can be extracted from it. The original audio
signal (containing the “information”) is extracted in the
detector stage. The detector basically removes the IF signal,
leaving the audio signal.

7. Audio amplifier: The original signal is fed to the audio

amplifier which does not hold distortion or noise so that it can
amplify audio signal to a particular level.

8. Loudspeaker: The amplified signal is finally fed to the

loudspeaker circuit which converts the electrical form of the
signal into an audio sound signal which can be heard by the
listeners.
Receiver Characteristics:

Sensitivity: it is the ability to amplify a weak or low signal.

Selectivity: It is the ability of any system that decides

whether the signal is desired or undesired. At high-frequency
selectivity is poor, better selectivity is achieved at low
frequency.
Q.3 Explain the following term: Antenna & its types

An antenna is a specialized transducer that converts electric

current into electromagnetic (EM) waves or vice versa.
Antennas are used to transmit and receive EM waves, which
include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation (IR) and
visible light.

Antennas are of 2 types are as follows:

I. Whip Antenna

II. Yagi-Uda Antenna

I. Whip Antenna:

1. Fig (a) shows basic whip

antenna and Fig (b) shows 2-way
whip antenna. The length of the
antenna is λ/4.

2. A whip antenna consisting of a

straight flexible wire or rod. The
bottom end of the whip is
connected to the radio
receiver or transmitter.

Fig (a): Basic Whip Antenna

3. The antenna is designed to be flexible so that it does not
break easily. Whip antennas for portable radios are often made
of a series of interlocking telescoping metal tubes, so they can
be retracted when not in use.
4. Whip antennas are normally designed as resonant antennas;
the rod acts as a resonator for radio waves. Therefore, the
length of the antenna rod is determined by the wavelength of
the radio waves used.

5. To reduce the length of a whip antenna, an inductor (loading

coil) is often added in series with it. This allows the antenna to
be made much shorter than the normal length of a quarter-
wavelength, and still be resonant.

6. They are widely used as the antennas for hand-held radios,

cordless, walkie-talkies, FM radios, and Wi-Fi enabled devices,
and for aircraft.
II. Yagi-Uda Antenna

Yagi-Uda antenna is the most commonly used type of antenna

for TV reception over the last few decades. It is the most
popular and easy-to-use type of antenna with better
performance, which is famous for its high gain and directivity.

These are basically designed to operate in very high and ultra-

high frequency bands and offer the operating frequency
ranging between 30 MHz to 3 GHz.
1. A Yagi-Uda antenna has 3 main elements that combined
form its structure. These 3 major elements are driven element
which is generally a half-wave folded dipole, a reflector and
directors.

2. Basically, the arrangement is said to be an array

of active and parasitic elements. The dipole generally a metallic
rod acts as the active element as external feeding is provided
to it using transmission lines. While reflector and directors are
the parasitic elements of the structure.

3. The reflector is present at one of the ends of the metallic rod

and has length around, 5% greater than the length of the
driven element.

4. The directors are almost 5% shorter than the driven element

(i.e., λ/2 at the resonant frequency) and are placed at the
other side of the dipole as these are used to provide maximum
directivity to the antenna.

5. The single element present at the back of the driven element

is the reflector, which reflects all the energy towards the
direction of the radiation pattern.

6. The other elements, before the driven element, are

the directors, which direct the beam towards the desired angle.
Q.4 Explain the basic working of sensors & transducers for
temperature?

There are many cases in which it’s required to know the

temperature of the environment, inside a reactor, winding of
an electrical machine and so on. This aim will be achieved by
using a Temperature Sensor.

A “Temperature Transmitter” is a device which transforms the

tiny output of a “Temperature Transducer” to one of these
standard signal ranges.

Thermistors:

Thermistor is a device whose resistance changes with the

change of the temperature. Thermistors are of two types:

1. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC):

In NTC, with increase in temperature resistance decreases.

2. Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC):

In PTC, with increase in temperature resistance increases.

Thermistor Construction:

Fig (a): Rod type

Fig (b): Characteristics

1. Fig (a) shows different types of thermistors. The different

types are disc type, rod type. The NTC and PTC characteristic is
shown in fig (b).

2. The relation between resistance and temperature is linear,

and then the equation is given by,

∆R=K∆T

Where,

∆R=Change in resistance

∆T=Change in temperature

K=Temperature coefficient

3. If K is positive, and then resistance increases with increase

in temperature, it is known as positive temperature
coefficient (PTC).

4. If K is negative, and then resistance decreases with increase

in temperature, it is known as negative temperature
coefficient (NTC).
Q.5 Explain the basic working of sensors & transducers for flow
rate?

A flow transducer is a type of flow meter that measures the

velocity of a fluid. Different types of flow transducers are as
follows:

1.Ultrasonic flow transducer

2. Electromagnetic flow transducer

3.Orifice plate

4.Venturi.

Ultrasonic flow transducer

1. The measuring principle of

ultrasonic flowmeters is based
on the influence of the flowing
fluid on the traveling time of
the ultrasonic signal.

2. The signals are transmitted

through the pipe and the Fig (a):Ultrasonic Flow Meter
transit time difference between the forward and backward
signals is used to determine the flow velocity.

3. The transducers are clamped on the outer pipe wall without

touching the liquid. Thus, there is no risk of contamination and
it is suitable for ultra clean liquids. There is also no risk of
corrosion, which is suitable for aggressive liquids as well.
4. When the ultrasonic signal is transmitted toward the
upstream side against the flow direction, more propagation
time is required (T1). On the other hand, when it is transmitted
toward the downstream side with the flow direction, the
propagation time is less (T2).

5. The average velocity of the liquid flow is given by following

equation,

L T1−T2
V=
2 T1 X T2

Where,

L = Distance between 2 transducer

V = Average velocity

T1 & T2 = Transient time.

Advantages:

1. Applicable for various kinds of liquid, even if the chemical

liquid, oil etc.

2. Non-intrusive technology, no need cut the pipe or stop the

flow.

Disadvantages:

Accuracy easily influenced by the installation and environment.

Applications:

Ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid which is

conductive or water based.
Q.8 Explain working principle of RADAR

1. Transmitter: The function of transmitter is to generate

electromagnetic pulses which are radiated into the space by
RADAR antenna via duplexer.

2. Duplexer: It is a switch which enables same antenna to be

used as transmitting antenna as well as receiving antenna
on time sharing basis.

3. Radar Antenna: The Antenna transmits the signals in space

with the required distribution and efficiency and receives
echo signal from object.

4. Receiver: The receiver amplifies and demodulates the

received electromagnetic signals. The receiver provides
video signals on the output.

5. Display: The display should indicate the continuous

information of radar targets (position of object, speed of the
object).
Q.9 Explain radar transmitter, receiver & antenna (RADAR
system)?

RADAR is Radio Detection and Ranging. A system used for

detecting and locating the presence of objects like ships,
vehicles, aircraft etc. by radiating electromagnetic signal in
space is known as the Radar system.

Fig(a): Pulse RADAR system

Transmitter Section:

The transmitter section is composed of the following units:

1. Waveform Generator:

The waveform generator generates a radar signal which is to

be transmitted into space.

2. Transmitter:

The signal generated by the waveform generator is fed to the

transmitter.
3. Pulse modulator:

A pulse modulator is used to build synchronization between the

waveform generator and transmitter. The pulse modulator
causes the turning on and off of the power amplifier according
to the input pulses generated by the waveform generator.

4. Duplexer:

A duplexer allows the use of a single antenna for both

transmission and reception purpose.

Receiver Section:

The following components are present inside the receiver

section:

5. Low noise RF amplifier:

The RF amplifier generates an RF pulse which is proportional to

the echo of the transmitted signal.

6. Mixer and Local Oscillator:

The RF pulse received from the low noise RF amplifier is

converted into an IF pulse.

7. IF amplifier: The IF pulse generated by the mixer circuit is

amplified by the IF amplifier. Also, it enhances the echo
detecting ability of the receiver section by reducing the effects
of unwanted signals.
8. 2nd Detector or Demodulator:

This unit is nothing but a diode that performs demodulation of

the signal by separating the transmitted signal from the carrier.

9. Video Amplifier:

This unit amplifies the received signal to a level that can be

displayed on the screen.

10. Threshold decision:

This unit makes the decision about the existence of the target
in space.

11. Display:

The display unit shows the final output of the receiver

section. PPI i.e., plan position indication is typically used as the
radar display unit.