GROUND
IMPROVEMENT
Deep Compaction and Objectives
Compaction
Deep compaction techniques are required when
in–situ soil extending to large depths does not meet
the requirements of performance criteria specified
for the expected loading and environmental
conditions.
Deep soil improvement is possible by resorting to
Ground Improvement Techniques
Ground Reinforcement Techniques
Ground treatment
Ground Improvement
Dynamic Compaction
Vibro-Compaction
Compaction Grouting
Pre-fabricated Vertical Drains
Blast densification
Dynamic Compaction
Technique
Design
Evaluation
Effectiveness
Format
Technique
Energy transfer mechanism
Stages of compaction
Application – which soils are compacted?
Types
Ground Vibrations
Design Considerations
TECHNIQUE
Technique involves repeatedly dropping a large weight
from a crane
Weight may range from 6 to 172 tons
Drop height typically varies from 10 m to 40 m
Degree of densification achieved is a function of the
energy input (weight and drop height) as well as the
saturation level, fines content and permeability of the
material
6 – 30 ton weight can densify the loose sands to a depth
of 3 m to 12 m
Done systematically in a rectangular or triangular
pattern in phases
Each phase can have no of passes; primary,
secondary, tertiary, etc.
3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m
LEGEND
Primary Pass
18 m
Secondary Pass
18 m
(b)
(a)
Spacing between impact points depend upon:
Depth of compressible layer
Permeability of soil
Location of ground water level
Deeper layers are compacted at wider grid spacing,
upper layers are compacted with closer grid spacing
Deep craters are formed by tamping
Craters may be filled with sand after each pass
Heave around craters is generally small
ENERGY TRANSFER MECHANISM
Energy transferred by propagation of Rayleigh (surface)
waves and volumic (shear and compression) waves
Rayleigh 67 %
Shear 26 %
Compression 7%
DENSIFICATION PROCESS
Compressibility of saturated soil due to presence of
micro bubbles
Gradual transition to liquefaction under repeated impacts
Rapid dissipation of pore pressures due to high
permeability after soil fissuring
Thixotropic recovery
APPLICATION
Applicable to wide variety of soils
Grouping of soils on the basis of grain sizes
Zo n e 1 : B e s t
Z o ne 3: W o rs t ( c o ns ide r a l te rn a te m e t h o d s )
Z o ne 2: M u s t a p pl y m u l t ip le ph a s e s to a l lo w fo r po re pre s s u re dis s ip a t io n
Mainly used to compact granular fills
Particularly useful for compacting rockfills below water
and for bouldery soils where other methods can not be
applied or are difficult
Waste dumps, sanitary landfills, and mine wastes
In sanitary fills, settlements are caused either by
compression of voids or decaying of the trash material
over time, DDC is effective in reducing the void ratio, and
therefore reducing the immediate and long term
settlement.
DDC is also effective in reducing the decaying problem,
since collapse means less available oxygen for decaying
process.
For recent fills where organic decomposition is still
underway, DDC increases the unit weight of the soil
mass by collapsing voids and decreasing the void ratio.
For older fills where biological decomposition is
complete, DDC has greatest effects by increasing unit
weight and reducing long term ground subsidence.
TYPES
OF
DYNAMIC COMPACTION
TYPES OF DYNAMIC COMPACTION
Dynamic compaction
Dynamic consolidation
Dynamic replacement
Rotational dynamic compaction
Rapid impact dynamic compaction
Dynamic Compaction
It is the compaction of unsaturated or highly
permeable saturated granular materials by heavy
tamping
The response to tamping is immediate
Dynamic Consolidation
The improvement by heavy tamping of saturated
cohesive materials in which the response to tamping is
largely time dependent
Excess pore water pressures are generated as a result
of tamping and dissipate over several hours or days after
tamping.
Dynamic Replacement
The formation by heavy tamping of large pillars of
imported granular soil within the body of soft saturated soil
to be improved
The original soil is highly compressed and consolidated
between the pillars and the excess pore pressure
generated requires several hours to dissipate
The pillars are used both for soil reinforcement and
drainage
Process of Dynamic Replacement
Rotational Dynamic Compaction
A new dynamic compaction technique which makes
use of the free fall energy as well as rotational energy of
the tamper called Rotational Dynamic Compaction
(RDC)
The technique increases depth of improvement in
granular soils
Comparative study showed that the cone penetration
resistance was generally larger than conventional
dynamic compaction and the tamper penetration in
rotational dynamic compaction was twice as large as
that of conventional dynamic compaction
Rapid Impact Dynamic Compaction
EVALUATION
OF
IMPROVEMENT
EVALUATION OF IMPROVEMENT
The depth of improvement is proportional to the energy
per blow
The improvement can be estimated through empirical
correlation, at design stage and is verified after
compaction through field tests such as Standard
Penetration Tests (SPT), Cone Penetration Test (CPT),
etc.
Dmax = n√W x H
Where,
Dmax = Max depth of improvement, m
n = Coefficient that caters for soil and equipment
variability
W = Weight of tamper, tons
H = Height of fall of tamper, m
The effectiveness of dynamic compaction can also be
assessed readily by the crater depth and requirement of
backfill
Reference N-Values
Menard and Broise 1.0
(1975)
Leonard et al. (1980) 0.5
Bjolgerud and Han
(1963) 1.0 (rockfill)
0.5 (soil with unstable
Smoltcyk (1983) 0.67 (silts and sands)
1.0 (purely frictional sand)
Lukas (1980) 0.65 - 0.8
Mayne et al. (1984) 0.3 - 0.8
Gambin (1984) 0.5 – 1.0
0.65 (fine sand)
Qian (1985) 0.66 (soft clay)
0.55 (loess)
0.65 (silty sand)
Van Impe (1989)
0.5 (clayey sand)
GROUND VIBRATIONS
Dynamic compaction generates surface waves with a
dominant frequency of 3 to 12 Hz
These vibrations generate compression, shear and
Rayleigh waves
The Raleigh waves contain about 67 percent of the
total vibration energy and become predominant over
other wave types at comparatively small distances from
the source
Raleigh waves have the largest practical interest for
the design engineers because building foundations are
placed near the ground surface
The ground vibrations are quantified in terms of peak
particle velocity (PPV); the maximum velocity
recorded in any of the three coordinate axes
The measurement of vibrations is necessary to
determine any risk to nearby structures
The vibrations can be estimated through empirical
correlations or measured with the help of instruments
such as portable seismograph, accelerometers,
velocity transducers, linear variable displacement
transducers (LVDT), etc.
The frequency of the Raleigh waves decreases with
increasing distance from the point of impact
Relationship between PPV and inverse scaled distance
is shown graphically (the inverse scaled distance is the
square root of the compaction energy, divided by the
distance, d from the impact point)
Tolerance Limits for Structures
British Standard 7385: Part 2-1993, lays down following
safety limits for various structures having different natural
frequencies:
Reinforced or framed structures industrial and heavy
commercial buildings at 4 Hz and above 50 mm/s
Un-reinforced or light framed structures residential or light
commercial type buildings at 4 Hz –15 Hz 15-20 mm/s
Un-reinforced or light framed residential or light
commercial type buildings at 15 Hz –40 Hz and above
20-50 mm/s
Effect on Humans
0.1 mm/sec not noticeable
0.15 mm/sec nearly not noticeable
0.35 mm/sec seldom noticeable
1.00 mm/sec always noticeable
2.00 mm/sec clearly noticeable
6.00 mm/sec strongly noticeable
14.00 mm/sec very strongly noticeable
17.8 mm/sec severe noticeable
MONITORING AND
CONTROL
Total Station to Measure Tamper Tamper with
with Accelerometer
Accelerometer
Position After Impact and FM Transmitter
Transmitter
Van with Receiving
and Processing Unit
Van with Receiving
and Processing Unit
FM FM
Receiver Discriminator
Signal
Conditioner
Printer
Data
Digital
Acquisition
Oscilloscope
System
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
CONSIDERATIONS
Depth of improvement, d
Impact energy, E
Influence of cable drag
Equipment limitations
Influence of tamper size
Grid spacing, S
Time delay between passes
Soil conditions
Depth of Improvement
Primary concern
Depends on:
Soil conditions
Energy per drop
Contact pressure of tamper
Grid spacing
Number of passes
Time lag between passes
Impact Energy, E
Weight of tamper times the height of drop
Main parameter in determining the depth of
improvement
Can be calculated from the equation
Dmax = n√W x H
(Free falling of weights)
Influence of Cable Drag
Cable attached to the tamper causes friction and
reduces velocity of tamper
Free fall of tamper is more efficient
Equipment limitations
Crane capacity
Height of drop
Mass of tamper
Tamper size
Grid Spacing
Significant effect on depth of improvement
First pass compacts deepest layer, should be equal to
the compressible layer
Subsequent passes compact shallower layers, may
require lesser energy
Ironing pass compacts top layer
Time Delay between Passes
Allow pore pressures to dissipate
Piezometers can be installed to monitor dissipation of
pore pressures following each pass
