" Nagarjuna College of Engineering & Technology (An Autonomous Institution under VTU, Accredited by NAAC & NBA) Department of Civil Engineering Module-I Course Name: Ground Water Hydrology Course Code: 20CVT753 Course Teacher: Dr. Nagendra Course Teacher HODIntroduction The name hydrology deals with the behaviour of water as it occurs in the atmosphere, on the surface of ground and underground. It Ideals with various forms of moisture that cause the transformation among the liquid, solid and gaseous states in the atmosphere and the surface layers and land masses. Hydrology provides the basic data on the 4 phases of interest to the hydrologist are namely: precipitation; run off and river flow; evaporation and transpiration; percolation and ground water. Ground water hydrology is the science of occurrence, distribution, and movement of water below the surface of earth. The main source of ground water is precipitation, A portion of rain falling on the earth's surface infiltrates into ground, travels down and, when checked by impervious layer to travel further down, forms ground water. The ground water reservoir consists of water held in voids within a geologic stratum. Other sources of ground water include water from deep in the earth which is carried upward in intrusive rocks and water which is trapped in sedimentary rocks during their formation. The quantities of such water are small, and they are often so highly mineralised as to be unsuited for use. Water bearing formations of the earth's crust act as conduits for transmission and as reservoirs of storage of ground water. Global Water Resources Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities Virtually all these human uses require fresh water. 97 %of water on the Earth is salt water, leaving only 3% as fresh water of which slightly over two thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water is mainly found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. & Historical Background Historical Development of Ground Water in India ‘The excavations at Mohanjodaro have revealed brick-lined dug wells existing as early as 3000 B.C. during the Indus Valley Civilisation. The writings of Vishnu Kautilya (in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya-300 B.C.) indicate that ground water was being used for irrigation purposes at that time, Sinking of wells and a variety of water devices were well known from Vedic times, The first Irrigation Commission in 1903 affirmed the importance of irrigation wells. The Well Sinking Department of the Government of Nizam at Hyderabad made interesting studies on ground water in the Deccan Basaltic Terrains In 1934 a project for construction of 1500 community tubewells in the Ganga basin was initiated in U.P. The success of this project led to the constitution of a Sub-Soil Water Section in the Government of India in 1944 which was converted later into the Central Ground Water 2Organisation which functioned till 1949. During this period a Central Drilling School at Roorkee was established which trained more than 100 officers of the Central and State Government. The Exploratory Tube-wells Organisation (ETO) was set up during 1954 under Indo-US Technical Cooperation Operational Agreement No. 12, under the Ministry of Agriculture and concomitantly the Ground Water Exploration Section was set up in the Geological Survey of India. In October 1970, the Ministry of Agriculture upgraded the Exploratory Tube-wells Organisation into the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) merging it with the Ground Water Regional Directorates and District Offices of the Geological Survey of India to effectively shoulder the ground water investigation programmes; it started functioning from August 1972, As an apex body at the national level, the Board is concemed with all matters relating to exploration, assessment, development, management and regulation of the country's, ground water resources. Large scale ground water investigation programmes have been taken up since 1967 in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu with the assistance of the UNDP, the Canadian assisted project in AP, the Upper Betwa River Basin Project in MP and UP with UK assistance, Narmada Valley Project n MP, Vedavathi, and Tungabhadra River Basin in Kamataka under UK assistance and many such projects During the middle and late sixties, the Government of India urged all State Governments to set up a State Level Ground Water Organisation to deal with problems of ground water surveys and development and utili- sation for minor irrigation and eventually they have been set up as State Directorates of Ground Water or as a Ground Water Cell (in Karnataka). The Central Ground Water Board is contemplating special measures for ensuring coordination of work among the various States and between the Centre and States so that overlapping or duplication is avoided. Since 1970, major programmes with the assistance of UNICEF for pro- vision of drilled wells. for rural water supply have been launched in the hard rock areas of AP, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. These utilise the air hammer drilling rigs. ‘The updated hydrogeological map of India of scale 1:5,000,000 (re- leased by GSI in 1969 to scale 1:2,000,000 and updated by CGWB in 1976) gives many hydrological details. In recent years there has been an increasing tendency towards drilling deep wells as well as towards revitalisation of existing open (dug, shallow) wells. Advances in the field of ground water development, have made it possible to lift ground water from depths of 60 to 100 metres. With the extension of electricity in the rural areas, there has been a great spurt in the lift irrigation from tube wells and open wells. The Government, volun- tary agencies, Agricultural Refinance Corporation, Land Development Banks, State Agro Industries Corporation, ete. are all coming forward to help the poor and marginal farmers by giving short- and long-term loans, grants, technical advice, and making technical feasibility and eco- nomic viability studies, thus accelerating the pace of ground water deve- lopment and bringing more land under intensive irrigation,+ Importance of ground water © Groundwater, which is in aquifers below the surface of the Earth, is one of the most important natural resources. Water is essential for the survival of the mankind and there hhas been a continuous growth in demand of water in agriculture, industrial, municipal, navigational, and recreational sectors throughout the world, ‘© There are two major sources to meet this demand ie. Surface water and groundwater. Surface water sources depend primarily on the annual rainfall and melting of ice and snow, over which no control can be exercised. It may cause flood almost every year in some part of the earth, whereas shortage of rainfall often causes draught condition. * Ground water supply is more reliable because it does not depend directly on annual rainfall and is free from enormous evaporation losses as compared to surface water sources ‘© Italso occupies minimum land area, which is not available in many cities today. * There is no danger to structure failure and little insecurity due to damage by the enemy in the event of a war. ‘© Therefore, there has been increasing emphasis on utilization of groundwater resources to meet the growing demands of water. © Withdrawal of groundwater has not always been scientific and well planned. Because of this reason there is indiscriminate use of groundwater which has caused critical lowering, of water table and water logging, © Sea water intrusion in coastal aquifers, deterioration of water quality due to rising of water table and land subsidence caused by reduction in water pressure due to heavy withdrawals are the other problems caused due to unplanned and_ unscientific ‘management of aquifers. The aim of studying groundwater is to address these issues. © Groundwater is a major component of the hydrological cycle. Little change in the groundwater can impact the water cycle Scope of ground water: © Groundwater is commonly the water occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum, This is the saturated zone where voids are filled with water and air. ‘© Water contained in saturated zone is important for engineering works, geologic studies, and water supply developments. © Unsaturated zones are usually found above the saturated zones and extend upward to the ground surface. Because this water includes soil moisture within the root zone and itis a major concem of agriculture, botany, and soil science* Groundwater plays an important part in petroleum engineering, Two-fluid systems, involving oil and water, and three fluid system involving gas, oil, and water occur frequently in development of petroleum. ‘+ Major differences exist in water quality, depth of occurrence, and method of development and utilization, all of which have its own applications and interests, ‘© nm mining of coal, different ores like iron, aluminium, gi an important role. silver etc. groundwater plays ‘* Groundwater is a major component of hydrologic cycle. It is the water occupying in the voids within a geologic stratum, so it plays important role in foundation and basement structures, 4 Ground Water in Hydrological Cycle Groundwater is a major component of earth’s water circulatory system known as hydrologic cycle, Water bearing formations of the earth’s crust act as conduits for transmission and as reservoirs for storage of water. Water enters these formations from the ground surface or from bodies of surface water, after which it travels slowly for varying distances until it retums to the surface by action of natural flow, plants, or humans. For all practical purposes groundwater originates from surface water source, Water infiltrates into ground by natural recharge process. Rainfall, water from stream flow, reservoirs and lakes are the sources for infiltration. Also surface irrigation contributes artificial recharge ‘This infiltrated water then moves further into ground-under the force of gravity. When a zone of saturation is reached the water starts flowing laterally. The direction of flow is controlled by the hydraulic boundary conditions. Seawater can enter underground along coasts where hydraulic gradients slope downward in an inland direction. Water within the ground moves downward through the unsaturated zone under the action of gravity, whereas in the saturated zone it moves in a direction determined by the surrounding hydraulic situation. Discharge of groundwater represents return of water above ground surface mostly in the ‘water bodies, in the form of springs and seepage into streams. Evaporation and transpiration are other modes of discharge. Artificial discharge is in the form of pumping of groundwater Hydrologic cycle shown in Figure makes the contribution of groundwater clear Essentially all groundwater is in motion, Groundwater moves in response to a hydraulic gradient in the same manner as water flowing in an open channel or a pipe. However, the flow of groundwater is appreciably restricted by friction with the porous medium through which it flows. This results in low velocities and high head losses. Velocities may vary from few centimetres per year to few meters per day.<—S Transport by wind Precipitation we oe TM * ‘Ti Surface runoff Figure 1, Hydrological Cycle 4+ Groundwater Budgets ‘As groundwater flows through and exits an aquifer, for example at springs or at extraction wells, those losses of water may be balanced by recharge that percolates from the land surface, A hydrologic budget, water budget, ot water balance is a measurement of continuity of the flow of water, which holds true for any time interval and applies to any size area ranging from local-scale areas to regional-scale areas or from any drainage area to the earth, The hydrologists usually must consider an open system for which the quantification of the hydrologic cycle for that system becomes a mass balance equation in which the change of storage of water (dS/dt) with respect to time within that system is equal to the inputs (1) to the system minus the outputs (0) from the system.bees ey By LAH Stream a inflow “ir Soil-water Groundwater to stream Groundwater inflow Groundwater outflow Figure 2. Components of hydrologic cycle in an open system: the major inflows and outflows of water from a parcel of land Source: W.M. Marsh and J. Dozier, Landseape: An Introduction to Physical Geography. Copyright © 1986 by Wiley. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Considering the open system in the above Figure, the water balance equation can be expressed for the surface water system and the groundwater system in units of volume per unit time separately, or for a given time period and area, in depth Surface Water System Hydrologic Budget: P+ Qin — Qout + Qe - Es - Ts - I= ASs where P is the precipitation, Qin is the surface water flow into the system, Qout is the surface water flow out of the system, Qg, is the groundwater flow into the stream, Eis the surface evaporation, Ts, is the transpiration, I is the infiltration, and ASs, is the change in water storage of the surface water system.Groundwater System Hydrologic Budget: 1+ Gin — Gout — Qg— Ey— Ty = ASg, Where I is the infiltration, Gi is the groundwater flow into the system, Gout is the groundwater flow out of the system, and AS,, is the change in groundwater storage. The evaporation, Ey, and the transpiration, Tg, can be significant if the water table is near the ground surface System Hydrologic Budget: The system hydrologic budget is developed by adding the above two budgets together: P~ (Qout = Qin) = (Es + Ex) = (Ts + Tg) = (Gout = Gin) = A(Ss + Sg) Using net mass exchanges, the above system hydrologic budget can be expressed as: P-Q-G-E-T=AS + Groundwater Level Fluctuation Groundwater Level: water table of an unconfined aquifer or the piezometric surface of a confined aquifer, indicate the elevation of atmospheric pressure on the aquifer. Any factor that produces a change in pressure on Groundwater will cause the fluctuation in Groundwater level. Difference between recharge and discharge (withdrawal) of Groundwater leads to change in its level ‘© Types of Groundwater fluctuation: 1, Time variation of Groundwater level > Secular variation: These are variations in ground water level extending over a period of years, Altemating seasons of wet and dry years is which the rainfall in above and below the mean respectively, produce long period fluctuation of level. Recharge is the governing factor, which depends. upon the rainfall intensity and distribution and amount of surface run off. In over developed basins where draft exceeds recharge, a downward trend of ground water level may continue for many years. Eg. In Ethiopia, sonalia of Africa due to very long dry climatic spells groundwater level has drastically gone down > Seasonal Variation: Groundwater level fluctuate — seasonal dry/wet condition but may also cause due to anthropogenic acThese results from, influence such as recharge from rainfall and irrigation and discharge by pumping which follow well defined seasonal cycles. Highest levels occur about April and lowest about September marking the beginning and end of the irrigation seasons. Causes: Alternate rainy and rainless period. Seasonal withdrawal of groundwater for consumption, 2. Short Term variation Short term groundwater level fluctuation may be > Diurnal > Use of groundwater in the region. > Major reasons for GW level fluctuations are: - Due to Streamflow variations: Where a stream channel is in indirect contact with an unconfined aquifer the stream may recharge the ground water or receive discharge from the ground water termed as influent and effluent streams respectively streams respectively depending on the relative water levels. During a period of flood, ground water levels one temporarily raised near the channel by the inflow of stream. Due to Wind: Minor fluctuation of water levels is caused by wind blowing over the top of, wells, The effect is identical to the action of a vacuum pump. As a gust of wind blows over the top of a casing, the air pressure within the well is suddenly lowered and consequently the water level rises. After the gust parries the air pressure in the well rises and water level falls. Due to Rainfall; Annual ground water level fluctuation results from seasonal variation of recharge from rainfall Due to Ocean Tides: In coastal aquifers in contact with the ocean fluctuation of ground water level occurs in response to tides. If the sea level varies with simple harmonic motion, a train of sinusoidal waves is propagated inland from the submarine outcrop of the aquifer. With distance, inland amplitude of the waves decreases, and the time lag of a given maximal increases, Due to Earth Tides: Regular semidiurnal fluctuation occurring in small magnitude located a gteat distance from oceans has been attributed to earth tides; resulting from the attraction exerted on the earth’s crust by moon and to a lesser extent by sun. At times of new and full moon the tide producing forces of the moon and sun act in the same direction, then the ocean tides play a greater than average range. But when the moon is in the first and third quarter, tide-producing forces of the sun and moon act perpendicular to one another, causing ocean tides of smaller average range Due to External Load: The elastic properties of an aquifer (confined) result in changes in hydrostatic pressure when changes in loading occur. Some of the best examples are exhibited by wells located here railroads where passing trains produce measurable fluctuation of piezometric surface Due to Earthquakes: Observations reveals that earthquakes have a variety of effects on ground water. Most spectacular are sudden rises and falls of ground water levels in wells, changes in discharge of springs, appearance of new springs and eruption of water and mud 9out of the ground. Earthquakes produce small fluctuations in the wells penetrating confined aquifers. The earthquake waves travel at speeds of approximately 125 miles\minute so that the fluctuations appear after little more than one hour even from the most distant earthquakes & Origin and Age of Groundwater Almost all groundwater can be thought of as a part of the hydrologic cycle, including surface and atmospheric (meteoric) waters. Relatively minor amounts of groundwater may enter this cycle from other origins, Water that has been out of contact with the atmosphere for at least an appreciable part of a geologic period is termed connate water; essentially, it consists of fossil interstitial water that has migrated from its original burial location. This water may have been derived from oceanic or freshwater sources and, typically, is highly mineralized. Magmatic water is water derived from magma; where the separation is deep, the term plutonic water is applied, while volcanic water designates water from relatively shallow depths (perhaps 3 to 5 km), New water of magmatic or cosmic origin that has not previously been a part of the hydrosphere is referred to as juvenile water. And finally, metamorphic water is water that is or has been associated with rocks during their metamorphism. The diagram in Figure 3 illustrates the imter- relations of these genetic types of groundwater. luvenite water (Chew water) Magmatic water (nor trom magma; plutonic i doop; volcanic it shallow) vanapne ea Sn Pe See the atmosphere) metamorphism) generally in unmeta- ‘morphosed rocks) 10Figure 3 Diagram illustrating relationships of genetic types of water (courtesy The Geological Society of America, 1957) The residence time of water underground has always been a topic of considerable speculation, But with the advent of radioisotopes, determinations of the age of groundwater have become possible, Hydrogen-3 (tritium) and carbon-14 are the two isotopes that have proved most useful, Tritium with a half-life of 12.33 years is produced in the upper atmosphere by cosmic radiation; carried to earth by rainfall and hence underground, this natural level of tritium begins to decay as a function of time, such that, A=A,e™ where A is the observed radioactivity. Ao, is the activity at the time the water entered the aquifer, 2 is the decay constant, and t is the age of the water. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years and is also produced at an established constant level in the atmosphere. This isotope is present in groundwater as dissolved bicarbonate originating from the biologically active layers of the soil where CO> is generated by root respiration and the decay of humus. Different types of water based on availability: 1) Vadose water ‘Vadose water is subsurface water between the land surface and the saturated below the water table. The vadose (or unsaturated) zone includes soil water, which is immediately available to the biosphere. 2) Juvenile water or Magmatic water Juvenile Water is the water that exists within, and in equilibrium with a magma or water rich volatile fluids that are derived from magma. This magmatic water is released to the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption Magmatic water may also be released as hydrothermal fluids during the late stages of magmatic crystallization or solidification within the earth crust. The crystallization of Hydroxyl bearing amphibole and mica minerals acts to contain part of the magmatic water within a solidified igneous rock Ultimate source of this magmatic water includes water and hydrous minerals in rocks melted during subduction as well as primordial water brought up the deep mantle. 3) Connate water Connate water occurs as a film of water around each grain of sand in granular reservoir rock and is held in place by capillary attraction. Because most petroleum was initially formed fiom matter settling to the ocean floor, some saltwater remains in the rock pores. This water is called connate water. Connate water is water which is trapped in rock pores. ureat char Figure 4: Connate water 4) Meteoric water Meteoric water is the water derived from precipitation (snow and rain). This includes water from lakes, rivers, and ice melts, which all originate from precipitation indirectly. The bulk of rainwater or melt water from snow and ice reaches the sea through surface flow, a considerable portion of meteoric water gradually infiltrates into the ground. This infiltrating, water continues its downward journey to the zone of saturation to become a part of the groundwater in aquifers. Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater Aquifers Groundwater occurs in many types of geologic formations; those known as aquifers are of most importance. An aquifer may be defined as a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs. This implies an ability to store and to transmit water unconsolidated sands and gravels are a typical example, All earth materials, from soils to rocks have pore spaces. Although these pores are completely saturated with water below the water table, from the groundwater utilization point of view, only such material through which water moves easily and hence can be extracted with ease are significant. On this basis, the saturated formation is classified into four categories: - LAquifer, 2.Aquitard, 3.Aquiclude, 4. Aquifuge. AQUIFER: An aquifer is a saturated formation of earth material which not only stores water but yields it in sufficient quantity. Thus, an aquifer transmits water relatively easily due to its high permeability. Unconsolidated deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifers. Geological formations which are both porous and permeable. E.g. Fine sand, Coarse silt AQUITARD: It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and thus the yield is, insignificant compared to an aquifer. It is partly permeable. A sandy clay unit is an example of aquitard. Through an aquitard appreciable quantity of water may leak to an aquifer below it. Geological formations which are porous but less permeable. E.g. Sandy clay. FryAQUICLUDE: It is a geological formation which is essentially impermeable to the flow of water. It may be considered as closed to water movement even though it may contain large amounts of water due to its high porosity. Clay is an example of an aquiclude. Geological formations which are highly porous but impermeable. E.g. Clay AQUIFUGE: It is a geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable, There are no interconnected openings and hence it cannot transmit water. Massive compact rock without any fractures is an aquifuge. Geological formations which are neither porous nor permeable. B.g. Granite rock The definitions of aquifer, aquitard and aquiclude as above are relative. A formation which may be considered as an aquifer at a place where water is at a premium (e.g,, arid zones) may be classified as an aquitard or even aquiclude in an area where plenty of water is available. Porosity Those portions of a rock or soil not occupied by solid mineral matter can be occupied by groundwater. These spaces are known as voids, interstices, pores, or pore space. Because interstices serve as water conduits, they are of fundamental importance to the study of groundwater. Typically, they are characterized by their size, shape, irregularity, and distribution. Original interstices were created by geologic processes governing the origin of the geologic formation and are found in sedimentary and igneous rocks. Secondary interstices developed after the rock was formed; examples include joints, fractures, solution openings, and openings formed by plants and animals, With respect to size, interstices may be classed as capillary, super capillary, and sub-capillary. Capillary interstices are sufficiently small that surface tension forces will hold water within them; super-capillary interstices are those larger than capillary ones; and sub-capillary interstices are so small that water is held primarily by adhesive forces. Depending on the connection of interstices with others, they may be classed as communicating or isolated The porosity of a rock or soil is a measure of the contained interstices or voids expressed as the ratio of the volume of interstices to the total volume. Ifa is the porosity, then i) where V, is the volume of interstices (voids), V, is the volume of solids, and V is the total volume (bulk volume). Porosity may also be expressed by — Pm ~Pa Pm @) where p is the density of mineral particles (grain density) and p is the bulk density. The term effective porosity refers to the amount of interconnected pore space available for fluid flow and is expressed as a ratio of interconnected interstices to total volume. For unconsolidated 13porous media and for many consolidated rocks, the two porosities are identical. Porosity may also be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the right-hand side of Equations 1 or 2 by 100. The terms primary and secondary porosity are associated with original and secondary interstices, respe () (2) ( Figure 5. Examples of rock interstices and the relation of rock texture to porosity. (a) Well- sorted sedimentary deposit having high porosity. (b) Poorly sorted sedimentary deposit having low porosity (c) Well-sorted sedimentary deposit consisting of pebbles that are themselves porous, so that the deposit as a whole has a very high porosity (d) Well-sorted sedimentary deposit whose porosity has been diminished by the deposition of mineral matter in the interstices. (e) Rock rendered porous by solution. () Rock rendered porous by fracturing, sure 5 shows several types of interstices and their relation to porosity, In terms of groundwater supply, granular sedimentary deposits are of major importance. Porosities in these deposits depend on the shape and arrangement of individual particles, distribution by size, and degree of cementation and compaction. In consolidated formations, removal of mineral matter by solution and degree of fracture are also important. Porosities range from near zero to more than 50 percent, depending on the above factors and the type of material. It should be recognized that porosities for a particular soil or rock can vary considerably from these values. In sedimentary rocks subject to compaction, measurements show that porosity decreases with depth of burial. Thus, a typical relation has the form. o, =a, e% where oy, is the porosity at depth 2, ag is the porosity at the surface, a is a constant, and e is the base of Naperian logarithms 14Unconsolidated geologic materials are normally classified according to their size and distri- bution. A commonly employed system based on particle, or grain, size is listed in Table 2.2.2. Evaluation of the distribution of sizes is accomplished by mechanical analysis. This involves sieving particles coarser than 0.05 mm and measuring rates of settlement for smaller particles. in suspension. Results are plotted on a particle-size distribution graph such as that shown in Figure 2.2.2. The percentage finer scale on the ordinate shows the percentage of material ‘smaller than that of a given size particle on a dry-weight basis. Ground Water Column / Vertical Distribution of sub-surface water / Zones of underground water Ground surface + | Immediate vadose ‘Vadose water Zone of aeration Capillary ‘zone : Water table Zone of saturation Groundwater or phreatic water 15Figure 6, Divisions of Sub-surface Water (Ground Water Column) Surtoce woter Rivers and Lo) SOIL ZONE es INTERMEDIATE ZONE =\3 ee ee 2 ee ae eee = bs tdrhtrGtrhd t} | woter 2 06 (( capiccaay (eringe (600070021 Theva 5 |e2 Figure 6. Divisions of Sub-surface Water (Ground Water Column) ‘Sub-surface water (i.., all forms of groundwater) can broadly be classified as:- i) zone of Aeration, (unsaturated zone) ii) Zone of Saturation (ground water! Saturated zone) (i) Zone Of Aeration or Unsaturated Zone: In this zone there is a free exchange of air and moisture (found b/w ground surface and water table). The thickness of the zone of aeration and its constituent subzones depends upon the soil texture and moisture content and vary from region to region. The soil moisture in the zone of aeration is of importance in agricultural practice and irrigation engineering. Divided into 3 belts, 1. Soil water zone. 2. Intermediate zone (Vadose). 3. Capillary water zone Soil Water Zone This lies close to the ground surface in the major root band of the vegetation from which the water is lost to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration. Soil water zone encompasses the zone 16from the ground surface down to the roots from where water is drawn by vegetation; it is also called soil-moisture belt and its thickness depends upon the type of vegetation that is being, fed. This zone remains unsaturated except during periods of heavy infiltration. Intermediate Zone (Vadose Zone) This lies between the soil water zone and capillary fringe (Zone) ‘The intermediate vadose zone extends from the lower edge of the soil-water zone to the upper limit of the capillary zone (Figure 6). The thickness may vary from no thickness to several hundred meters under deep water table conditions. The zone serves primarily as a region connecting the zone near ground surface with that near the water table through which water moving vertically downward must pass. Non-moving vadose water is held in place by hygroscopic and capillary forces. Temporary excesses of water migrate downward as gravitational water. Capillary Zone + Capillary zone is the zone of soil commencing from the water table to the top of the capillary-rise zone, + It is the zone which is fully saturated at the equilibrium stage; however, the pressure in this, zone is less than atmospheric because of the capillary potential within the capillary fringe For this reason, this zone is taken as a part of the unsaturated zone + Capillary rise depends on the size of pores (which is a function of soil particle size) and further on rise and fall in water table. + The thickness of this zone is a function of the texture of soil; therefore, it varies from region ‘to region as well as from place to place within a given area (ii) Saturated Zone/ Groundwater Zone In the saturated zone, groundwater fills the pore space completely, and water is stored as in a reservoir, having a hydrostatic pressure variation throughout its depth with atmospheric pressure assumed to exist at the water table. The top surface of zone of saturation or ground water is known as phreatic surface. Groundwater occurs in many types of geologic formations; those known as aquifers are of most importance. An aquifer may be defined as a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs. The availability of groundwater from an aquifer at a place depends upon the rates of withdrawal and replenishment (recharge). Aquifers play the roles of both a transmission conduit and a storage. Aquifers are classified as unconfined aquifers and confined aquifers on the basis of their occurrence and field situation. An unconfined aquifer (also known as water table aquifer) is, vone in which a free water surface, ie., a water table exists. Only the saturated zone of this, aquifer is of importance in groundwater studies. Recharge of this aquifer takes place through infiltration of precipitation from the ground surface. A well driven into an unconfined aquifer will indicate a static water level corresponding to the water table level at that location Recharge Water Piezometric surface Saas Water table Artesian Ground Flowing well well surface well Confining stratum Impermeable strata Potentiometric surface Flowing —_Perched artesian water table wel Figure 7: Confined and Unconfined aquifers 18> Types OF Aquifers Unconfined Aquifers ‘An unconfined aquifer is one in which a water table varies in undulating form and in slope depending on areas of recharge and discharge, pumpage from wells, and permeability. Rises and falls in the water table correspond to changes in the volume of water in storage within an aquifer. + In unconfined aquifer the water table goes down if water is withdrawn from the aquifer storage and the water table moves up if water is added into the aquifer storage + The water level in a large diameter dug wells tapping unconfined aquifer represents water table. This aquifer is also known as water table aquifer or phreatic aquifer. + A special case of an unconfined aquifer involves perched water bodies, as illustrated by Figure 9. This occurs wherever a groundwater body is separated from the main ground water by a relatively impermeable stratum of small areal extent and by the zone of aeration above the main body of groundwater. Clay Ienses in sedimentary deposits often have shallow perched water bodies overlying them, Wells tapping these sources yield only temporary on small quantities of water. Perched water table Perched aquifer a EF —~Impermeable Tens (clay) Regional water table Z a ‘onfined aquifer PERCHED AQUIFER Figure 9, Perched Aquifer CONFINED AQUIFERS +A confined aquifer (also called artisan aquifer or Pressure aquifer), occur where groundwater is confined under pressure greater than atmospheric by overlying relatively impermeable strata, + The ground water within a confined aquifer occurs under pressure (known as confined pressure or artisan pressure) greater than atmospheric pressure. When such confined aquifer is pierced by a well, the water rises in the well due to release of pressure within the 19confined aquifer. The level up to which water will rise in the well is known as potentiometric level + The area from which the infiltrated water enters the confined aquifer is known as Recharge area. “4 Groundwater Basins/Regional Groundwater Flow Systems A groundwater basin may be defined as a hydrogeologic unit containing one large aquifer several connected and interrelated aquifers. Such a basin may or may not coincide with physiographic unit, In a valley between mountain ranges, the groundwater basin may occupy only the central portion of the stream drainage basin, In limestone and sandhill areas, drainage and groundwater basins may have entirely different configurations. The concept of a ground water basin becomes important because of the hydraulic continuity that exists for the contained groundwater resource A regional groundwater flow system can be comprised of subsystems at different scales and a complex hydrogeologic framework, illustrated in Figure 10 Surtace-yater body Water table EB High hydrae-conductivty aquiter @ Local groundwater subsystern Low hyeraic-condctty cont ; Very lu tydrmtirconducty bed: ©) Sub Fexfonal gruncater svete | “— Direction of groundwater flow @ Regional groundwater subsystem 20Figure 10. A regional groundwater flow system that comprises subsystems at different scales and a complex hydrogeologic framework (modified from San". Significant features of this depiction of part of a regional groundwater flow system include (1) local groundwater subsystems in the upper water-table aquifer that discharge to the nearest surface water bodies (lakes or streams) and are separated by groundwater divides beneath topographically high areas, (2) a subregional groundwater subsystem in the water table aquifer in which flow paths originating at the water table do not discharge into the nearest surface water body but into a more distant one; and (3) a deep, regional groundwater flow subsystem that lines beneath the water-table subsystems and is hydraulically connected to them. The hydrogeologic framework of the flow system exhibits a complicated spatial arrangement of high hydraulic-conductivity aquifer units and low hydraulic-conductivity confining units. The horizontal scale of the figure could range from tens to hundreds of miles + SPRINGS Springs occur when water pressure causes a natural flow of groundwater onto the earth's surface. As rainwater enters or "recharges" the aquifer, pressure is placed on the water already present, This pressure moves water through the cracks and tunnels within the aquifer, and this water flows out naturally to the surface at places called springs. Springs are fed by aquifers, a system of rocks/rock material, which stores and transmits water to such springs. Different rocks show different properties that are characteristic of the process of the formation of the rock. The extent of mountains aquifers, their geometry and hydrological parameters exhibit large variation influencing spring behavior. Recharge to the spring is governed by spring type, aquifer geometry and its properties. Geologically, springs are classified into five types. Depression Springs Depression springs are formed in unconfined aquifers when the topography intersects the water table, usually due fo the surface stream incision. As the Springs are formed because of earth's gravitational pull they are named depression or gravity springs. These are usually found along the hillside and clifts. 21Unconsolidated debris Aquifer Depression spring Fracture Springs Fracture springs occur due to existence of permeable fracture zones in low permeability rocks. Movement of groundwater is mainly through fractures that constitute the porosity and permeability of aquifers. Springs are formed where these fractures intersect the ground surface. Fracture Permeable rocks Fracture springs Karst Springs 22The term ‘Karst’ is derived from a Slavic word that means barren, stony ground. It is also the name of a region in Slovenia near the border with Italy that is well known for its sinkholes and springs. Geologists have adopted karst as the term for all such terrain. Cavities are formed in carbonates rocks (limestones, dolomites, ete.) due to dissolution of rack material by chemical reaction. Water moves through these cavities and openings to form a spring or a system of springs. Sink hole Cayems Karstic lifnestone Karst spring Fault Springs Faulting may also give rise to conditions in which groundwater (at depth) under hydrostatic pressure (such as in confined aquifers) can move up along such fault openings to form a spring. Fractures Permeable rock layer Fault Impermeable rock layer Confined Aquifer Contact Springs 23Contact springs emerge at contacts where relatively permeable rocks overlie rocks of low permeability. Spring water emerges at such contacts. Contact spring 24