Cour

seTi
tl
e:Gr
ammari
nUse

Cour
seCode:
EnLa201

Cr
edi
tHour
s:3

Cour
seRat
ional
e

Engli
shGrammarinUseisoneEngl
ishl
anguagecour
sest hatisof
fer
edwit
htheul
ti
mat
e
goal
ofenabli
ngst
udent
st obecomeacademical
l
ysuccessfulandcompet
ent.

Cour
seObj
ect
ivesAtt
heendoft
hecour
se,
thest
udent
swi
l
lbeabl
eto:

➢ Wr
it
egr
ammat
ical
l
yaccur
atesent
ences

➢ Pr
oducegr
ammat
ical
l
yaccept
abl
eut
ter
ances

➢ Usegr
ammart
husl
ear
nedt
ocommuni
cat
eef
fect
ivel
yindi
ff
erentsi
tuat
ions.

Cour
seDescr
ipt
ion

Thiscour seai mst oequi pstudentswithbasi cknowl edgeandappl i

cati
onofEngl i
shgr ammar .
Itintendstohel pthest udentsseehowt helanguagewor ksandi nt
ernali
zethegr ammat ical
formsi nor dertouset hem forthepur poseofexpr essingmeani ng.Withsigni
fi
cantdepar ture
from t r
adit
ionalanal ysisofgrammat i
calf orms, thecour seassumest ofocusonf unctionsby
wayofcont extuali
zingeachst r
ucturet ohel pst udentsgett hemselvesinaposi tiont ouse
English structuresf orcommuni cation pur poses.To t hisend the course addressest he
foll
owi ng element s ofgr ammar :sent ence el ement s and par ts ofspeech;v erb( types,
functions),adj ectiv
es,adv erbs and t hei
r cl auses;ki nds of clauses (dependent and
i
ndependent );pronoun,pr onounant ecedentagr eementandpr onounr ef
erence;voice( active
andpassi ve);dir
ectandi ndir
ectdiscour se;pr epositi
ons;r eporti
ngclauses;wor df or
mat ion
andf ormationofl exicalphrases;andmodal s.Inaddi t
ion,t her
ewi l
lbespeaki ngandwr iting
tasksbasedont heabov eelement sofgr ammari nor dert ocontextual
izeeachandev ery
structureinf uncti
onal way.
COURSECONTENTS

I
.ELEMENTSOFGRAMMAR

1.SENTENCEELEMENTS

2.PARTSOFSPEECH
2.
1Nounsandt
hei
rTy
pes

2.
2.Ver
bs

2.
2.1.Fi
nit
eandNon-f
ini
tev
erbf
orms

2.
2.2.Mai
nver
bsandauxi
l
iar
yver
bs

2.
2.3.Tr
ansi
ti
veVer
bsandi
ntr
ansi
ti
vev
erbs

2.
3.Adj
ect
ives

2.
3.1.BaseandDer
ivedAdj
ect
ives

2.
3.2.Adj
ect
ival
Clauses

2.
4.Adv
erbs

2.
4.1.Ki
ndsofAdv
erbs

2.
4.2.Pl
acesofAdv
erbsofDegr
ee

2.
4.3.Adv
erbi
alcl
auses

2.
5.Pr
onouns

2.5.
1.Ty
pesofPr
onouns

2.
5.2.Pr
onoun–ant
ecedentAgr
eement

2.
5.3.Pr
onounRef
erence

2.
6.Pr
eposi
ti
ons

3.PUNCTUATI
ONANDCAOI
TALI
ZATI
ONS
3.
1.Capi
tal
i
zat
ion

3.
2.Punct
uat
ion

3.
2.1.Ful
lst
op
 3.
2.2.Comma

3.
2.3.Semi
col
on

3.
2.4.Col
on

3.
2.5.Apost
rophes

3.
2.6.Quot
ati
onmar
ks

4.CONJUNCTI
ONS
4.
1.Coor
dinat
ion

4.
2.Subor
dinat
ion

4.
3.Adv
erbi
alConj
unct
ions

5.TENSES
5.
1.Pr
esentTenses

5.
2.PastTenses

5.
3.Fut
ureTenses

6.VOI
CE
6.
1.Act
iveVoi
ce

6.
2.Passi
veVoi
ce

7.CONDI
TIONALS
7.
1.Condi
ti
onal
TypeI

7.
2.Condi
ti
onal
TypeI
I

7.
3.Condi
ti
onal
TypeI
II

8.MODALS
8.
1.Per
missi
on

8.
2.Obl
i
gat
ion

8.
3.Deduct
ion,
etc
9.REPORTEDSPEECH
9.
1.Di
rect

9.
2.I
ndi
rect

METHODOLOGY–Lect
ure-Gr
oup/
pai
rwor
k-Or
alpr
esent
ati
on-Sel
f-
ref
lect
ion-I
ndi
vi
dual
wor
k(cl
ass,
homet
ake)

EVALUATI
ONSCHEME

➢ Cont
inuousassessment
--
--
--
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--
--
--
--
--
--
--
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--
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--
--
--
--
--50%

Mi
dexam-
--
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--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-30%

Test1-
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--
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--
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--
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--
-10%

Test2-
--
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--
--
--
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--
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--
--
-10%

Fi
nal
Exam-
--
--
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50%

REFERENCES

Al
exanderL.G.(
1995)
,LongmanEngl
i
shGr
ammarPr
act
ice,
Engl
and,
LongmanHouse.

Cr
yst
al,
D.(
1996)
,Di
scov
erGr
ammar
.Si
ngapor
e:Longman.

Dar
tA.K.(
1978)
,Gr
ammarWor
kbook.Hi
gh-
Int
ermedi
ate:
NewJer
sey
,

Ecker
sleyC.
E(1966)
,Aconci
seEngl
i
shGr
ammar
.Longman:
London.

For
syt
h,W &Lav
ender
,S.(
1994)
,Gr
ammarAct
ivi
ti
es.Gr
eatBr
it
ain:
Macmi
l
lanHei
nemann.

Gar
ryF.
1987,Gr
ammarandcomposi
ti
on(
3rdedi
ti
on)
:Pr
incessHal
lInc.Engl
ewoodCl
i
ft
NewHersey

Ger
aldNel
son(
2002)
,AnEssent
ial
Grammar
.Rout
ledge:
USA.

Hor
nbyA.C.RuseC.(
1989)
,Oxf
ordSt
udent
’sDi
cti
onar
y,Oxf
ordUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess.

Mar
yMcCaski
l
l(1998)
,Ahandbookf
orTechni
cal
Wri
ter
sandEdi
tor
s.Hampt
on:
Vir
gini
a.

Mi
l
adaB.2005,
Grammarf
orFunct
ion.McGr
awHi
l
l.Amer
icanNewYor
k

Mur
phy
,R.(
1998)
,Essent
ial
Grammari
nUse.(
2nded.
)Gr
eatBr
it
ain:
CUP.

Rai
mes,
A.(
1992)
,Gr
ammarTr
oubl
espot
s(2nded.
)NewYor
k:U.
F.S,
Inc.

SwanM.(
1995)
,Pr
act
ical
Engl
i
shUsage.(
2ndEdi
ti
on)
:Oxf
ordUni
ver
sit
yPr
ess..
 I
. ELEMENTSOFGRAMMAR
Grammarisasy stem ofrul
esandprinci
plesforspeaki
ngandwr it
ingalanguage.I
tisapart
ofthestudyoflanguagewhi chdeal
swi t
ht heformsandst r
uctureofwords( morphol
ogy
),
witht
heircust
omar yarrangementinphrasesandsent ences(syntax)
,andnow of t
enwit
h
l
anguagesounds(phonology)andwordmeani ngs(semanti
cs)
.

1.Sent
enceEl
ement
s
Part
sofspeechar esent
enceel
ementsthatwor kt
ogethert
omakeupasent ence.Justasa
cari
snotaf unct
ioni
ngcarwit
houtall
ofitssynchr
onizedpart
sworki
ngtogether
,asentence
i
snotaf uncti
oni
ngsentencewit
houtthecorr
ectusageandcombinat
ionofit
sessentialpar
ts
ofspeech.

Asentencei
sagroupofwords,whi
chwhentheyar
ewrit
tendown,
begi
nwi
thacapi
tal
l
ett
erandendwit
haf ul
lst
op,quest
ionmar
korexclamat
ionmark.

Thebasi
cbuil
dingblocksofasentencear esubj
ects(
nouns)andpredicat
e(Ver
bs).
Part
sofa
sent
encecanalsobesubject
,ver
b, object,
complementandadverbi
al.Astat
ementbegi
ns
wit
hasubject
.Therearefi
vemainst ructur
eswhichwecanuset omakeasi mpl
estatement
.

1.Asent
encecanbef
ormedf
rom asubj
ectandav
erb.

Exampl
e:1.Myar
msar
eachi
ng. 2.Somet
hing happened.

2.Asent
encecanbef
ormedf
rom asubj
ect
,av
erbandanobj
ect
.

Exampl
e:1.Ineedar
est
. 2.Fi
vepeopl
ear
emov
ingt
hepi
ano.

3.Asent
encecanbef
ormedf
rom asubj
ectav
erbandacompl
ement
.

Exampl
e:1.Thi
spi
anoi
sheav
y. 2.I
twasabi
gpr
obl
em.

Thecompl ementher
eisanadj
ecti
ve(e.
g.heavy)oranounphrase(e.
g.abigprobl
em) .The
complementoftencomesaf
terbe.I
tcanalsocomeafterappear,
become,get,
feel
,look,
seem,stayorsound.

4.Asent
encecanbef
ormedf
rom asubj
ect
,av
erbandanadv
erbi
al.

Exampl
e:1.I
tisonmyf
oot
. 2.Thei
rhousei
snear
by.

Theadv
erbi
alher
eisapr
eposi
ti
onal
phr
ase(onmyf
oot
)oranadv
erb(near
by)
.

5.Asent
encecanbef
ormedf
rom asubj
ect
,av
erbandadi
rectobj
ectandi
ndi
rectobj
ect
.

Exampl
e:1.Fat
hersendsmemoney
. 2.Dav
idboughthi
smot
herapr
esent
.
Weuset
woobj
ect
saf
terv
erbsl
i
kegi
veandsend(
dir
ectandi
ndi
rectobj
ect
).

Wor
dsi
nsent
ences
Somewor
dscanbel
ongt
odi
ff
erentcl
assesdependi
ngonhowt
heyar
eusedi
nasent
ence.

VERBS NOUNS

CanIl
ookaty
ourphot
os? Il
i hel
ket ookoft
hatcoat

Wewor
konSat
urdaymor
ning. I
'
llbeatwor
ktomor
row.

Ihav
eboughtabook. Ibookedadoubl
ebed.

2.PARTOFSPEECH

Accor
dingtooldergrammar i
ans,ther
eareeightbasi
cpartsofspeechwhichinclude:
Noun,Pronoun,Verb,Adj
ecti
ve,Adver
b,Preposi
ti
on,andconjunct
ionandint
erjecti
on.
Moderngrammar iansdiv
idetheseintof
iveas:nouns,adj
ecti
ves,ver
bs,
adverbsand
pr
eposit
ions,

1. No
2. uns
Nounsar
ewordsthatnamepeopl
e,pl
aces,t
hings,
andideas.Nounsar
esingularorpl
ural
,
andcommonorproper..
Somenouns,
call
edpropernouns,namespeci
fi
cthingsorpeople
andmustbecapi
tal
ized.

Anounisusuall
yanessent
ial
partofanybasi
csent
ence.I
t’
stypical
l
ywhoorwhatthe
sent
enceisabout,
butot
hernounsareoft
enalsoi
ncl
udedinlongerormor
ecomplex
sent
ences.

Ty
pesofnouns:
 CommonNouns:
nameofpeopl
e,pl
aceort
hingst
hatar
enotspeci
fi
c.

Example.1.AbebeandLeml em wer
ewatchingashowonAnimal
Planet
.
2.Al
askaishometomanyint
eresti
ngcreat
ures.
 ProperNouns:nameofspeci
fi
cpeopl
e,placeorthi
ngs.

Exampl
e:Abebe,Mokonni
n,Ni
l
eri
ver
,At
lant
icOcean…….

 Col
l
ect
iveNouns:
ref
ert
othi
ngsorpeopl
easauni
t.

Exampl
e:bunch,
audi
ence,
flock,
team,
group,
fami
l
y,band,
vil
l
age

 Abst
ractNouns:
nameofnounst
haty
oucan’
tper
cei
vewi
thy
ourf
ivesenses.
 Exampl
e:Lov
e,weal
th,
happi
ness,
fear
,rel
i
gion,
bel
i
ef,
hist
ory

 Concer
tnouns:
nameofnounst
haty
oucanper
cei
vewi
thy
ourf
ivesenses.

 Exampl
e:t
abl
e,dog,
flower
,bi
rd,
banana….

Count
abl
eandUncount
abl
eNouns
Count
abl
enounsar
ethoset
hatcanbecount
ed.Nounssuchascar
,appl
e,banana,
andbag
ar
ecount
abl
e.

Uncountablenouns,onthecontrary,
incl
udenounssuchasgases( Oxygen,air,etc),
Subjects
(Mathematics,
Engli
sh,etc.
),t
hingsmadeofsmal lpieces(hair(
onhead),ri
ce, etc.)
,ideasand
feel
ings(l
ove,democracy,et
c.)
, l
iqui
ds(water
,mil
k,etc.)
,groupsofsmal lt
hings( furni
tur
e,
food,et
c.)
,sportsandgames( chess,foot
ball
,et
c.)
,andt hi
ngsthatoccurnat urall
y(snow, r
ain,
heat,et
c.)
.

Someuncount
ablenounsi
nEngl
ishar
ecount
ableinotherl
anguages.Thi
scanbeconf
usi
ng!
Her
eisali
stofsomeofthemostcommon,easytoconfuseuncountabl
enouns.

accommodati
on behavior damage l
uck
permissi
on t
raff
ic advice br
ead
fur
nit
ure l
uggage progress weat
her
baggage chaos informati
on news
scenery work

Nounswhichmaybebothcountabl
eanduncountabl
eSometi
mes,t
hesamenouncanbe
count
abl
eanduncount
able,
oftenwithachangeofmeani
ng.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
eexamples.

Count
abl
e Wor
d Uncount
abl
e

Ther
ear
etwohai
rsi
nmycof
fee! hai
r Idon'
thav
emuchhai
r.(
thehai
ron
one‘
shead

Ther
ear
etwol
i
ght
sinourbedr
oom. Li
ght Closethecur
tai
n.Her
e‘st
oomuch
l
ight!

Shhhhh!It
houghtIhear
danoi
se. noi
se I
t'
sdi
ff
icul
ttoworkwhent
her
eis
t
oomuchnoise.

Haveyougotapapertor
ead?(
=newspaper Paper Iwanttodr
awapict
ure.Hav
eyou
oraboundpaperwri
tt
enbyastudent
) gotsomepaper
?

Ourhousehassev
enr
ooms. Room I
sther
eroom f
ormet
osi
ther
e?

Wehadagr
eatt
imeatt
hepar
ty. t
ime Oh,
Idon‘
thav
eti
met
odot
his
Macbet
hisoneofShakespear
e'sgr
eat
est Wor
k Ihav
enomoney
.Ineedwor
k!
wor
ks.

Rugbyi
saspor
t.(
=apar
ti
cul
arspor
t) spor
t Doy
oul
i
kespor
t?(
spor
tingener
al)

NounPhr
ase

Anounphraseisagr
oupofwor
dsthatworktoget
hert
onameanddescr
ibeaperson,
place,
t
hing,ori
dea.Whenwel
ookatt
hestruct
ureofwri
ti
ng,
wetr
eatanounphraset
hesameway
wetreatacommonnoun.

Likeal
lnouns, anounphrasecanbeanoun, obj
ectbeorcompl ement
.
Anounphr asehast wopar t
s:anounandanymodi f
ier
sconnectedtothatnoun.Mostof
ten,
thesemodi f
ierswil
lbeadjecti
ves,
art
icl
esandpreposi
ti
onalphrases(
groupsofwordsthat
beginwithapr eposi
ti
onandendswi t
hanobject)
,Themodifier
smayal sobedeter
miners
(wordsthatclari
fynouns).
NounPhr aseExampl es:

1.Cat
ssl
eepal
ot.(
singl
ewor
dnoun)
2.Thecat(art
icl
e+noun)
3.Thefl
uffy,
long-hai
redcat(
arti
cle+adj
ecti
ves+noun)
4.Thecatont opofthestool
issleepi
ng.(ar
ti
cle+noun+preposi
ti
onal
phr
ase)
5.Mostbigcatshuntatnight
.(deter
miner+adject
ive+noun)

NounphrasecanbeusedasaSubj
ect
,asaCompl
ement
,asaDi
rectObj
ectandal
soasan
I
ndir
ectObject

2.
2.Ver
bs
Av erbisoneoft hemainpar t
sofasent enceorquest ioni nEngli
sh.Verbsareused
tosi gnalact
ions,occurrences,orstatesofbei ng.A v erbisawor dusedi na
sentencetoexplainwhatanoun—aper son,pl
ace,ort hing—isdoingort oexplain
what ’
sbeingdonet oanoun.I t’
susuallyanact ionwor d,butav erborsetofv erbs
canal soexpl nanemot
ai ional
/phy si
ologicalresponseoract ion,(l
ike“f
eel”)ora
ment alact
ionorst at
e,(
li
ke“ t
hi )orast
nk” ateofbeing,whi chmaynott y
picall
ybe
noticedorseenbyot her
s.
Somet
ypi
cal
act
ionv
erbsi uder
ncl un,
dance,
jump,
sing,
wri
te,
readet
c.
Sometypi
calstat
ivev
erbsi udebe,
ncl bel
i
eve,hat
e,hav
e,know,
lov
e,thi
nketc.
Exampl
e:1.Weruntothebusstat
ion.(
acti
onverb) 2.Iam happy.
(st
ativ
ever
b)

Ver
bst
akedi
ff
erentf
ormsdependi
ngonhoworwher
etheyappeari
nasent
ence.
Thei
nfi
nit
ivei
sthebasi
cfor
m ofav
erb.I
tcanbewr
it
tenwi
thorwi
thoutt
hepr
eposi
tont
i o.
Dependi
ngont
het
ensewear
eusi
ng,
aver
bmustbeconj
ugat
edi
ntodi
ff
erentf
orms.
 I
nthesi
mpl
epr he-
esentt sisaddedt
othet
hir
dper
sonsi
ngul
arofr
egul
arv
erbs.
 I
nthesi
mplepastandpastpart
ici
plever
bfor -
ms,edi
saddedt
oregul
arv
erbs,
but
i
rr
egul
arver
bsmustbelearntbyheart
.
 I
nthepr
ogr
essi
vet -
enses,i
ngi
saddedt
oav
erbt
ofor
mthepr
esentpar
ti
cipl
e.

2.
2.1.Fi
nit
eandNon-
fi
nit
ever
bfor
ms

Fi
nit
ev er
bsgi
veusi
nfor
mationaboutt
ense,
per
sonandnumberanddescr
ibet
heact
ionor
st
atetaki
ngpl
acei
nasentence.

Exampl
e:Iam goi
ngt
othesuper
mar
kett
obuysomegoods.

Non-
fi
nit
everbsdonotprov
ideinformat
ionabouttense,
per
sonandnumber
.Non-
fi
nit
ever
bs
i
ncl
udeinfi
nit
ives,
ger
unds(-
ingform)andpart
ici
ples.

Exampl
e:Iwentt
othesuper
mar
kett
obuysomegoods.

2.
2.2.Mai
nVer
bsandauxi
l
iar
yver
bs

SomeEnglishtensesareconjugatedwit
hmorethanonev
erb,
forexampl
ethepresent
progr
essi
veorpr esentper
fect.Theset
ensesar
eknownascompoundtensesbecausethey
areconj
ugatedusinganauxili
aryverbandamainver
b.

Theauxil
i
aryver
bhelpsustoconj
ugat
ethetense.Itgi
vesusinf
ormati
onaboutperson,
numberaswellastheti
meorstat
eofanacti
oni .
e.anegatedact
ion,
acompletedpastact
ion
oract
ioninpr
ogress.Auxi
l
iar
yver
bsaredo,
be, haveandwill
.

Exampl
e:1.Mydogdoesn’
tbar
k(Negat
iveact
ioni
nsi
mpl
epr
esent
,thi
rdper
sonsi
ngul
ar)

2.Ihav
ereadt
henewspaper(
Compl
etedact
ioni
npr
esentper
fect
)

3.Yester
dayat3pm,
theywer
espeaki
ngont
het
elephone.(
act
ioni
npr
ogr
essi
npast
pr
ogressi
ve)

Themai nv
erbtel
lsuswhattheact
ioni
nthesent
enceis.Themainver
bcanbe
apresentf
orm,abareinf
ini
ti
ve,
apastsi
mplefor
m,apastparti
cipl
eorapr
esentpar
ti
cipl
e.
Sometimestheauxi
li
aryver
bandthemainver
barethesame.
Exampl
e:Sheeat
scer
eal
forbr
eakf
ast
.(
Mai
nver
binpr
esentf
orm)

Mydogdoesn’
tbar
k.(
Mai
nver
binbar
einf
ini
ti
ve)

2.
2.3.Tr
ansi
ti
vev
erbsandi
ntr
ansi
ti
vev
erbs

Thet
ermst
ransi
ti
veandi
ntr
ansi
ti
vet
ell
uswhet
herav
erbr
equi
resadi
rectobj
ectornot
.

Transi
ti
v ev
erbsarever
bsthatr
equi
readir
ectobj
ect
.Commont
ransi
ti
vev
erbsi udebuy
ncl ,
beli
eve,cat
ch,di
scuss,
take,
get
,lov
e,enj
oy,et
c.

Exampl
e:1.Johncaughtt
hebal
l
.2.Het
ookt
het
rai
n.

Int
ransi
ti
veverbsarever
bsthatdonottakeadirectobj
ect
.Commoni nt
ransi
ti
veverbs
i
ncludeappear,ar
ri
ve,
cough,di
e,happen,r
ain,
snow, et
c.Thesev
erbscanstandaloneand
sti
llmakesense.

Exampl
e:1.Fi
nal
l
y,myt
rai
nhasar
ri
ved(
Youcan’
tar
ri
vesomet
hing)
2.Lastweek,
Leml
em’
sgr
andf
atherdi
ed.(
Youcan’ esomet
tdi hing)

Al
thoughint
ransit
ivever
bscannotbefol
l
owedbyadi
rectobj
ect
,theymaybef
oll
owed
byadver
bsorpr eposi
ti
onal
phrases.

Exampl
e:1.Abebe’
sgrandf
atherdi astweek.(l
edl astweeki
snotadi
rectobj
ect
;itj
ustt
ell
s
uswhentheacti
onhappened

1,
Myt
rai
nar
ri
vedatt
hest
ati
on.
(att
hest
ati
oni
sapr
eposi
ti
onal
phr
ase,
notadi
rectobj
ect
)

Somev
erbscanbet
ransi
ti
veori
ntr
ansi
ti
vedependi
ngont
hecont
ext
.

Exampl
e:Hesang.
(nodi
rectobj
ect
=int
ransi
ti
vev
erb)

HesangAst
er’
sfav
ori
tesong.
(di
rectobj
ect(
song)
=tr
ansi
ti
vev
erb)

Someverbscanhav
edi
ff
erentmeani
ngsdependi
ngonwhet
hert
heyar
etr
ansi
ti
veor
i
ntr
ansi
ti
ve.

Exampl
e:Iran.(
ran=jogged)
Iranacaf ef
ormanyy ear
s.(
ran=managed)
2,
3,Adj
ect
ives
Adj
ecti
vegivesmorespecifi
cinfor
mationaboutanounorapronoun.Itmayansweranyof
t
he t
hreespecif
icquest
ionsaboutthenoun(
s)orpr
onoun(
s):whatkinds,whi
chone,orhow
many
?

Adject
ivesareal socalledmodi f
ier
sbecauset heymodi f
ytheimageofnounwehav einmi nd.
Adject
ivesexpr essphy sicalandotherquali
ties(l
arge,qui
et,andfr
iendl
y)andthewriter
's
opini
onorat ti
tude( excellent,
beauti
ful
).Adjecti
vescanalsoexpressothermeaningssuchas
ori
gin(anAmer icanwr i
ter),pl
ace(aninlandwaterway )
,fr
equency(aweeklynewspaper),
degree(acompl etefai
lure),necessi
ty(anessentialsaf
eguard)anddegreesofcert
ainty(t
he
probableresul
t).

Ther
earetwopl
aceswher
ewecanuseanadj
ect
ive:
bef
oreanounandaf
teral
i
nki
ngv
erbas
complement
.

Befor
eANoun Aft
erALinkingVer
b
John'
sgotanewcar . John'
scarisnew.
I
twasadarknight. I
twasgett
ingdark.
Thi
sisgoodcoff
ee. Thi
scoff
eet ast
esgood.

Consi
der
edi
nmeani
ng,
adj
ect
ivesf
all
int
otwol
argegr
oups:

a)Qual
i
tat
iveadj
ect
ives,

Quali
tat
iveadj
ect
ivesdenotequal
i
tiesofsi
ze,shape,col
or,
etc.whichanobj
ectmaypossess
i
nv ar
iousdegr
ees.Quali
tat
iveadj
ecti
veshavedegreesofcomparison.

b)Rel
ati
veadj
ect
ives.

Relat
iveadjecti
vesexpressqual
i
tieswhi chchar
acter
izeanobjectt
hroughitsr
elat
ionto
anotherobject;woodentabl
es→ tablesmadeofwood,
woolenglov es→ glovesmadeofwool ,
Siber
ianwheat→ wheatf r
om Si
beria.Furt
herexamplesofr
elati
veadject
ivesar
e:rural
,
i
ndustri
al,urban,et
c.

2.
3.1.Baseadj
ect
ivesandDer
ivedadj
ect
ives.

1.Baseadject
ivesexhibi
tthefol
lowingformalquali
ti
es:t
heymayt akei
nflect
ions-erand-est
orhavesomemor phophonemicchangesi ncasesofthesuppl
eti
on,suchas, f
orinstance,
in
good—better—t hebest;
bad—wor se—t heworst.Baseadj
ecti
vesarealsodisti
nguished
for
mallybythefactthattheyser
veasst emsf r
om whichnounsandadv erbsareformedby
theder
ivat
ionalsuff
ixes-nessand-ly.

Baseadj ecti
vesar emost l
yofonesy l
labl
e,andnonehav emor ethantwosyllablesexcepta
fewt hatbegi nwi t
hader iv
ational
prefi
xun-orin-
,e.g.
:uncommon, i
nhuman, etc.Theyhave
noder ivationalsuffi
xesandusuallyformtheircomparat
iveandsuper l
ati
vedegr eesbymeans
ofthei nflecti
onalsuffi
xes-erand-est.Qui
teanumberofbasedadj ect
ivesformv erbsby
addingt heder i
v at
ionalsuff
ix-en,
theprefi
xen-orboth:blacken,
bright
en,cheapen, sweeten,
wi
den,
enr
ich,
enl
arge,
embi
tt
er,
enl
i
ght
en,
enl
i
ven,
etc.

2.Deri
vedadject
ivesar
eformedbytheadditi
onofderi
vati
onalsuf
fi
xestofreeorbound
stems.Theyusuall
yfor
m anal
yti
cal
compar at
ivesandsuperl
ati
vesbymeansoft hequali
fi
ers
moreandmost .Someofthemor ei
mportantsuffi
xeswhi
chf or
m der
ivedadject
ivesar
e:

-able,e.g.
: r
emar kable,adaptable,conceivabl
e,dri
nkable,
eat
able
-al,
e.g.:fatal
,local,natur
al,etc.-i
al,e.g.
:bacteri
al,
fundament
al,et
c
-ish,e.g.:Turkish,outl
andish,whitish,wolfi
sh.And
-ye. g.
:rocky,wat ery,
bushy ,milky
,sunny ,
etc.

2.
3.2.Ki
dsofAdj
ect
ives

 Possessi
veAdj
ect
ives:Possessi
veadj
ect
ivesar
emy
,your
,our
,thei
r,hi
s,her
).
Theyar
e
usedwhent
her
efer
encet
owhi
chper
sonort
hingi
sunder
stood.

I
nter
rogat
iveadj
ect
ives:
Int
err
ogat
iveadj
ect
iv ewhose,
esar what
,andwhi
ch.They
modi
fynounsandar
eusedi
nint
err
ogat
ivesent
ences(
i.
e.,
quest
ions)
.

Exampl
e:1.Whosecarwi l
ltheygi
veus?
3. Whatcarwi
llt
heygiveus?
4.Whichcarwil
ltheygiveus?
 Demonstr
ati
v eadjecti
ves:Thedemonstr
ati
veadj
ect
ives(t
his,
that
,these,andt
hose)
areusedt
opoi ntoutspeci
fi
cpeopl
eorthi
ngs

2.
3.3.Or
derofadj
ect
ives

Iti
snotcommont ousemor ethant hreeadj
ect
ivesatat
ime,butt
heor
derof
adj
ect
ivesi
s:Qual
i
ty-
size-
age-
col
or-
qual
i
fier
.

Exampl
e:Il
ovet
hatr
eal
l
y,bi
g,ol
d,gr
een,
ant
iquecar
.

2.
3.4.Adj
ect
ival
Clauses

I
fagroupofwordscont
aini
ngasubjectandver
bactsasanadject
ive,
iti
scal
l
edanAdj
ect
ive
Cl
ause.Mysi
sterwhoi
, smucholderthanIam,isanengi
neer
.

2.
4. Adv
erbs
Anadverbi
sawordthatdescr
ibesormodi
fi
esaver
b,anadj
ect
ive,
oranotheradv
erbby
aski
ngquest
ionsl
i
ke:When?.Wher e?,Why?.How?,Towhatext ent
?,Underwhat
condi
ti
on?et
c.

2.
4.1,
Kindsofadv
erbs
  Adver
bsofManner
:theadver
bsli
kewi
sel
y,fool
i
shly
,well
,fast
,sl
owl
y,br
avely
showshowanacti
ondone.Adver
bofmanneranswerst
hequesti
on-
‘
How’ ?

 Adver
bsofpl
ace:
theadv
erbsl
ikeoutside,
everywher
e,her
e,ther
e,out,
forwar
d
showswher
etheact
ioni
sdone.Adverbsofplaceanswerthequesti
on–‘wher
e?’
.

 Adver
bsoft
ime:adver
bsofti
meliketoday,
yester
day,
dai
l
y,present
ly,
immedi
atel
y
showwhenanacti
onisdone.I
tanswerthequesti
on-
‘
when?.
.

 Adverbsoffrequency
:whichshowshowof t
enanact
ioni
sdonel
i
ket
wice,
alway
s,
done.Itanswersthequest
ion-
Howoften’
?

 AdverbsofDegr ee:Adverbsofdegreetellusabouttheintensit
yordegreeofan
acti
on, anadjectiveoranotheradverb.Commonadv er bsofdegree:Almost,near
ly,
quit
e,just,t
oo, enough,hardl
y,scarcel
y,complet
ely,
v ery,
extremely
,fai
rl
y,notatall
,
real
ly,
sl i
ght
ly,pretty.

Weuseabsol
utel
ywi
thadj
ect
ivest
hatar
eal
readyv
eryst
rong.

Wesay
:Itwasabsol
utel
yfant
ast
ic.Wedon‘
tsay
:Itwasabsol
utel
ygood.

Weusev
erywi
thot
heradj
ect
ives.Exampl
e-I
twasv
erygood.

Weuser
eal
l
ywi
thbot
hty
pesofadj
ect
ive,
andbef
orev
ery
:

Real
l
ygood/r
eal
l
yver
ygood/r
eal
l
yfant
ast
ic.

Not
ethatadv
erbsnear
lyal
way
scomeaf
terbeandauxi
l
iar
yver
bs.
.

Thef
orm ofmanyadv
erbsi
sadj
ect
ive+l
y:

Rar
e--
-rar
ely
,successf
ul-
--
-successf
ull
y,per
fect
--
--
-per
fect
ly

2.
4.2.Pl
acesofAdv
erbsofDegr
ee

Adv
erbsofdegr
eear
eusual
l
ypl
aced:

1.bef
oret
headj
ect
iveoradv
erbt
heyar
emodi
fyi
ng:e.
g.Thewat
erwasext
remel
ycol
d.

2.bef
oret
hemai
nver
b:e.
g.Hewasj
ustl
eav
ing.Shehasal
mostf
ini
shed.

Enough,
ver
y,t
oo

Enoughasanadv
erbmeani
ng'
tot
henecessar
ydegr
ee'
goesaf
teradj
ect
ivesandadv
erbs.

Exampl
e:1.
Isy
ourcof
feehotenough?(
adj
ect
ive)

2.Hedi
dn'
twor
khar
denough.(
adv
erb)
Italsogoesbeforenouns,andmeans'
asmuchasi
snecessar
y'
.I
nthi
scasei
tisnotan
adverb,
buta'determi
ner'
.

Exampl
e:1.Wehav
eenoughbr
ead.

2.
Theydon'
thav
eenoughf
ood.

Tooasanadv
erbmeani
ng'
mor
ethani
snecessar
yorusef
ul'
goesbef
oreadj
ect
ivesand
adver
bs,

e.
g.1.
Thi
scof
feei
stoohot
.(adj
ect
ive)

2.
Hewor
kst
oohar
d.(
adv
erb)

Ver
ygoesbef
oreanadv
erboradj
ect
ivet
omakei
tst
ronger
.

Exampl
e:1.Thegi
rlwasv
erybeaut
if
ul.(
adj
ect
ive)

2.
Hewor
kedv
eryqui
ckl
y.(
adv
erb)

Ver
yexpr
essesaf
act
:Exampl
e-Hespeaksv
eryqui
ckl
y.

Toosuggest
sther
eisapr
obl
em:
Exampl
e-Hespeakst
ooqui
ckl
y(f
ormet
ounder
stand)
.

2.
4.3.Adv
erbi
alcl
auses

Adv
erbcl
ausesar
ecl
auseswhi
chmodi
fyv
erbsandal
soanswerquest
ions,such
as:How?When?Wher
e?&Why
?(Formor
einf
ormat
ionont
heset
ypesofcl
auses,
seet
hesect
iononSent
enceSubor
dinat
ionunderSent
enceExpansi
on.
)
Exampl
es:
 Wheny
ouknockedatt
hef
rontdoor
,Imust
’vebeeni
ntheshower
.I
must
’vebeeni
ntheshowerwheny
ouknockedatt
hef
rontdoor
.
 Af
tery
ouf
indt
hekey
s,wecangof
oradr
ive.
Wecangof
oradr
iveaf
tery
ouf
indt
hekey
s.

2.
5.Pr
onouns
Pronounsar ewor dst
hatcanbeusedi nplaceofnouns(whenappropr
iate),
andapr onoun
operat
esj ustli
keanouni nasentence.Whenthesamenouni srepeat
edlyusedina
paragr
aph, itwi
llbebori
ngforthereader.Toavoi
dsuchrepet
iti
ons,wri
tersusepronouns
whent heyreferthesamenounagai nandagaininaparagr
aph.

2.
5.1.Ty
pesofPr
onouns
Personal
Pronouns:
Thesearepronouns(I,
we,you,
they
, he,she,
me,
you,
him,
her
,ust
hem)
usedinst
eadofnamesofsingul
arorplur
alnamesofpersons.

Pronounscanbeusedassubject(
subj
ecti
vecase)whi
chareI,
we,
you,
us,
he,
she&us.and
asobject(
object
ivecase)whi
char
eme, us,
you,hi
m,her,
them,

2.
6.Pr
eposi
ti
ons

Pr
eposi
ti
ons:Apr
eposi
ti
oni
sawor
dthatshowst
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
wot
hings.Bel
ow
i
sal
i
stofmostcommonpr
eposi
ti
ons:pr
eposi
ti
onsf
ort
ime,
place,
andi
ntr
oduci
ngobj
ect
s.

2.
6.1.Pr
eposi
ti
onsoft
ime

 On:
isusedwi
thday
s.Wesay
:OnMonday
,onWednesday
,et
c.

 At
:isusedwi
thnoon,
night
,mi
dni
ght
,andwi
tht
het
imeofday
.Wesay
:atnoon,
at6
p.
m et
c.

 I
n:i
susedwi t
hotherpar
tsoftheday
,withmonths,
wit
hyear
s,wi
thseasons.Wesayi
n
t
heaft
ernoon,i
nAugust,
in1999,i
nspri
ngetc.

Pronounssi
nce,for
,by,f
rom—t
o,from—until
,dur
ing,(
wit
h)in–expressesext
endedti
me.We
say:si
nceyest
erday,f
ortwoweeks,f
rom Augustto/
unti
lOctober
,dur
ingtheeveni
ngetc.

2.
6.2.
Preposi
ti
onsofPl
ace
 I
n–usedt
odescr
ibet
hepoi
nti
tsel
f.Eg.Ther
eisawaspi
nther
oom.

 I
nsi
de–usedt
oexpr
esssomet
hingcont
ained.Eg.Putt
hepr
esenti
nsi
det
hebox.

 On–usedt
otal
kaboutt
hesur
face.Eg.Il
efty
ourkey
sont
het
abl
e.

 At–usedt
otal
kaboutgener
alv
ici
nit
y.Eg.Shewaswai
ti
ngatt
hecor
ner
.

 Ov
er,
abov
e–usedt
otal
kaboutobj
ect
shi
ghert
hanapoi
nt.

 Het
hrewt
hebal
lov
ert
her
oof
.

 Hangt
hatpi
ctur
eabov
ethecouch.\

 Under
,under
neat
h,beneat
h,bel
ow–usedt
ot kaboutobj
al ect
slowert
hanapoi
nt.We
say
:undert
hegr
ound,
under
neat
hthebl
anket
,bel
owsea-
lev
elet
c.

 Near
,by
,nextt
o,bet
ween,
among,
opposi
te–usedt
ot kaboutobj
al ect
swhi
char
ecl
ose
t
oapoi
nt.Wesay
:neart
heschool
,byt
hest
ore,
nextt
omyhouse
 2.
6.3.Fr
equent
lyMi
susedPr
eposi
ti
ons

Pr
eposi
ti
ons may someti
mes be conf
used because ofslang and t
he gener
al
i
nfor
mali
tyoft
alk.Her
ear
esomefr
equentl
ymisusedpreposi
ti
ons.

 Besi
de,
besi
des.Besi
demeansnextt
o,wher
easbesi
desmeansi
naddi
ti
on.

 Exampl
e:Thecombi
sbesi
det
hebr
ush.

 Besi
despl
anni
ngt
het
ri
p,shei
sal
soget
ti
ngt
het
icket
s.

 Bet
ween,among.Gener
all
y,betweeni
susedwhent
woi
temsar
einv
olv
ed;f
ort
hreeor
moret
hings,
amongispref
erred.

Exampl
e:Shei
sbet
weeny
ouandme.Hei
samongf
ri
ends.

3.PUNCTUATI
ONANDCAOI
TALI
ZATI
ONS
3.
1.Capi
tal
i
zat
ion

 Capi
tal
let
ter
sar
eusedwi
th:

1.Fi
rstwor
dinasent
enceordi
rectquot
ati
on.

2.Namesofper
sonsandt
hewor
d‘I
’
.

3.Namesofpar
ti
cul
arpl
aces.Eg.Bonga,
Jimma.

4.Namesofday
soft
heweek,
mont
hs,
andhol
i
day
s.Monday
,Tuesday
,Thur
sdayet
c.

3.
2.Punct
uat
ion

Amark,
suchasaful
lst
op,comma,orquest
ionmar
k,usedi
nwr
it
ingt
osepar
atesent
encesandt
hei
r
el
ement
sandtocl
ari
fymeaning.

3.
2.2.Comma

Acommai ndi
cat
esapausebetweenpart
sofasentence.I
tisal
sousedt
osepar
atei
temsi
n
al
istandt
omar kthepl
aceoft
housandsinal
argenumber.

Acommaisapunct
uati
onmar
kthatsepar
ateswor
ds,
clauses,
ori
deaswi
thi
nasent
ence.
Commashav
ethefol
lowi
ngSi
xMainUses:

•Tosepar
atei
temsi
naser
ies

•Tosetof
fint
roduct
orymat
eri
al

•Onbot
hsi
desofwor
dst
hati
nter
ruptt
hef
lowoft
houghti
nasent
ence
•Bet
weent
wocompl
etet
hought
sconnect
edby
:and,
but
,for
,or
,nor
,so,
yet

•Tosetof
fadi
rectquot
ati
onf
rom t
her
estofasent
ence

•Tosetof
fcer
tai
nev
ery
daymat
eri
al

3.
2.3.Semi
col
on

Asemicolonismostcommonl yusedtoli
nktwoi
ndependentclausest
hatar
ecloselyrelat
edinthought
.
Whenasemi col
onjoinst
woormor eideasi
nonesentence,t
hoseideasar
ethengivenequal r
ank.
Semi
col
onscanal sobeusedinplaceofcommastosepar at
etheitemsi
nalist
,part
icularl
ywhenthe
el
ementsofthatl
istcont
aincommas

3.
2.4.Col
on

Useacol
ont
oint
roduceani
tem oraser
iesofi
tems.
e.Youmayber
Exampl equi
redt
obr
ingmanyt
hings:sl
eepi
ngbags,
pans,
utensi
l
s,
andwar
m clot
hing.
3.
2.5.Apost
rophes
Apunctuat
ionmark('
)usedt
oindi
cat
eei
therpossessi
on(
e.g.Har
ry'
sbook;
boy
s'coat
s)ort
heomi
ssi
onof
l
ett
ersornumbers(e.
g.

3.
2.6.Quot
ati
onmar
ks
Quot
ati
onmar
kshav
ethef
oll
owi
ngt
wouses:

1.Tosetofftheexactwordsofaspeakerorwri
ter
”Wholeftthecapof ft
het oothpast
e?”Li
sademanded.(
Quot
ati
onmar
kssetof
fthe
exactwordsthatLi
saspoke.)

2.Tosetofft
heti
tl
esofshortwor
ks.Ti
tl
esofshortwor
ksareusual
l
ysetof
fbyquot
ati
on
marks,
whereast
it
lesofl
ongworksareunder
li
nedori
tal
i
cized.

3. CONJUNCTI
ONS
Aconj
unctionisapar
tofspeecht
hatconnect
swor
ds,
phr
ases,
orcl
ausest
hatar
ecal
l
edt
heconj
unct
sof
t
heconjuncti
ons.

4.
1.Coor
dinat
ion

Coor
dinat
ioni
stheor
gani
zat
ionoft
hedi
ff
erentel
ement
sofacompl
exbodyoract
ivi
tysoast
oenabl
e
them t
owor ktogethereff
ect
ivel
y.Coor
dinator
sarewor
dst
hatj
oingr
ammat
ical
l
yequal
uni
tst
oget
her
.
Theprinci
palcoordinat
orsar
eand, but
,or,&nor.

4.
2.Subor
dinat
ion
Wor
dswhosef
unct
ioni
stoest
abl
i
shanunequal
grammat
ical
rel
ati
onshi
p,(
e.g.
,that
,for
,to,
whet
her
,if
)

4.
3.Adv
erbi
alConj
unct
ions