Interview

Sir my name is Mohammad Suleiman .I am 23 years old. I was born in Multan ,from where I
have done my high schooling.And I have done my Graduation in civil engineering from Nust
with cgpa 3.05..

Cracks
Cracks in buildings happen mainly due to settling of the foundation,
temperature changes, moisture issues, and poor construction materials or
methods.
1. Foundation Settling: Over time, the soil under a building can shift or
compact, causing the foundation to move slightly. This movement
creates stress on the structure, leading to cracks, especially in walls and
floors.
2. Temperature Changes: Materials expand with heat and shrink when
cold. This constant movement can lead to cracks.
3. Moisture: Water can seep into walls, causing them to swell. If it freezes,
it expands more, leading to cracks.

Solution :
1. Proper foundation : checking the soil type and strength and designing a
foundation that suits it. If the soil is weak, we might make the foundation
deeper or wider so the building stays stable
By going deeper, we reach denser, stronger soil or even rock layers that can
better support the building. This keeps the structure stable
: If we can’t go deeper, we make the foundation wider, which spreads the
building's weight over a larger area.
2. Waterproofing acts as a barrier to keep water out of walls and floors,
protecting the building and reducing cracks caused by moisture."
Cementious ,bitumenious water proofing common in pak
3. Expansion Joints: Expansion joints are small gaps built into a structure to
allow materials to expand and contract with temperature changes.
Expansion joints are often placed in long walls, floors, roofs, and
between sections of large buildings to prevent cracks.
 Plaster
"Moisture can weaken plaster because when water seeps into the walls,
it reduces the plaster's ability to stick properly.

DPC (Damp Proof Course) is a layer of material placed in the foundation

of a building to prevent moisture from rising through the walls.
DPC is made of concrete ratio 1:2:4 and its thicness is maximum 2 to 3
inches. water proofing compound/powder @ 2% by weight of cement.Plastic
sheeting: A common DPC material,, It helps protect the building from
water damage, like mold and weakened walls, by stopping moisture from
the ground from entering the structure.

Lental: A lintel is a horizontal support beam placed above windows or

doors to carry the weight of the wall above. It helps distribute the load
and prevents the wall from collapsing

Sun Shade --- provided on doors and windows

Plinth beam is RCC structure, reinforced cement concrete and mostly it’s
size is 9″x 12″.

Foundation

Purpose of Foundation:The foundation supports the entire structure,

transferring the building's weight to the ground and preventing settlement or
shifting.

Shallow foundation
isolated footing
Combined footing
Raft or mat foundation
Isolated Footing:

• Definition: A separate foundation used to support a single column.

• Usage: Common in small buildings or when columns are spaced far apart.

2. Combined Footing:

• Definition: A foundation that supports two or more columns, usually when they are
close together.
• Usage: Used when columns are too close to each other . When columns are placed
near property boundaries, individual footings might not fit because there isn’t enough
space between them. In such cases, a combined footing is used to support the
columns while respecting the boundary limits.

• 3. Raft or Mat Foundation:

• Definition: A large, continuous slab that supports the entire building, often used when
the soil is weak.
• Usage: Used for heavy buildings or when the soil can’t support individual footings for
each column.

Deep Foundation
Pile foundation(clay,sandy) strong soil , gravel,rockey
Pile Foundation: Long, slender columns (steel, concrete, or wood) driven deep into the
ground to reach stable soil. Used in weak or soft soil.suitable for bridges

Slenderness ratio
The slenderness ratio is the ratio of the length of a column to its least
lateral dimension. A column is considered slender if its slenderness ratio
is greater than 12.

A slender column is a column with a small cross section compared to its

length

• Short columns
Have a slenderness ratio of less than 12 and fail by crushing. Short columns
are only subjected to direct compressive stress.

• Long columnsHave a slenderness ratio of more than 12 and fail by

buckling,
The bearing capacity of soil provide clear value that indicates the maximum load the soil
can safely support per unit area.

The bearing capacity of soil is found in one line to provide a quick, clear value that indicates
the maximum load the soil can safely support per unit area. This simplifies the design process
for foundations by helping engineers determine if the soil can handle the weight of the
structure without excessive settlement or failure.

In practical terms, knowing the bearing capacity helps decide:

• The size of the foundation.

• The type of foundation required (shallow or deep).

How many bricks into 100 CFT

1 Cft =13.5 bricks

100 cft =1350

Volume of single brick=9/12+4/12+3/12=0.0703cft

No of brick=vol of brick work/volume of single brick

Standard size of clay brick is 9×4.5×3 inches, centre to centre, with

cement morter.

The mortar for the masonry should be of the ratio 1:6 (1 part
cement and 6 parts sand/Khaka).

Slab=5inch(0.43 feet) thick ,L=50 feet,width=30 feet

Ratio-1:2:4(cement,2xsand,4crush)

Wet volu of concrete=0.43*50*30=640cft

Dry vol=wet volx1.54=

• If you need 1 cubic meter of wet concrete (after adding water), you must use 1.54
cubic meters of dry mix.
o Why? Because the water reduces the volume of the dry mix by about
54%.1.54 is the factor to convert dry concrete mix to wet concrete.
 • You need 1.54 times more dry mix than the final wet mix due to volume shrinkage
after adding water.

Cement quantity in cft=1(ratio)/7(sum of ratio)xdry volume

Bags=cement quantity in cft/1.25cft

1bag=50kg=1.25cft
1 bag cement volume:- volume of 1 bag cement is around 1.226 cft or 0.0347m³

Cement wastage 5%

• Shear Force Diagram (SFD): A graphical representation showing how internal shear
forces vary along the length of a beam or structure due to applied loads.

• Bending Moment Diagram (BMD): A graphical representation showing how internal

bending moments change along the length of a beam or structure under the influence of
applied loads.

FD and BMD are essential for understanding how a structure responds to loads, ensuring
safety, and designing a cost-effective, strong structure.

The unit of plaster is typically measured in square feet (sq. ft.) or square meters (sq. m.)
for the surface area it covers. This is because plaster is applied as a thin coating over
walls or ceilings, which are two-dimensional surfaces.

Generally, the depth or the foundation of a building is 3-4 feet deep in the soil

• For structural concrete, a water-cement ratio of 0.4 to 0.6 is common, depending on the
required strength and workability.

To control water in a retaining wall, proper drainage is essential. This can be achieved by
installing a drainage system, such as:

1. Weep Holes: Small holes at the base of the wall that allow water to drain out,
preventing hydrostatic pressure buildup behind the wall.
2. A retaining wall is a structure built to hold back soil, rock, or other materials,
typically on sloped ground.
3. • Gravity Retaining Wall: Relies on its own weight to resist soil pressure.
4. • Cantilever Retaining Wall: Uses an L-shaped design with a vertical stem and
horizontal base for strength.

Height of single story building =3.15m

1 bag of cement=50kg,volume=0.035cum=1.25cft

the minimum initial setting time is 30 min for ordinary Portland

cement and 60 min for low heat cement. The Vicat needle apparatus is
the standard test method for determining the initial and final setting times of
hydraulic cement.

To increase the setting time of cement, you can add gypsum, which is calcium
sulfate (CaSO4)

Min num of bar=4 in rec and 6 in circular

The standard size of a concrete testing cube is 150mm ×150mm

×150mm. Concrete cube is need to fill in three layer

Slump test—4 layers

Slump Test:

The slump test is a common method used to measure the consistency (workability) of fresh
concrete. It indicates how much the concrete settles when a cone-shaped mold is removed.

• True Slump: Concrete retains shape and sinks uniformly, indicating good workability.
• Shear Slump: Concrete slumps unevenly, suggesting the mix is too wet or inconsistent.

• Collapse Slump: Concrete completely collapses, indicating the mix is too wet and
unsuitable for structural use.

• Very Low Workability (0–25 mm): Use high-strength concrete applications like precast
elements.
• Low Workability (25–50 mm): Suitable for foundations and structural elements with
minimal reinforcement.
• Medium Workability (50–100 mm): Common for general construction like slabs and
beams.

• High Workability (100–175 mm): Used for complex, heavily reinforced structures or
when concrete is pumped.
• OPC: General-purpose cement used for most construction work.
• PPC: Cement with added pozzolanic materials((like fly ash), ideal for durable and moisture-
resistant structures.

• Low Heat Cement: Used for large mass concrete works to reduce heat generation and
prevent cracking.

Pozzolanic materials are natural or artificial materials that, when mixed with water and lime,
form compounds with cement-like properties, improving the strength, durability, and
workability of concrete. Examples include fly ash and silica fume.

Generally, cement should be used within three months from the date of manufacture. Beyond
this period, cement quality will deteriorate and lose its strength.

Yes, a Universal Testing Machine (UTM) is used to test the compressive strength of
concrete. Tensile strength

T Curing of concrete is keeping the concrete moist and at the right temperature for a certain
period, so it can harden properly the minimum curing time for cement concrete is 7 days.

In concrete engineering, 0.7√fck is the formula for estimating the flexural strength of
concrete, where fck is the compressive strength of the concrete cylinder in
megapascals (MPa) or newtons per square millimeter (N/mm2). fck is the
characteristic compressive strength of concrete after 28 days, measured in MPa (megapascals)

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): The Backbone of Construction

• Grade 33: This grade is suitable for general construction purposes where high
strength is not a primary requirement. It’s commonly used for plastering, flooring, and
non-load-bearing walls.
• Grade 43: The most widely used cement grade in Pakistan, Grade 43, offers a higher
compressive strength than Grade 33. It’s ideal for residential and commercial
structures, bridges, and roads.
• Grade 53: Offering superior strength, Grade 53 is used in projects requiring high
durability and load-bearing capacity, such as high-rise buildings, dams, and heavy-
duty concrete structures.

For Slab:Minimum cover: ~0.8 inches (20 mm)

For Beam:Minimum cover: ~1 inch (25 mm).

• For Column:Minimum cover: ~1.6 inches (40 mm).

Clear cover is the min dis between outer layer of con and outr layer of reinforcement

Clear cover is provided to protect the reinforcement in a concrete structure from corrosion,
fire, and other potential damage.

Maximum water absorption for wall installment brick is 20 %.

Specifically, it looks at research on dowels that are 1-inch or less in diameter in 10- or 12-
inch.. Dowel bars are short steel bars placed across joints in concrete structures (like
slabs and pavements) to transfer loads and keep alignment between sections

• Lap Length: The length where two overlapping steel bars are joined to act as a
single, longer bar, ensuring continuity in the reinforcement.
• Development Length: The length of steel bar embedded in concrete needed to
safely transfer the load from the bar to the concrete, preventing it from pulling
out.

Simply, lap length connects bars, while development length anchors bars securely in
concrete.

• Lap Length is often specified as 50 times the bar diameter (50d) for tension bars in ACI
and other codes.

• Development Length is commonly around 41 times the bar diameter (41d) based on
factors such as bond strength, concrete grade, and rebar size in standards like ACI 318.

Compression Bars:

• Lap Length: 40 times the bar diameter (40d), as compression provides better
load transfer between bars.
• Development Length: Typically 30 to 35 times the bar diameter (30d - 35d), as
compression creates less risk of bar slippage.

Specific Gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference
substance at a fixed temperature.

The specific gravity of cement ranging from 3.0 – 3.25 g/cc.grams per cubic centimere

It is 3 times hevier than water

Le chatlier flask method

A Bar Bending Schedule (BBS) is a detailed list or schedule that provides the specifications for
cutting, bending, and shaping reinforcement bars (rebars) used in reinforced concrete structures.

A typical Bar Bending Schedule includes:

• Bar Mark: A unique identification code for each type of bar.

• Bar Size: The diameter of the steel bar (e.g., 12mm, 16mm).
• Bar Length: The total length of each bar required.
 • Quantity: The number of bars needed.
• Shape/Details: The bends or shapes the bars must take, usually described in terms of
angles and radii.
• Cutting Length: The length of bar required before any bending.

Bleeding is the process by which water in a concrete mix separates from the solid materials
and rises to the surface.

Control

By air-entraining admixture is Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (SLS),lower water cement ratio

Segregation in concrete is the separation of the concrete's different components, such as

water, cement, aggregates, and admixtures can be controlled using ad mixture (water
reducing)

Admixtures are chemical compounds use to modify the certain properties of

concrete

1.Accelerating Admixtures

• Purpose: Speed up the setting and hardening process of concrete.

• Example: Calcium chloride.

2. Retarding Admixtures

• Purpose: Slow down the setting time, useful in hot weather or large pours.
• Example: Sugar, tartaric acid.

3. Water-Reducing Admixtures

• Purpose: Reduce the water content for a given workability, improving the strength
and durability.
• Example: naphthalene-based admixtures.

4. Superplasticizers (High-Range Water Reducers)

• Purpose: Increase workability and reduce water content significantly, allowing for
high-strength concrete.
• Example: melamine-based.

5. Air-Entraining Admixtures
 • Purpose: Introduce tiny air bubbles into the mix to improve freeze-thaw resistance.
• Example: Sodium lauryl sulfate.

Honeycombing: Voids or gaps appear in concrete due to poor compaction.

Solution: Ensure adequate vibration and compaction during pouring and avoid air pockets in
the formwork.

"Prestressed concrete is a type of concrete where we apply compression to the concrete

before it's used. This is done using strong steel wires, called tendons, which help the concrete
resist stress and prevent cracking when it’s in use. It makes the structure stronger and more
durable." Tunnels ,bridges

Beam: A horizontal element that supports loads and transfers them to supports (e.g.,
columns). Used in smaller structures and shorter spans.
Example: Floor beams in buildings.

Girder: A large, strong beam that supports smaller beams or structural elements. Used in
larger structures with longer spans.
Example: Main structural beam in a bridge.

RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete):

Materials:

• Cement: Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) or other types as per design.

• Aggregates: Fine aggregates less than 4.75mm(sand) and coarse aggregates (gravel or
crushed stone).greater then 4.7mm
• Water: Clean and free from impurities.
• Steel Reinforcement: High-strength steel bars (rebars) are used for reinforcement

RCC: The addition of steel reinforcement bars significantly enhances the tensile strength of RCC.
As a result, RCC beams are more resistant to bending and cracking under heavy load. making it
suitable for structural components like beams, columns, slabs, etc.

. PCC (Plain Cement Concrete):

Materials:

• Cement: Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC).

• Aggregates: Fine aggregates (sand) and coarse aggregates (gravel or crushed stone).
 • Water: Clean, free from impurities

PCC is generally used in non-structural components like pavements, flooring, etc.

PCC (Plain Cement Concrete) Strength:

• 15 MPa to 30 MPa
In psi:
o 15 MPa = 2000 psi
o 30 MPa = 4000 psi

RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) Strength:

• 25 MPa to 50 MPa
In psi:
o 25 MPa = 3600 psi
o 50 MPa = 7000 psi

• Compressive Strength: The ability of a material to resist being squashed or compressed

without breaking.
• Flexural Strength: The ability of a material to resist bending or breaking when a force is
applied.
• Tensile Strength: The ability of a material to resist being stretched or pulled apart.
• Modulus of Elasticity: The measure of a material’s stiffness or how much it will stretch or
compress under a load.

The recommended angles provided for stirrups should vary from 90 degree
to 135 degree. 90 degree bent for stirrup is seldom used as it does not have
enough strength to resist earthquake or lateral forces. So, 135 degree bent
is mostly recommended.

Unit weight of steel bar=d2/162

Bar size#3,type carben steel ,grade40,
Different Types, Grades and Sizes of Rebar in Construction commonly
used rebar for residential construction projects is 60 grade deformed
carbon steel in #3, #4, and #5 sizes.
Grade 40,60 tell yield strength
Non-Destructive Test (NDT):
These tests evaluate the material or structure without causing any damage
to it, allowing it to remain in service after testing.
Examples:
1. Ultrasonic Testing: Uses sound waves to detect internal defects in
materials like metal or concrete.

Destructive Test:
These tests involve applying stress or force to the material until it fails, in
order to determine its strength and performance limits.
Examples:
1. Tensile Test: Measures the material’s ability to withstand pulling
forces until it breaks.
2. Impact Test: Determines how a material behaves under sudden loads
or impacts (e.g., Charpy test).