Highway engineering

Highway engineering

The Blue Ridge Parkway atop the Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina, U.S.

Highway engineering (also known as roadway engineering and street

engineering) is a professional engineering discipline branching from the civil
engineering subdiscipline of transportation engineering that involves the planning,
design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, highways, streets, bridges,
and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods.[1][2]
[3]
Highway engineering became prominent towards the latter half of the 20th century
after World War II. Standards of highway engineering are continuously being
improved. Highway engineers must take into account future traffic flows, design of
highway intersections/interchanges, geometric alignment and design, highway
pavement materials and design, structural design of pavement thickness, and
pavement maintenance.[1]

History
The beginning of road construction could be dated to the time of the Romans.
With the advancement of technology from carriages pulled by two horses to vehicles
[2]

with power equivalent to 100 horses, road development had to follow suit. The
construction of modern highways did not begin until the late 19th to early 20th century.
[2]

The first research dedicated to highway engineering was initiated in the United
Kingdom with the introduction of the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), in 1930.
[2]
In the US, highway engineering became an important discipline with the passing of
the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944, which aimed to connect 90% of cities with a
population of 50,000 or more.[2] With constant stress from vehicles which grew larger
as time passed, improvements to pavements were needed. With technology out of
date, in 1958 the construction of the first motorway in Great Britain (the Preston
bypass) played a major role in the development of new pavement technology.[2]

Planning and development

Highway planning involves the estimation of current and future traffic volumes
on a road network. The Highway planning is also a basic need for the Highway
development. Highway engineers strive to predict and analyze all possible civil
impacts of highway systems. Some considerations are the adverse effects on the
environment, such as noise pollution, air pollution, water pollution, and other
ecological impacts.[3]
Financing
Developed countries are constantly faced with high maintenance cost of aging
transportation highways. The growth of the motor vehicle industry and accompanying
economic growth has generated a demand for safer, better performing, less
congested highways. The growth of commerce, educational institutions, housing, and
defense have largely drawn from government budgets in the past, making the
financing of public highways a challenge.[4]

The multipurpose characteristics of highways, economic environment, and the

advances in highway pricing technology are constantly changing. Therefore, the
approaches to highway financing, management, and maintenance are constantly
changing as well.[5]

Environmental impact assessment

The economic growth of a community is dependent upon highway development
to enhance mobility. However, improperly planned, designed, constructed, and
maintained highways can disrupt the social and economic characteristics of any size
community. Common adverse impacts to highway development include damage of
habitat and bio-diversity, creation of air and water pollution, noise and vibration
generation, damage of natural landscape, and the destruction of a community's social
and cultural structure. Highway infrastructure must be constructed and maintained to
high qualities and standards.[6]

There are three key steps for integrating environmental considerations into the
planning, scheduling, construction, and maintenance of highways. This process is
known as an Environmental Impact Assessment, or EIA, as it systematically deals
with the following elements:[6]

 Identification of the full range of possible impacts on the natural and socio-
economic environment[6]
 Evaluation and quantification of these impacts[6]
 Formulation of measures to avoid, mitigate, and compensate for the
anticipated impacts.[6]
Highway safety
Highway systems generate the highest price in human injury and death, as
nearly 50 million persons are injured in traffic accidents every year, not including the
1.2 million deaths.[7] Road traffic injury is the single leading cause of unintentional
death in the first five decades of human life.[8]

Management of safety is a systematic process that strives to reduce the

occurrence and severity of traffic accidents. The man/machine interaction with road
traffic systems is unstable and poses a challenge to highway safety management. The
key for increasing the safety of highway systems is to design, build, and maintain
them to be far more tolerant of the average range of this man/machine interaction with
highways. Technological advancements in highway engineering have improved the
design, construction, and maintenance methods used over the years. These
advancements have allowed for newer highway safety innovations.[8]

By ensuring that all situations and opportunities are identified, considered, and
implemented as appropriate, they can be evaluated in every phase of highway
planning, design, construction, maintenance, and operation to increase the safety of
our highway systems.[3]
Design

The most appropriate location, alignment, and shape of a highway are selected
during the design stage. Highway design involves the consideration of three major
factors (human, vehicular, and roadway) and how these factors interact to provide a
safe highway. Human factors include reaction time for braking and steering, visual
acuity for traffic signs and signals, and car-following behaviour. Vehicle considerations
include vehicle size and dynamics that are essential for determining lane width and
maximum slopes, and for the selection of design vehicles. Highway engineers design
road geometry to ensure stability of vehicles when negotiating curves and grades and
to provide adequate sight distances for undertaking passing maneuvers along curves
on two-lane, two-way roads.[3]

Geometric design

A typical cross-section drawing of a roadway

Main article: Geometric design of roads

Highway and transportation engineers must meet many safety, service, and
performance standards when designing highways for certain site topography.
Highway geometric design primarily refers to the visible elements of the highways.
Highway engineers who design the geometry of highways must also consider
environmental and social effects of the design on the surrounding infrastructure. [9]

There are certain considerations that must be properly addressed in the design
process to successfully fit a highway to a site's topography and maintain its safety.
Some of these design considerations are:[9]

 Design speed
 Design traffic volume
 Number of lanes
 Level of service (LOS)
 Sight distance
 Alignment, super-elevation, and grades
 Cross section
 Lane width
 Structure gauge, Horizontal and vertical clearance
The operational performance of a highway can be seen through drivers'
reactions to the design considerations and their interaction.[9]
Materials
The materials used for roadway construction have progressed with time, dating back
to the early days of the Roman Empire. Advancements in methods with which these
materials are characterized and applied to pavement structural design has
accompanied this advancement in materials.[10]

There are three major types of pavement surfaces - pavement quality concrete (PQC),
Portland cement concrete (PCC) and hot-mix asphalt (HMA). Underneath this wearing
course are material layers that give structural support for the pavement system. These
underlying surfaces may include either the aggregate base and sub base layers, or
treated base and sub base layers, and additionally the underlying natural or treated
sub grade. These treated layers may be cement-treated, asphalt-treated, or lime-
treated for additional support.[10] New Material

Flexible pavement design

A flexible, or asphalt, or Tarmac pavement typically consists of three or four

layers. For a four layer flexible pavement, there is a surface course, base course, and
subbase course constructed over a compacted, natural soil subgrade. When building
a three layer flexible pavement, the subbase layer is not used and the base course is
placed directly on the natural subgrade.[11]

A flexible pavement's surface layer is constructed of hot-mix asphalt

(HMA).Unstabilized aggregates are typically used for the base course; however, the
base course could also be stabilized with asphalt, Foamed Bitumen,<Roadstone
Recycling> Portland cement, or another stabilizing agent. The subbase is generally
constructed from local aggregate material, while the top of the subgrade is often
stabilized with cement or lime.[11]

With flexible pavement, the highest stress occurs at the surface and the stress
decreases as the depth of the pavement increases. Therefore, the highest quality
material needs to be used for the surface, while lower quality materials can be used
as the depth of the pavement increases. The term "flexible" is used because of the
asphalts ability to bend and deform slightly, then return to its original position as each
traffic load is applied and removed. It is possible for these small deformations to
become permanent, which can lead to rutting in the wheel path over an extended
time.[11]

The service life of a flexible pavement is typically designed in the range of 20 to

30 years.[12] Required thicknesses of each layer of a flexible pavement vary widely
depending on the materials used, magnitude, number of repetitions of traffic loads,
environmental conditions, and the desired service life of the pavement. Factors such
as these are taken into consideration during the design process so that the pavement
will last for the designed life without excessive distresses.[11]

Rigid pavement design

Rigid pavements are generally used in constructing airports and major
highways, such as those in the interstate highway system. In addition, they commonly
serve as heavy-duty industrial floor slabs, port and harbor yard pavements, and
heavy-vehicle park or terminal pavements. Like flexible pavements, rigid highway
pavements are designed as all-weather, long-lasting structures to serve modern day
high-speed traffic. Offering high quality riding surfaces for safe vehicular travel, they
function as structural layers to distribute vehicular wheel loads in such a manner that
the induced stresses transmitted to the subgrade soil are of acceptable magnitudes. [12]

Portland cement concrete (PCC) is the most common material used in the
construction of rigid pavement slabs. The reason for its popularity is due to its
availability and the economy. Rigid pavements must be designed to endure frequently
repeated traffic loadings. The typical designed service life of a rigid pavement is
between 30 and 40 years, lasting about twice as long as a flexible pavement.[12]

One major design consideration of rigid pavements is reducing fatigue failure

due to the repeated stresses of traffic. Fatigue failure is common among major roads
because a typical highway will experience millions of wheel passes throughout its
service life. In addition to design criteria such as traffic loadings, tensile stresses due
to thermal energy must also be taken into consideration. As pavement design has
progressed, many highway engineers have noted that thermally induced stresses in
rigid pavements can be just as intense as those imposed by wheel loadings. Due to
the relatively low tensile strength of concrete, thermal stresses are extremely
important to the design considerations of rigid pavements.[12]

Rigid pavements are generally constructed in three layers - a prepared

subgrade, base or subbase, and a concrete slab. The concrete slab is constructed
according to a designed choice of plan dimensions for the slab panels, directly
influencing the intensity of thermal stresses occurring within the pavement. In addition
to the slab panels, temperature reinforcements must be designed to control cracking
behavior in the slab. Joint spacing is determined by the slab panel dimensions.[12]

Three main types of concrete pavements commonly used are jointed plain
concrete pavement (JPCP), jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP), and
continuously reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP). JPCPs are constructed with
contraction joints which direct the natural cracking of the pavement. These pavements
do not use any reinforcing steel. JRCPs are constructed with both contraction joints
and reinforcing steel to control the cracking of the pavement. High temperatures and
moisture stresses within the pavement creates cracking, which the reinforcing steel
holds tightly together. At transverse joints, dowel bars are typically placed to assist
with transferring the load of the vehicle across the cracking. CRCPs solely rely on
continuous reinforcing steel to hold the pavement's natural transverse cracks
together. Prestressed concrete pavements have also been used in the construction of
highways; however, they are not as common as the other three. Prestressed
pavements allow for a thinner slab thickness by partly or wholly neutralizing thermally
induced stresses or loadings.[12]

Flexible pavement overlay design

Over the service life of a flexible pavement, accumulated traffic loads may
cause excessive rutting or cracking, inadequate ride quality, or an inadequate skid
resistance. These problems can be avoided by adequately maintaining the pavement,
but the solution usually has excessive maintenance costs, or the pavement may have
an inadequate structural capacity for the projected traffic loads.[13]

Throughout a highway's life, its level of serviceability is closely monitored and

maintained. One common method used to maintain a highway's level of serviceability
is to place an overlay on the pavement's surface.[13]

There are three general types of overlay used on flexible pavements: asphalt-concrete
overlay, Portland cement concrete overlay, and ultra-thin Portland cement concrete
overlay. The concrete layer in a conventional PCC overlay is placed unbonded on top
of the flexible surface. The typical thickness of an ultra-thin PCC overlay is 4 inches
(10 cm) or less.[13]

There are two main categories of flexible pavement overlay design procedures:[13]

 Component analysis design

 Deflection-based design
Rigid pavement overlay design

Near the end of a rigid pavement's service life, a decision must be made to
either fully reconstruct the worn pavement, or construct an overlay layer. Considering
an overlay can be constructed on a rigid pavement that has not reached the end of its
service life, it is often more economically attractive to apply overlay layers more
frequently. The required overlay thickness for a structurally sound rigid pavement is
much smaller than for one that has reached the end of its service life. Rigid and
flexible overlays are both used for rehabilitation of rigid pavements such as JPCP,
JRCP, and CRCP.[14]

There are three subcategories of rigid pavement overlays that are organized
depending on the bonding condition at the pavement overlay and existing slab
interface.[14]

 Bonded overlays
 Unbonded overlays
 Partially bonded overlays
Drainage system design

Designing for proper drainage of highway systems is crucial to their success. A

highway should be graded and built to remain "high and dry".[15] Regardless of how
well other aspects of a road are designed and constructed, adequate drainage is
mandatory for a road to survive its entire service life. Excess water in the highway
structure can inevitably lead to premature failure, even if the failure is not catastrophic.
[16]

Each highway drainage system is site-specific and can be very complex.

Depending on the geography of the region, many methods for proper drainage may
not be applicable. The highway engineer must determine which situations a particular
design process should be applied, usually a combination of several appropriate
methods and materials to direct water away from the structure.[16] Pavement
subsurface drainage, and underdrains help provide extended life and excellent and
reliable pavement performance.[17] Excessive moisture under a concrete pavement can
cause pumping, cracking, and joint failure.

Erosion control is a crucial component in the design of highway drainage

systems. Surface drainage must be allowed for precipitation to drain away from the
structure. Highways must be designed with a slope or crown so that runoff water will
be directed to the shoulder of the road, into a ditch, and away from the site. Designing
a drainage system requires the prediction of runoff and infiltration, open channel
analysis, and culvert design for directing surface water to an appropriate location.[16]

Construction, maintenance, and

management

Highway construction

Highway construction is generally preceded by detailed surveys and subgrade

preparation.[3] The methods and technology for constructing highways has evolved
over time and become increasingly sophisticated. This advancement in technology
has raised the level of skill sets required to manage highway construction projects.
This skill varies from project to project, depending on factors such as the project's
complexity and nature, the contrasts between new construction and reconstruction,
and differences between urban region and rural region projects.[18]

There are a number of elements of highway construction which can be broken

up into technical and commercial elements of the system. [18] Some examples of each
are listed below:

 Technical elements
 Materials
 Material quality
 Installation techniques
 Traffic

 Commercial elements
 Contract understanding
 Environmental aspects
 Political aspects
 Legal aspects
 Public concerns
Typically, construction begins at the lowest elevation of the site, regardless of
the project type, and moves upward. By reviewing the geotechnical specifications of
the project, information is given about:[18]

Existing ground conditions


Required equipment for excavation, grading, and material transportation to

and from the site
 Properties of materials to be excavated
 Dewatering requirements necessary for below-grade work
 Shoring requirements for excavation protection
 Water quantities for compaction and dust control
Subbase course construction

A subbase course is a layer designed of carefully selected materials that is

located between the subgrade and base course of the pavement. The subbase
thickness is generally in the range of 4 to 16 inches, and it is designed to withstand
the required structural capacity of the pavement section.[18]

Common materials used for a highway subbase include gravel, crushed stone,
or subgrade soil that is stabilized with cement, fly ash, or lime. Permeable subbase
courses are becoming more prevalent because of their ability to drain infiltrating water
from the surface. They also prevent subsurface water from reaching the pavement
surface.[18]

When local material costs are excessively expensive or the material

requirements to increase the structural bearing of the sub-base are not readily
available, highway engineers can increase the bearing capacity of the underlying soil
by mixing in Portland cement, foamed asphalt, or use polymer soil stabilization such
as cross-linking styrene acrylic polymer that increases the California Bearing Ratio of
in-situ materials by a factor 4 – 6.[19]

Base course construction

 The base course is the region of the pavement section that is located directly
under the surface course. If there is a subbase course, the base course is constructed
directly about this layer. Otherwise, it is built directly on top of the subgrade. Typical
base course thickness ranges from 4 to 6 inches and is governed by underlying layer
properties.[18]

Heavy loads are continuously applied to pavement surfaces, and the base
layer absorbs the majority of these stresses. Generally, the base course is
constructed with an untreated crushed aggregate such as crushed stone, slag, or
gravel. The base course material will have stability under the construction traffic and
good drainage characteristics.[18]

The base course materials are often treated with cement, bitumen, calcium
chloride, sodium chloride, fly ash, or lime. These treatments provide improved support
for heavy loads, frost susceptibility, and serves as a moisture barrier between the
base and surface layers.[18]

Surface course construction

There are two most commonly used types of pavement surfaces used in
highway construction: hot-mix asphalt and Portland cement concrete. These
pavement surface courses provide a smooth and safe riding surface, while
simultaneously transferring the heavy traffic loads through the various base courses
and into the underlying subgrade soils.[18]
Hot-mix asphalt layers

Hot-mix asphalt surface courses are referred to as flexible pavements. The

Superpave System was developed in the late 1980s and has offered changes to the
design approach, mix design, specifications, and quality testing of materials.[18]

The construction of an effective, long-lasting asphalt pavement requires an

experienced construction crew, committed to their work quality and equipment control.
[18]

Construction issues:

 Asphalt mix segregation

 Laydown
 Compaction
 Joints
A prime coat is a low viscosity asphalt that is applied to the base course prior to
laying the HMA surface course. This coat bonds loose material, creating a cohesive
layer between the base course and asphalt surface.[18]

A tack coat is a low viscosity asphalt emulsion that is used to create a bond
between an existing pavement surface and new asphalt overlay. Tack coats are
typically applied on adjacent pavements (curbs) to assist the bonding of the HMA and
concrete.
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
 Portland cement concrete surface courses are referred to as rigid pavements,
or concrete pavements. There are three general classifications of concrete pavements
- jointed plain, jointed reinforced, and continuously reinforced.[18]

Traffic loadings are transferred between sections when larger aggregates in the
PCC mix inter-lock together, or through load transfer devices in the transverse joints
of the surface. Dowel bars are used as load-transferring devices to efficiently transfer
loads across transverse joints while maintaining the joint's horizontal and vertical
alignment. Tie-bars are deformed steel bars that are placed along longitudinal joints to
hold adjacent pavement sections in place.[18]

Highway maintenance

A U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) worker inspects a washout in

the shoulder of West Virginia Route 150.
The overall purpose of highway maintenance is to fix defects and preserve the
pavement's structure and serviceability. Defects must be defined, understood, and
recorded in order to create an appropriate maintenance plan. Maintenance planning is
solving an optimisation problem and it can be predictive. In predictive
maintenance planning empirical, data-driven methods give more accurate results than
mechanical models.[20] Defects differ between flexible and rigid pavements.[21]

There are four main objectives of highway maintenance:

 repair of functional pavement defects

 extend the functional and structural service life of the pavement
 maintain road safety and signage
 keep road reserve in acceptable condition

Through routine maintenance practices, highway systems and all of their components
can be maintained to their original, as-built condition.[21]

Project management
 Project management involves the organization and structuring of project
activities from inception to completion. Activities could be the construction of
infrastructure such as highways and bridges or major and minor maintenance
activities related to constructing such infrastructure. The entire project and involved
activities must be handled in a professional manner and completed within deadlines
and budget. In addition, minimizing social and environmental impacts is essential to
successful project management.[22]