 Living cells require energy from outside sources ◼ adenine (a nitrogenous base) • ADP (Adenosine Di-Phosphate)- Contains an Adenosine,

(Adenosine Di-Phosphate)- Contains an Adenosine, a ribose

 Some animals, such as the giant panda, obtain energy group, and two Phosphate groups.
by eating plants, and some animals feed on other ◼ Three phosphate groups
organisms that eat plants
 Energy flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and leaves
as heat THE ATP CYCLE
 Photosynthesis generates O2 and organic molecules, •The bonds between the phosphate groups of ATP’s tail can be
which are used in cellular respiration broken by hydrolysis • ATP can be produced from existing ADP molecules
Cells use chemical energy stored in organic molecules
•Energy is released from ATP when the terminal phosphate bond • A phosphate is added to ADP at the mitochondria.
to regenerate ATP, which powers work
is broken
• Requires ATP synthase - A protein complex in the mitochondria
•This Third Phosphate bond contains LOTS of Energy that acts a molecular mill and converts ADP into ATP.
ADENOSINE TRI-PHOSPHATE (ATP)
•This release of energy comes from the chemical change to a state
 ATP is the energy unit of the cell. of lower free energy, not from the phosphate bonds themselves
SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP
 ATP is composed of an Adeno. Group, a sugar group
and three phosphates.
• Sodium potassium pump- helps regulate the balance of sodium
 ATP is easily recycled.
HOW ATP PERFORMS WORK and potassium ions inside and outside of your cells.
 The cell converts Adenosine Di-Phosphate (ADP) into
ATP by the addition of a phosphate • The three types of cellular work are: • ATP is a renewable resource that is regenerated by addition of a
phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
•ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to ◼ mechanical
endergonic reactions •Requires ATP synthase and H ions (from water.)
◼ transport
A cell does three main kinds of work:  The energy to phosphorylate ADP comes from catabolic
◼ chemical reactions in the cell.
◼ Chemical
 The chemical potential energy temporarily stored in
• Each is powered by the hydrolysis of ATP ATP can then be used to drive most cellular work.
◼ Transport
• In the cell, the energy from the exergonic reaction of ATP PHOTOSYNTHESIS : Light dependent Reaction and Light
◼ Mechanical hydrolysis can be used to drive an endergonic reaction Independent Reaction
• To do work, cells manage energy resources by energy coupling,
the use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one PHOSPHORYLATION Photosynthesis is the process by which plants (and some other
•Most energy coupling in cells is mediated by ATP
organisms) capture light energy from the sun and convert it into
• ATP drives endergonic reactions by phosphorylation, transferring chemical energy stored in glucose (sugar). This sugar fuels the
a phosphate group to some other molecule, such as a reactant organism's growth and development. Photosynthesis can be
ATP broken down into two main stages:
•The recipient molecule is now phosphorylated

•ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the cell’s energy shuttle 1. Light-Dependent Reactions: These reactions require sunlight
• The process of Phosphorylation converts a relatively low energy
• ATP is composed of: directly to capture and convert light energy into usable forms.
compound (ADP) into a higher energy compound (ATP)

◼ ribose (a sugar) 2. Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle): These reactions do

not require direct sunlight but utilize the products from the light-
dependent reactions to fix carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic  Excited electron in PSI jumps to a higher energy level. Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and
molecules (glucose).  The electron cycles back to PSI, not reaching PSII. processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert
 Energy released is used to pump protons across the biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate
thylakoid membrane. (ATP), and then release waste products.

LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS (INSIDE The THYLAKOID): 4. ATP Synthesis (Chemiosmosis): Glycolysis

Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract energy from glucose
Location: Occur within the thylakoid membrane, a series of  Protons pumped across the thylakoid membrane by splitting it into two three-carbon molecules called pyruvates.
flattened sacs inside chloroplasts. create a concentration gradient.
 Protons flow back through ATP synthase, a channel 1. Energy-requiring phase
Main Function: Capture light energy and convert it into ATP protein, using the energy to phosphorylate ADP into
(adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine ATP. 2. Energy-releasing phase
dinucleotide phosphate), the cell's energy currency and electron
carrier, respectively. Stages in cellular respiration

Photosystems: Protein complexes containing chlorophyll (light- LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS (CALVIN CYCLE) (STROMA): 1. Glycolysis (in the cytoplasm):
absorbing pigment) that initiate the reactions. There are two main
photosystems: Photosystem II (PSII) and Photosystem I (PSI). Location: Occur in the stroma, the fluid-filled region outside the  This is the "sugar splitting" phase. A glucose molecule
thylakoids within the chloroplast. (6 carbons) is broken down into two pyruvate
Electron Transport Chain: A series of protein complexes that molecules (3 carbons each).
transfer high-energy electrons, ultimately leading to ATP Main Function: Utilize ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent  Some ATP is produced here, but the main yield is a
production. reactions to fix CO2 into organic molecules (glucose). small amount of ATP and energy carriers like NADH.

Water: Source of electrons and oxygen gas (byproduct). Rubisco: Enzyme that "fixes" CO2 by attaching it to a five-carbon 2. Pyruvate Oxidation (in the mitochondrial matrix):
sugar (ribulose bisphosphate - RuBP).
Stages:  Pyruvate from glycolysis undergoes a transformation,
G3P (Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate): Three-carbon sugar molecule, losing a carbon atom as CO2 and capturing an energy
1. Light Absorption: Photosystems (PSI and PSII) absorb specific a key intermediate in the cycle carrier (FAD).
wavelengths of sunlight, exciting electrons in chlorophyll
molecules. Stages: 3. Krebs Cycle (in the mitochondrial matrix):

2. Linear Electron Flow (PSII): 1. Carbon Fixation: CO2 enters the cycle and reacts with RuBP  The remaining 2-carbon molecule (acetyl CoA) enters
through Rubisco to form an unstable six-carbon molecule. the cycle.
 Excited electron in PSII jumps to a higher energy level.  Through a series of reactions, it's fully broken down to
 Water is split (photolysis) to replace the lost electron 2. Reduction: The unstable molecule is split into two G3Ps using CO2, with energy carriers (NADH and FADH2)
and release oxygen gas (O2) as a byproduct. ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions. produced.
 The high-energy electron is passed through the
electron transport chain, releasing energy used to 3. Regeneration: Some G3Ps are used to build glucose. The 4. Oxidative Phosphorylation (electron transport chain) (in the
pump protons across the thylakoid membrane. remaining G3Ps are rearranged back into RuBP to keep the cycle mitochondrial inner membrane):
going.
 This is where the majority of ATP is generated!
 The high-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2 are
3. Cyclic Electron Flow (PSI): (Can occur simultaneously with linear passed through a chain of protein complexes.
flow) CELLULAR RESPIRATION  As electrons flow, protons are pumped across the
membrane, creating a concentration gradient.
 LLocation: Occurs within the mitochondrial matrix (the inner space through a channel protein (ATP synthase) using the energy to
of the mitochondrion). phosphorylate ADP into ATP (chemiosmosis).
Aerobic Respiration
Process: Pyruvate from glycolysis undergoes a transformation, Produced/ Yield: This stage is responsible for most of the ATP
 Aerobic respiration is the primary method cells use to losing a carbon atom as CO2 and capturing another energy carrier production in aerobic respiration.
generate ATP, the cell's energy currency. It relies on (FADH2).
oxygen (aerobic) to completely break down glucose Anaerobic Respiration
and other nutrients for maximum energy harvest. Produced/yield : No ATP is produced here, but an additional
energy carrier is formed.  Anaerobic respiration functions without oxygen.
Steps:  Anaerobic respiration allows cells to survive in low-
3. Krebs Cycle (Mitochondrial Matrix): oxygen environments.
1. Glycolysis (Cytoplasm):  It has various applications in industries like food
Location: Takes place within the mitochondrial matrix. production (fermentation in yogurt, cheese, beer, etc.).
 Some organisms, like certain bacteria, solely rely on
Process: The remaining 2-carbon molecule (acetyl CoA) joins the anaerobic respiration.
Location: Happens outside the mitochondria, in the cytoplasm. cycle, a series of reactions that completely break it down to CO2.  Anaerobic respiration produces significantly less ATP
compared to aerobic respiration (around 2 ATP per
Process: Glucose is broken down into two pyruvate molecules Produced/yield: More energy carriers (NADH and FADH2) are glucose).
(each with 3 carbons). produced here.  It generates waste products like lactate or ethanol,
which can have negative effects if allowed to
Produced/yield: A small amount of ATP and NADH (energy carrier) 4. Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain)
accumulate.
are produced here. (Mitochondrial Inner Membrane):
 Types of Anaerobic Respiration:
>Lactic Acid Fermentation: Pyruvate is converted into
Location: This crucial stage occurs in the inner membrane of the
lactate (lactic acid). This process is used in muscle cells
mitochondrion.
during strenuous exercise, causing muscle fatigue.
> Alcoholic Fermentation: Pyruvate is converted into
Process: This is where the majority of ATP is generated, and it
ethanol and CO2. This process is used by yeast in
requires oxygen. High-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2
brewing and bread making.
are passed through a chain of protein complexes embedded in the
2. Pyruvate Oxidation (Mitochondrial Matrix): membrane. As electrons flow, protons are pumped across the
membrane, creating a concentration gradient. Protons flow back