Construction of the Race in the United States

Madalyn Dawson

Grand Canyon University

HIST 565

July 20, 2022

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Construction of Race in the United States

Abstract

The human population is segmented into various categories that make them

identifiable as discriminatory levels and differentiation structures such as race. 1 For a long

time, the United States has had race as a framework for segmenting the population and this is

also seen in Europe as well as other regions, where there is an imbalance in racial

distribution. Over the centuries, researchers, scholars, and historians have expounded on

what was known as the “international hierarchy of races, colors, cultures, and religion” a

historical description that was termed by Michel-Rolph Trouillot. In the description of the

phrase in which scholars regard the period in which Africa, ‘the new world’, the pacific, and

Asia were politically organized, mapped encountered and found themselves on the road to

slavery, colonialism as well as being renamed and politically dominated. The whole process

shows clear paths to which race was the construction of people, defining and segmenting the

population accordingly. Therefore, in the process there rose new labels and identities that

ranked races, some of the identifiable races include the Negro, Mullato, Indian, ‘half-caste,

white, the “alpine, and Oriental among others that had specific identities according to the

skin color.2 Until today most of this race culminated in the United States making a social

construction that can be distinguished. The race in the United and hence globally have over

time gained verifiable details in terms of numbers, currency, regions of residence, popular

occupations, precision and assumed acceptability with their nature .

1 Busey CL, Cruz BC. Who is Afro-Latin@? Examining the social construction of race and négritude in Latin America and the
Caribbean. Social Education. 2017 Jan 1;81(1):37-42.
2 Omi M, Winant H. Blinded by sight: The racial body and the origins of the social construction of race. Law & Social Inquiry.
2016;41(4):1062-8.
 3

From history, it is possible to deduce the root of racial segregation, the characteristics

within which they live and to what extreme extent they present unique human characteristics

either biological or non-biological.3 For us to understand race properly, it is possible to

historize the chapter through the past and the future. In this paper, we need to understand a

plethora of analyses of why races were ranked from the hierarchy of superiority to

inferiority, especially in the United States. The hierarchy of races has been challenged by

many, particularly the white superiority complex. It is time that we understand if it is

scientifically affirmed, hence its resistance to the destruction of there are elements that need

to be uprooted.4 Because in the United States and globally racial conflict among other social

segmentation is a leading cause of conflict, violence, and turbulence associated with it within

the community. Racial segmentation goes deep into human emotion, taking shape in terms

of human dignity, worth, and personhood which are enormous which the human appeal and

personality.

For instance, we examine the beginning of racism from the Europeans. What was

their purpose? It can be concluded that racial roots and growth lie in something like the

desire to dominate, conquer, dispossess, impost forced transportation, and the ultimate

economic exploitation of other human beings’ organizations.

3 Gregory S, Sanjek R, editors. Race. Rutgers University Press; 1994.

4 Omi and Winant, 1063.
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Introduction

European expansion can be regarded as one of the fundamental ways that led to the

infiltration of the white into parts of the world that belong to the “inferior’ races. 5 But again,

according to some scholars, the dominated races might have a hand in inviting the superior

races into their territory and particularly their lives either politically, or economically. As we

expedite the journey of finding out the construction of race in the regions, it is however

bewildering that come centuries have legacies and a million people who would still until

today invite and accept inherited racial categories and firmly believe that they are fixed in

nature to occur. Therefore, according to them, the system of inequalities has the basis of the

differentiation that is justifiable. Popular political analysts believe that race is not practiced

due to the availability of heuristics that promote racial patterns and categories but also the

ideas in which we position ourselves into. Therefore, this paper will offer compared reasons

why the American people have the perception of racial inequalities being part of their

natures, instead of leaning that it may also be an idea instilled into someone’s head.

Therefore, American today can be concluded that is misguided to a misconception of

superiority and inferiority, and redirecting such mentality require legal frameworks and

representations.6 If logic and scientific cognition is brought into consideration it is obvious

that intersectionality and the larger part of descriptive race theory by scholars are confined to

scholars through corporate America, the current K-12 education system and the basic social

foundations of the society.7 Although bigotry is popular and almost in most parts of the

5 Obach BK. Demonstrating the social construction of race. Teaching Sociology. 1999 Jul 1;27(3):252-7
6 Hall (Ed) Culture, media, language: Working papers in cultural studies, 1972–79. London: Hutchinson
7 Busey and Cruz, 39.
 5

country, these perceptions and continuous push for these ideas into new people of different

races coming to America and particularly the children learning through their education

system have been indulged to think that racial inequality is a natural trait and this makes

unavoidable and unstoppable and perhaps just a good thing to live with. The spread of such

mentality as well the bigotry perception has made an impact in increasing racial

discrimination in the countries and that forms the basic components in which racial segments

were developed. Although data and its analysis predict otherwise it’s evident an increase in

racism chronologically is inevitable. It is known that in the past and in the period in which

slavery and later world wars become the most visible forms of promoting discrimination

produced high racial figures in terms of cases, there is more racism than there was long ago.

Technological advancement and increased speedy socialization interaction through social

media platforms, digital media, and also physical interaction has made it rampant in the

larger part of the world. Different scholars believe that American tension to heal racism will

require that people go the extra mile of accepting the reality of the matter of racism

influencing our being, and if we apply moral objectives to the conscience perhaps it can be

exterminated.

How Race Was Constructed and Its Impact on The American.

According to researchers in America today, the identification of race, and

consequently the learning about cultural differences between different communities hence

races promote differentiation between people who have any form of differences in their

nature, for instance, race.8 Races such as African Americans, European Americans, Native

8 Kaufmann, 2021.
 6

Americans, Asians, Latinas, and Latinos among other races become hard to distinguish in

our midst incases cases of infiltration, and intermarriages intercultural exchanges arise. The

inception of the race in America is therefore a very sensitive topic in the United States that

breeds emotion and perception that further derail contracts and individuals or a social

system.

The social construction of race has its foundation built on different facets of life such

as economic perspectives, social perspectives, legal affairs, and sociopolitical bound

derivatives although we may understand that these are not the actual causes and

consequences of racial-related of our society today. 9 In America, in the 1700s, the 1800s up

to the mid-1900s or early, the major impact of racial inequalities and identification was a

matter of state laws. Each state had its perception and legal ways of handling racism, its

inception and its impact on its community. While other communities in the form of state

disputed grievances on racial inequality others considered and aimed at promoting human

dignity in the social constraints. It was obvious that some states allowed you to be black, the

definition of black mattered and if you crossed to another state the story of black changed,

and either absorption or rejection followed. Some scholars offered the different positions of

black and descriptions. For instance, in some states, “if you were black because you looked

black or acted black you were categorized as black”. 10 In other states, “if you had half of

your blood black because or acted entirely and half black because of family, say one parent is

black the other is not, you were regarded as black”. Or also if you had black genes running

9 Kaufmann, 2021.
10 Hubert, and K. Thompson (Eds.) Modernity: An introduction to modern societies. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
 7

through your veins or just a drop of blood in you, you were considered black. This

identification formed the basis of being considered black or not and hence the segmentation

of races such as black versus white or Asian Indians vs American Indians. The list of

identification between races cognitively did not stop there at only identifying them also

segmented people into racial cocoons that have provided them with an identity of where to

live, which jobs to do, business, and how much they even buy items in the market places.

The dimension of race and its construction in America was constructed by those who

wanted social dichotomies that led to different attention and power of coexistence between

the white and the black, one as inferior and the other superior. 11 This was following the

history of slavery where the blacks had been suppressed and therefore tried to show their

ability and their desire to be free and exploit their potential freely. On the other hand, the

whites wanted continuity of the dominance that had existed through colonialism and slavery.

Naturally, a social construct doesn’t have basics, but it is formed on a distinctive artificial

world that humans have constructed with their aim, ego, and desire to rule and dominate in

different facets of life. For instance, throughout the conflict between races, the Naturalization

act of the 1790s limited United States Citizenship to only whites. Therefore, any other color

of skin that inhabited the area was not considered. By that time the whites were represented

by Americans, that is natives and Europeans. Consequently, the Jim Crow laws followed and

it was evident that whites and blacks were not to be given equal opportunity, because in the

perception they were not equal in various perspectives such as thinking, origin, pride, and

right to inhabit America.12 These laws operated from the 1877s onwards made racism and

11 Hubert and Thompson (Eds.)

12 Kaufmann, 2021.
 8

separation between the black and white more evident. Therefore, in the study of racial

construction in the United States, it has never and or will never be based on natural causes of

human beings being black or white but it was an artificial creation by human cause. For

instance, the Anti-Irish sentiment as also known as hibernophobia stated the inclusion of

bigotry, oppression, racism, persecution, and discrimination. In particular, the Polish and the

Italians were not considered purely white. This led to discrimination and mistreatment

amongst white themselves. Therefore, race was not constructed naturally; it is an individual

decision to hate another individual based on understanding, wishes, and what they see in that

individual’s race.13 With time they advance and expand their ego to hate a whole lot because

of their artificial constructed hate and misjudgment.

The race was not individually constructed but a social construct. Individuals have

perceptions, thoughts, and feelings but they don’t get to know their identity unless social or

communityally promoted. An individual in America if born black and raised in a society

showing them differences between whites and the black will therefore adjust and pick up

sides that favor their belonging, the identity. In an American setting, the race is not a way of

constructing an identity for an individual or it can be identified as a white (Caucasian) it is

generally being American as defined by laws through birth or registration. Although race has

been concluded by most scholars on being a social construct, they also agree with the fact

that racism is real, and it materializes to discriminate against people objectively through

housing projects discrimination, policing practices, legal practices, education, social and

13 Khanna N, Harris CA. Teaching race as a social construction: Two interactive class exercises. Teaching Sociology.
2009 Oct;37(4):369-78
 9

economic facts such as justice and employments among other domains that hold the fabrics

of the society.

Some of the major factors that have been identified to be causes of racial

discrimination and the construction of the racial lines were the social theories and formations

of the past that can be applied in the current American society although are minimal and

unconvincing. Omi and Winant’s theories of sociology in racial formations define race as a

“socially constructed identity with the society that aims to justify ethnocentrism”. 14

Ethnocentrism cannot be an individual effort, but rather a social construct, some agenda, and

desire that is motivated with passion and objectivity of dominance. What defines the social

composition as a society is a clariid by the sociologist theories in the form of guidelines to

our expectations. If it’s about ambitions and expectations, how does it end up in

discrimination or marginalization? The analysis of Omi and Winant suggests that when our

expectations are “violated, inhibited or mutilated or even suppressed it develops a discomfort

within us hence the desire to eliminate the perpetrator”. In other words, our feeling about the

“failure of expectation betrays us, and yields a reaction that is preconceived to the notions of

racialized socialized structure”. Therefore, it is appropriate that the white in America,

especially the native whites, had the right to discriminate against the blacks in America who

can utilize their resources and inhabit their surroundings without submissiveness. In

conclusion, Omi and Winant had a convincing persuasion on the inception of hate,

discrimination, and violence between the white and other races such as blacks or Asian

because their expectation was betrayed.15

14 Omi and Winant, 1062-8.
15 Omi and Winant, 1062-8.
 10

Cultural theorists and sociologists such as Stuart McPhail Hall who was Jamaican-

born and came to reside in the United States believed that the definition of racism was based

only on color yet the color of the skin is not fixed at all. Stuart Hall died in 2014 after years

of being a professor of sociology at the Open University of London and his legacy remains to

be in his identity and definitions that relate culture to the significant development of race,

and society. According to Stuart Hall, culture is a signifier that remains an unrestricted

significance of culture. In simple words, the analysis of Stuart Hall is to believe in the

analogy that culture and race are interdependent in society. 16 The race is a rambling fact of

construct that can work as language as a tool. In representation, race is a signifier that can be

used to impose other suggestions and interactions within the society. Well, cultural groups

have specific ways in which they can view, consider, and signify the social construct of race

over time. Therefore, it keeps changing with time, and perhaps the foundational hope of that

cultural group will decide on the fate of racial differences within a society with several races.

Also, and basically, the definition of color (identification) floats on the scale of interpretation

as it is known by the members of the cultural group. Therefore, the different perspectives

would yield different meanings of color. 17 That is perhaps evident in American society

today, that a certain culture, tribe, or community would have high cases of discrimination

against a particular group higher than other groups. For instance, the hate between native

white toward African Americans is higher compared to native Americans towards Asians. In

general, the interpretation and though understanding of the differences between skin colors

and their tribe is the basic foundation of race as a discriminatory agent in society.

16 Hall (Ed) Culture, media, language: Working papers in cultural studies, 1972–79. London: Hutchinson
17 Omi and Winant, 1062-8.
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According to Stuart Hall, the race is looked at in three positions. The first stage is the

position of reality and is hardly disputable because it proposes that racial differences are born

from the fact that we are composed of genetic adversities. 18 The second position according

to Hall is the linguistic niche. In this category, the sociologist believes that there are no

differences in races that are real. A human being only creates differences in language and

culture and associates them with race. The position is the discursive position by Stuart Hall.

Hall believes that there are much more differences in humans and when these differences are

organized, and sometimes influenced by a language they create a substantial meaning that

can be convincing and if assimilated into a culture such as racism. 19 They become a common

feature, an identity that humans can use to categorize each other. In other words, it becomes

a culture. This position, therefore, is inclusive of the idea that differences don’t cease to exist

in the world amongst humans which is unique and possibly undisputable. 20 But what matters

most is how human beings make use of their differences to give meaning to a social

construct.

Stuart Hall also focused on the impact that knowledge and power have to race through

representation and interpretation of racial differences. The scholar believes that the racial

categorization and classification of racial systems have a history that is repeated over and

over. Although the impact of racial individuality is minor, our cognitive perception of race is

a reality. From the ancient existence of the renaissance, the race has developed to be a

signifier of world centrism.21 As time goes by the perception keeps developing and cases

18 Other footnotes
19 Omi and Winant, 1062-8.
20 Hall (Ed), 1972–79.
21
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increasing over time, compared to the past, this creates significant differences with the world

population. Historically, the individual differences and consequent classification of humans

were linked to a religion, this was explained through a religious discourse, 22 but with time

Hall believes that anthropology and modern science took over. From the reports of Hall, we

can conclude that races exist and are cognitively a reality. Also, differences such as racial

differences exist naturally such as caused by genetic formation, they are unavoidable and

indisputable. Then conclusively we grow into cultures that construct us to whomever they

want developing a language that pushes the agenda, and the identity further to develop a

certain pattern and identity such as race, and that form the construction of the race process. 23

Hall suggested that human differences although volatile and present discrepancies

within a culture do not act as certainties of evidence, they aim primarily to make someone

feel better, which enables one to identify and comprehend where they belong in the social

construct. We cannot say that racism is good, but the existence of races is basic segmentation

or rather classification that promotes order in the process of civilization. 24 Civilization

makes the world better, habitable, and undisruptive through minor differences. because they

can be accommodated within a civilized world. The concepts of anthropology, theology, and

modern science and technology are in the front to defend and fix human differences and also

promote revelation on the differences that existed in the past historically.

Hall was versatile and detailed in the analysis of the social construction of race to an

extent that he used the analogy of scientific differences in the composition of a human body

22 Hubert and Thompson (Eds.)

23 Hubert and Thompson (Eds.)

24 Hall (Ed), 1972–79.
 13

vis a vis the existence of color differences. Like racial differences are interpreted through

color variance, human bodies have different bones, and hair overpopulation in the world and

that signifies diversity.25 In simple words, Hall equated the differences in races as

fundamental as hair and bones. The genetic codes are in trial to mend the disparity. Hall also

introduces perspectives on subjects that people cannot see within those differences such as

character, aptitude, and uprightness.26

The scholar believes that human cultures are made purposely to lean to nature and this

gives them a leeway to function metonymically. The genetic and phonetic differences make

race a signifier in the biology of science and that makes a lot of sense to people. Genetics and

phenetics are biological factors and traits that are substantial to differences in color, bones,

and hair in humans.27 All these characteristics appear in the field of vision and that makes us

believe in seeing as believing. In the United States today, people will make conclusions

about your race when they see you and that will be regarded as your identity. If there is any

form of disagreement between your race and theirs, they will channel the violence, abuse,

and discriminatory agents toward you. That forms the beginning of social construct,

differences, and segmentation within the area.

In the end, Hall requested that anthropologists and other humans who have a clear

knowledge of races and their impact on society should focus on the meanings. Meanings will

reveal the implication for humans and that is what is important for the moment. But if you

focus on traits and variations, it will be difficult to understand the nature of differences in

25 Other footnotes
26 Hall (Ed), 1972–79.
27 Khanna N, Harris CA. Teaching race as a social construction: Two interactive class exercises. Teaching Sociology.
2009 Oct;37(4):369-78.
 14

humans which is natural. Social disparities can be fixed purposely, and the nature to which

they occur can be fabricated through persuasive dialogue but can only be fixed if they are the

most prevailing feature of humans.28

Methodologies and Racial Theories

An analysis of several data sources in response to the critical race theory would be

completed through surveys conducted on the perception of race in the United States. The

surveys included interviews and a thorough evaluation of data sources especially those that

are attributed to anthropology, theology, and sociology scholars. In the research conducted it

was evident scholars based on the paradox that the perception of racism is changing faster

than the aspect of racial incidents themselves. Racial prejudice has made a more evident

impact in the fact that ideology, partisanship, and social media are giving society a lot of

opportunities to experience their ideas, feelings, and intent more rapidly. 29 The truth of these

findings not only equates to the high incidences but also to the level of experience that

individuals have within the society. However, some scholars believe that the experiences of

racism are cognitively influenced and ideologically channeled. For example, the idea of

having high cases of racism during the Trump era is more inclined to the perception rather

than reality. It is possible because just like people have been reporting an increase in the

number of crimes yet they have been reducing in the past 30 years. 30 Therefore, the

perception within the population can also contribute to actual cases, or give room to those

intended to promote the act. For instance, during President Trump’s era, he made remarks

28 Omi and Winant, 1062-8.

29 Omi and Winant, 1062-8.
30 Kaufmann, 2021.
 15

that dissociated him from antiracism especially the black versus the whites. That alone gave

the whole country a leeway to have the perception of increased racism. According to some

scholars, racism and discrimination are not the most impactful socially constructed violence,

a study showed that people who have experienced racism are half the number of those who

are sad or anxious in society.31

Eight in ten African Americans survey interviews suggest that young black men are

more likely to be shot to death by police or by whites than to die in road accidents. Only one

disagrees. If the sample involved highly liberated and educated White Americans, six out the

ten agreed with the report’s research findings. The ideology influences how many people are

shot in racism than in reality. In this case, the conservative white is almost half correct that

the white liberalists. This is to say, according to findings, that black Biden voters would

accept that they experienced racism more under President Trump than they did under

President Obama, it is perception. Black voters of President Trump reported a consistent

report on the experiences of racism they faced under the two administrations. African-

American respondents to the study would say that white republicans have racially abused

them at a lower rate than African-Americans who disagree that Republicans abused them

racial or personal accounts.

Author and sociologist Ta-Nehisi Coates wrote an article on the racial situation in the

United States, stating most black Americans have control over their lives, this led to a

reduction in the percentage of how much control of their lives black people have in the

United States.32 The findings above do not mean that racism is an imaginary issue in society.

31 Other references
32 Gregory S, Sanjek R, editors. Race. Rutgers University Press; 1994
 16

It is only the proposed solution to the problem that should be based on very strong empirical

evidence that is biased by perceptions.33

Conclusion

From history, it is possible to deduce the root of racial segregation, the characteristics

within which they live and to what extreme extent they present unique human characteristics

either biological or non-biological. The consequence of avoiding dealing with racism is a

high rise in injustices. Injustice cases are known and permitted to grow persistently. As long

it exists, its dangers become clear due to its overstating presence. The kind of misconception

that the media-generated information on systemic racism has, suggestively distorts people’s

perception of the reality of racism experienced in the country. As a result, scholars feel that

this kind of perception sells fear and may lead to African Americans losing control over their

lives. Racism as a class through classification cannot be fixed when they are floating

signifiers in society than can be changed over and over time due to events, history, and

circumstances. The prospect of social differences is a challenge brought about by history and

science endeavors to change approaches through which social differences occur. 34 As the

American world is today the existence of differences is normal because disparities must exist

to make the world a complexion of variety. In other words, race and social differences are

constructed with history and the people within the experience feel they can deal with the

circumstance. If they utilize the important aspect of conscience by accepting variance in

matters of humans then they can live with the acceptance that race is just characteristic

differences between a different type of hair and bones.

33 Other footnotes
34 Omi and Winant, 1062-8.
 17

Future Projects and Research on Construction

Despite several researchers being able to conclude that science disregards racism as a

genetic trait, there is a need for upcoming research to identify if the perception can be

influential and to what extent one can have a perception of racism without being factual. For

instance, in a family of boys and girls, it is possible and common to find boys who are more

racist than girls. Also, is race more common in one gender or not? It is possible that personal

desires and affiliations such as relationships which are common cases with men end up as

race issues. This gives an opportunity for researchers to seek clarification and clear

identification.

Changes within individuals which develop traits are not actually monolithic factors

that could associate humans with believing in racism either its existence or the action itself.

This creates a gap between behavioral factors and psychological factors and their consequent

health status and if they can be the beginning cause of racial perceptions. For instance,

emotions are psychological factors that are associated with the conception of hate or racism.

To what extent can this information be verified and detailed if individuals with the quicker or

softer emotional spot are on the higher end of engaging in racial activities. This is a problem

that future anthropologists can delve into.

The rise in racism in recent cases is attributed to growth in technology such as social

media and also civilization.35 Both technology and civilization offer aggressive incidents of

racism compared to the past. Although what is known is different including the fact that in

the past the perception was high but with low incidents. Today the incidents are high but
35 Matamoros-Fernández A, Farkas J. Racism, hate speech, and social media: A systematic review and
critique. Television & New Media. 2021 Feb;22(2):205-24.
 18

with few perceptions in America. From this paper, we would suggest an analysis of cases on

social media compared to those in the actual world and their severity to individuals.
 19

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