Surface Gravity Waves:

Shallow-Water Waves

and

Deep-Water Waves

-Phase speed vs. group velocity

-Dispersive vs. non-dispersive waves
Summary of last class:
u w
+ =0
x z
u u u 1 p
1. We started from the continuity +u +w =−
t x z o  x
and momentum equations (variables: u, w, p) w w w 1 p
+u +w =− −g
t x z o  z
2. Then derived linear set of equations (small waves)
for the velocity potential 
[u= x ; w= z ; = -t /g]  xx + zz = 0
Laplace’s wave Eq.
Bernoulli’s Eq.
t (x,0,t) + g(x,t ) = 0
surface BC z ( x,0, t ) = t ( x, t )
bottom BC z ( x,−H , t ) = 0

3. Possible solution will time −dep vertical horizontal

amplitude decay oscillatio ns
have the form:   
 
 ( x, z, t ) = A(t ) [e + e
kz −k ( z + 2 H )
] sin k x

4. Substituting the solution gives a wave eq. A' '+ A 2 = 0

for the time-dependent part
with a wave solution: A(t) = a1 sint + b1 cost
Substituting the (linear) solution A(t) = a1 sint + b1 cost
into the wave equation

provides us with
The dispersion relation of surface gravity waves
e kH − e − kH
2 = gk tanh(kH) tanh(kH) = kH
e + e −kH

The frequency () of the time-dependent part of the solution

depends on gravity (g), wave number (k=2/) and water
depth (H)

Note: This dispersion equation is for one type of waves, but

other types of waves will have different dispersion relations
and thus different characteristics
 How does the hyperbolic tangent function look like?

2 = gk tanh(kH)

e kh + e − kh e kh − e − kh
2 2 Short waves
(large k)
or
Long waves Deep waters
(small k) (large h)
or e kh − e − kh
Shallow waters e kh + e −kh
(small h)

More on shallow & deep-water waves later…

 The solution for a progressive unbounded (free) waves
In the most general form we can now add together:
- the time-dependent part A(t) sint, cost (function of frequency )
- the space-dependent part  sinkx, coskx (function of wavenumber k)
- the depth-dependent part  exp(kz), exp(-kz) (function of z/L)

and also use trigonometric identities such as:

sin(   ) = sin  cos  cos sin
cos(   ) = cos cos sin  sin
Then the general solution (for the velocity potential ) can be written as:
−k ( z +2 H )
 = [e + e
kz
]{a cos(kx + t ) + b cos(kx − t )}
The solutions for u, w and  can then be calculated:
u ( x, z, t ) =  x , w( x, z, t ) =  z ,  ( x, t ) = −t ( x,0, t ) / g
[Bernoulli Eq. t+g=0]
For simplicity, lets assume a=0 → waves propagate in one direction.
So from:
 = b[e kz + e − k ( z +2 H ) ] cos(kx − t )
b
We can get the surface elevation
(=-t/g ; and set z=0)
= [1 + e − 2 kH
] sin( kx − t )
g

Which can be written as:  = o sin(kx − t)

where o = b  [1 + e-2kH]/g is the wave elevation amplitude. Note that for
deep-water/short waves (large kH) the amplitude is independent of H, o/g
The solution can also be written as:  = o sin k ( x − ct)
Thus this is a wave propagating
with a phase speed, c, 
c=/T=/k → =ck c t

x
=wave length (k=2/)
T=wave period (=2/T)

 Shallow and Deep-Water Waves
Summary so far:
• Dispersion relation (k) for surface gravity waves
2 = gk tanh(kH)

• General solution to the linear wave problem (x,z,t)

 = [e kz + e −k ( z +2 H ) ]{a cos(kx + t ) + b cos(kx − t )}

(u = x, w = z,  = -t/g)
• Propagating wave with phase velocity c=/k can be
represented by a sinusoidal surface elevation (x,t)
 = o sin k ( x − ct)

• But, what do these solutions mean in terms of the behavior

of gravity waves in the real ocean?
 Phase velocity and group velocity
The phase velocity (or speed) is defined as: c=/k =/T
It is the speed a particular phase of a single wave (say its crest) is moving
in space.
c

The group velocity is defined as: cg=d/dk = d(ck)/dk = c+kdc/dk

Note: if c is independent of k dc/dk=0 and thus Phase Vel. = Group Vel.
It is the speed a packet of waves is moving in space. It is also the speed in
which the energy is moving in space.
c cg why cg<c?
 Wave Energy
Average wave energy (potential+kinetic per surface area in J/m2) is
proportional to the square of the wave height:
1 2 1
( )
E = w g  = w g h2 ( )  w = water density, h = 2 = wave height
2 8

( )
T
1 2 2
2
=   (t )dt average over time period T = (T2 - T1 )
T t =T1

T1 low energy T2 high energy T3

t Wave packet
 Interference of Waves:
The concept of the group velocity is more difficult to comprehend, so
lets see how waves interact with each other to form new waves
Rogue waves: • Unusually large waves
– Constructive interference
– Waves meet strong ocean
current
(Garrison’s book)
 Video of
incident on
YouTube
 Group Velocity explained single wave:  = o sin( kx − t ) = o sin k ( x − ct)
Lets look at the interaction of two waves mathematically.
The superposition of two waves that have the same amplitude, but differ from
each other by a small frequency, 2, and by a small wave number 2k:

 = o sin[( ko + k ) x − (o + )t ] +o sin[( ko − k ) x − (o − )t ]

or  
 
 = o sin[ (ko x − ot ) + (
kx − t )] + sin[ (ko x − ot ) − (kx − t )]

  
     
Using the identity sin(   ) = sin  cos  cos sin
We can write the result as  = 2o sin(kox − ot)cos(k x −  t)

 o    
or as  = 2o sin ko [ x −  t ] cos k[ x −  t ]

ko  
k

c0 cg

How does this wave look like?

Therefore, the result of adding two waves whose wave numbers and frequencies
differ by a small amount is equivalent to the product of a carrier wave defined by ko
and co and a modulating wave or envelope wave with a smaller wave number dk
(and larger wave length 2/dk) and a propagation velocity, d/dk. The group velocity
is defined as cg = d/dk so that the modulating wave travels with a velocity
approximately equal to the group velocity.

 o    
 = 2o sin ko [ x −  t ] cos k[ x −  t ]

ko  
k

c0 cg

“carrier “modulating
wave” wave”
 Graphic representation of the dispersion relation:
(practical tool to understand dispersion relation of any type of wave)
Given a dispersion relation of general form =func(k)
[ 2 = gk tanh(kH) is the specific case for surface gravity waves]
negative slope (Cg<0)

A propagates westward
1
positive slope (Cg>0)
group vel. propagates eastward
longer waves → sorter waves
k
k1
We can calculate

the phase velocity: c =
k
e.g., speed at point A is (1/k1)

and the group velocity: c g = 

e.g., the slope at point A k
Example: =ak+b → c=/k=a+b/k but cg=/k=a
therefore, the phase velocity c depends on wavelength,
but the group velocity cg is constant! →These waves are dispersive!
 Dispersive & non-dispersive waves
• (a) Non-Dispersive waves:
– phase speed does not depend on wavelength
– group velocity is equal to phase velocity [example: =5k →c=cg=5]
– waves maintain their shape

• (b) Dispersive waves:

– waves of different wavelength propagate with different phase speed
– group & phase velocities are different [example: =k2 →c=k; cg=2k]
– waves’ shape is distorted as they propagate
 1
 −kH
Back to the dispersion relation  [e − e ]

kH 2
= gk tanh(kH)
 
1
of surface gravity waves:  =  gk kH −kH  2

 e +e 

0 1 2 3 4 5
We can calculate the phase velocity shallow-water kH deep-water
waves waves
1
−kH
 g
[e − e
kH
]
 2 1
c=
k
=
k
 kH
 e +e
−kH 

  phase v
elocity
c
and the group velocity is: (gH)1/2 group
velocit
y
d 1   4kH 
cg  = 1 +
dk 2 k  e 2 kH − e −2 kH 
  
0 1 2 3 4 5
[ A]
kH

• for small kH [A]=2 → cg=/k=c

Shallow/long waves are non-dispersive
To see how we got these
results, we need to evaluate
• for large kH [A]=1 → cg=½(/k)=½c how the [A] term behaves
Deep/short waves are dispersive when kH→0 or kH→
 Before we continue to explain the nature of dispersive and non dispersive
waves, a little break for a mathematical review of limits…
d 1  4kH 
cg  = c 1 + 2kH −2 kH 
dk 2  e
 −
e 
What is the limit of  4x  0 0
lim f ( x) = lim  2 x −2 x  → ? →
x→0 x→0  e − e  1 −1 0
 4x   
lim f ( x) = lim  2 x −2 x  → ? →
x→ x→  e − e  −0 

In such cases when the limit of g(x)/h(x)→ 0/0 or /, we can take the derivatives
g’/h’ which, if converge, will have the same limit as the original function g/h
Therefore,
d
(4 x)
dx 4 4
= → =1 for x → 0
Cg=c (
d 2 x −2 x
dx
e −e ) 2(e 2x
+e −2 x
) 2(1 + 1)

4 4
→ = 0 for x → 
Cg=½c (
2 e 2 x + e −2 x ) 2( + 0)
Shallow-water and deep-water waves

shallow water deep water

long waves short waves
tanh(kH) ~ kH tanh(kH) ~ 1
~kH>3

2 = gk tanh(kH)

c =(/k)=[g/k tanh(kH)]½
cg=(/k)= slope!
 Deep Water Waves tanh(kH)1 for ~3<kH=2H/ → ~½<H/
(note: for ~¼<H/ the errors ~10% ~obs. err.)
λ
2 2 2
 = gk or = g →T =
T  g
H
The period  square root of wavelength
(non-linear relation)
1

g 2  g
C= =  = g = T
k   2 2
Longer waves move faster!

1
 1  g  2 1
cg = =   = c
k 2    2
The group velocity moves at half the speed
of the phase velocity
These are dispersive waves
Dispersion relation for all waves:

2 = gk tanh(kH)
 Surface elevation Deep Water Waves Velocity
 = 0 sin(kx− t) u = 0 e kz sin (kx − t )
stream function
 = (o k )ekz sin(kx −  t) w = −0 e kz cos(kx − t )
The flow brings water from the Circular motion with amplitude
trailing edge to the leading edge (in independent of x & t, but decays with depth
front of the crest), thus the wave (
u 2 + w2 = 0 e kz)2
....[sin 2  + cos2  = 1]
propagating toward the right
 Particle motion under waves:
Deep-water: circular motion with decreasing diameter with depth
Shallow Water Waves Small kH → tanh(kH)kH; H/<1/20

 2 = gk tanh( kH ) → gHk 2
 = k gH
λ
 
c = = gH ; c g = = gH
H k k

• Waves are non-dispersive:

- Phase velocity = group velocity
- Propagation speed does not depend on wavelength
(only on water depth)
• Remember that in deeper water long waves move faster!
- Therefore, waves will slow down when moving toward
the (shallower) coast.
Shallow Water Waves motion
 = 0 sin(kx− t)
u = 0
g
sin (kx − t )  z 
w = 0 1 +  cos (kx − t )
H  H
w  u
u(x,t) oscillates in t and x, w(x,z,t) oscillates in t and x,
but independent of z! and decays to zero at z=-H

Therefore, the motion is near circular at the surface (z=0) and elliptic with
decreasing minor axis as we get closer to the bottom
 Particle motion under waves
Shallow-water: elliptical motion with decreasing minor axis with depth
 1
 2 = g tanh ( H )
g  Dispersion relation
C =  tanh ( H )
2
(relation between frequency and wave number)
 
Deep waves are dispersive
Shallow waves are non-dispersive

Intermediate
Waves
Shallow Water
Waves
C= gH Deep Water
C

C = gT 2 Waves
 Summary of deep-water vs. shallow-water waves
• Shallow-water waves: controlled by depth only → waves move slower as
water depth becomes shallower, independent of wave length or period →
non-dispersive waves ; Particle motion: Eliptic.
• Deep-water waves: controlled by wave length and period, independent of
depth (i.e.,. “don’t feel the bottom”)→ longer waves move faster →
dispersive waves ; Particle motion: Circular.

1
g [e kH − e −kH ]  2
c=
C=g
T 
 
k  e kH + e −kH 

C = gh
2
 Tsunami
An example of a shallow-water wave
• Is generated by underwater earthquakes
• Very small wave height (~1m) in the open
ocean, but increases to a big wave (<10m) when
reaching the coast

• Very long wave L~100 km, so even in deep waters,

say H=4000 m, it behaves like a shallow-water wave,
why?

• H/L=4000m/100,000m=1/25<1/20
• kH = (2/L)H ~ (6/100,000)4000=0.24 <<1
dispersion relation:
2 = gk tanh(kH)~ gk(kH)=k2(gH)→ c2= 2/k2 =gH
What is a Tsunami?

-Caused by an underwater earthquake

which displaces the ocean floor →
- Displacement of the surface of the ocean
- Very long (~100km, T~10min) surface
wave relative to ocean depth →
- Shallow-water wave (even in deep
waters!) with speed C = gh
- wave slows down near shore:
h=4000m → C~200m/s = 450 mph
h=50m → C~20m/s = 45 mph
- barely noticeable in deep water, but
amplified to a huge wave when reaching
shallower water: height increases from
~1m wave at h=4000m → 15m at 20m!
- Warning systems: seismic, buoys &
models
 Model simulation of Tsunami Waves (Oey, 2005, 2006).

At landfall:
 ≈ 10 m
u ≈ 15 m/s
The Sumatra Tsunami
in the Indian Ocean:

- 26 December, 2004
- 9.3 magnitude earthquake
- 30 m high waves
- ~300,000 dead
- billions of dollars in damage
- waves reach 10,000s miles
away

- at the time, there was no

tsunami warning system in the
Indian Ocean (only in the
Pacific)
 2004 Tsunami in the Indian Ocean

[Link]
[Link]
 Tsunami in Japan:

• Magnitude 9 earthquake off the

Pacific coast of Tohoku, Japan on 11-
March-2011
• Waves over 40m; reach 10km inland
• Meltdowns of nuclear reactors in
Fukushima; evacuation of 100,000s
• ~20,000 deaths; $15-35B damage

Before After
Estimated time of the
tsunami to reach the
California coast:

Distance D~7500km
Depth H~4000m
Wave Speed C=(gH)½
~(40,000) ½ =200 m/s
Travel time
T=D/C=37,500s~10h
 What’s Next?
• Now that we covered the basic properties of unbounded,
linear, shallow-water and deep-water gravity waves we can
proceed to understand other interesting wave issues:

• How waves are generated by the wind?

• How do waves behave when moving from deep-water to
shallow water?
• Can linear theory explain real-ocean waves?
• How do waves behave in a closed lake or a semi-enclosed
port?
• What about other assumptions we made? (Coriolis, density,
etc.)
 Next class:

- Shallow-water equations and

bounded waves