International Journal ofFoodMicrobiology, 5 (1987) 165-180 165

Elsevier

JFM00172

Antibacterial properties of plant essential oils

S.G. D e a n s i a n d G. R i t c h i e 2
I West of Scotland A gricultural College, A uchincruive, Ayr, Scotland, U.K. and 2 School of Science,
Trent Polytechnic, Nottingham, England, U.K.
(Received 11 May 1987; accepted 31 August 1987)

Fifty plant essential oils were examined for their antibacterial properties against 25 genera of bacteria.
Four concentrations of each oil were tested using an agar diffusion technique. The ten most inhibitory
oils were thyme, cinnamon, bay, clove, almond (bitter), lovage, pimento, marjoram, angelica and nutmeg.
The most comprehensively inhibitory extracts were angelica (against 25 genera), bay (24), cinnamon (23),
clove (23), thyme (23), almond (bitter) (22), marjoram (22), pimento (22), geranium (21) and lovage (20).

Key words: Essential oils; Antibacterial oils; Inhibitory oils

Introduction

The preservative nature of plants has been realised for centuries as a variety of
herbs and spices have traditionally been used to extend the shelf-life of foods. It has
only been relatively recently, however, that the antimicrobial properties of these
plant extracts responsible for such qualities have been subject to close scrutiny
(Garg and Garg, 1980; Goutam and Purohit, 1974; Kabelik, 1970; MacNeil et al.,
1973; Morris et al., 1979; Nadal et al., 1973; Shelef et al., 1980; Tiwari and Pandey,
1981).
Piacentini (1948) measured the phenol coefficient of bergamot, orange and lemon
essences and found them all to have the value 0.44. It was also found that when
these extracts were tested against various spore-forming bacteria they appeared to
be more effective than phenol at inhibiting growth.
Subba et al. (1967) showed that orange and lemon oils were inhibitory to a wide
range of food spoilage microorganisms, notably yeasts. More recently, several
researchers have demonstrated considerable inhibition by essential oils against
food-poisoning bacteria (Aktug and Karapinar, 1986; Beuchat, 1976; Dabbah et al.,
1970; Gnan and Sheriha, 1986; Huhtanen, 1980; Martini, 1980; Raccach and
Henningsen, 1984; Saleem and A1-Delaimy, 1982; Sampurna and Nigam, 1979,
1980; Tharib et al., 1983). Connor and Beuchat (1984b) showed that of 32 different

Correspondence address: S.G. Deans, Department of Microbiology, West of Scotland Agricultural

College, Auchincruive, Ayr KA6 5HW, Scotland, U.K.

0168-1605/87/$03.50 © 1987 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (Biomedical Division)

166

plant essential oils, allspice, cinnamon, clove, garlic, onion, oregano, savoury and
thyme were particularly inhibitory to selected food spoilage and industrial yeasts.
Shelef et al. (1984) found that when incubated in meat broths, whole sage was
more inhibitory than sage oil while in nutrient broth, the degree of inhibition
increased with the volatile oil content of sage. Thus, it cannot be assumed that
because an intact herb has traditionally been considered or even demonstrated to
have antimicrobial properties, that the essential oils will also possess such character-
istics. In the case of the lactic acid bacteria, it has been found that while some
essential oil and plant extracts were inhibitory (Tiwari and Pandey, 1981; Zaika et
al., 1983), other extracts resulted in enhancement of growth (Nes and Skjelkvale,
1982). With the increasing tendency for food processors to use essential oils in
preference to whole herbs, a systematic examination of plant extracts for antimicro-
bial activity seemed appropriate.
In this study, 50 different plant essential oils were tested against 25 genera of
bacteria. These oils were purchased in an extracted form, dissolved in alcohol. The
c o m m o n extraction methods were by steam distillation or by organic solvents.
The oils and test bacteria were chosen for their diversity, and represented a range
of different categories. Of the plants chosen, some were c o m m o n culinary herbs and
spices (mint, parsley, cinnamon, clove and celery), others were more useful in the
manufacture of perfumes and cosmetics (rose and lavender) and some had medici-
nal applications (sage, camomile and bergamot). Some are short season annuals,
others perennial shrubs or evergreen trees. The essential oils were extracted from
leaves, seeds, bark, roots or other specialised structures depending upon plant
species and oil utilisation.
The bacteria were also chosen to represent several major groups. All species used,
with the exception of Clostridium sp., were aerobes. The groups included organisms
of animal and h u m a n origin: Escherichia coli, Salmonella pullorum, Yersinia entero-
coftica, Streptococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus; soil inhabitants such as
Bacillus subtilis and Serratia marcescens; plant pathogen Erwinia carotovora; and an
aquatic inhabitant Beneckea natriegens.

Materials and Methods

Bacterial strains

All test strains were maintained on Iso-sensitest agar slopes (CM 471, Oxoid
Ltd., Basingstoke, Hants, U.K.) at room temperature and were subcultured every
two weeks. Table I lists the bacteria and their source.

Essential oils

All the plant oils were purchased from Serva (Heidelberg, F.R.G.) and used
undiluted and diluted, in absolute ethanol (A R quality, Burrough plc, London,
 167

TABLE I
Test bacteria and their source

Organism Source Code letter

Acinetobacter calcoacetica NCIB 8250 A
Aerornonas hydrophila NCTC 8049 B
Alcaligenesfaecalis NCIB 8156 C
Bacillus subtilis NCIB 3610 D
Beneckea natriegens ATCC 14048 E
Brevibacterium linens NCIB 8456 F
Brocothrix thermosphacta Sausage meat G
Citrobacterfreundii NCIB 11490 H
Clostridium sporogenes NCIB 10696 I
Enterobacter aerogenes NCTC 10006 J
Erwinia carotovora NCPPB 312 K
Escherichia coli NCIB 8879 L
Flavobacterium suaveolens NCIB 8992 M
Klebsiellapneumoniae NCIB 418 N
Lactobacillus plantarum NCDO 343 O
Leuconostoc cremoris NCDO 543 P
Micrococcus luteus NCIB 8165 Q
Moraxella sp NCIB 10762 R
Proteus vulgaris NCIB 4175 S
Pseudomonas aeruginosa NCIB 950 T
Salmonellapullorum NCTC 10704 U
Serratia marcescens NCIB 1377 V
Staphylococcus aureus NCIB 6571 W
Streptococcusfaecalis NCTC 775 X
Yersinia enterocolitica NCTC 10460 Y

U . K . ) t o t h r e e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s : 1 : 2; 1 : 5 a n d 1 : 10. A l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f oils w e r e
s t o r e d a t 5 ° C. I t h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n d e t e r m i n e d t h a t a b s o l u t e a l c o h o l a l o n e d i d
n o t give r i s e t o a n y z o n e o f i n h i b i t i o n . T a b l e I I lists t h e e s s e n t i a l o i l s t e s t e d .

TABLE II
Plant essential oils tested for antibacterial properties

Almond (bitter) Caraway Fennel Melissa Rosemary

Almond (sweet) Cardomon Geranium Mint (apple) Sage
Angelica Celery Ginger Nutmeg St John's Wort
Anise Cinnamon Laurel Orange Sassafras
Basil Citronella Lavender Orange (bitter) Spike
Bay Clove Lemon Parsley Star Anise
Bergamot Coriander Lime Pepper Thuja
Calmus Dill Lovage Peppermint Thyme
Camomile Estragon Mandarin Pimento Valerian
Cananga Eucalyptus Marjoram Rose Verbena
168

Assessment of inhibition

The technique used to determine the inhibitory properties of the plant oils was
different from the paper disc method used by Connor and Beuchat (1984b). T h a t
involved soaking discs with herb extracts and placing them on the surface of agar
seeded with yeast. This technique does not always allow an accurate determination
of the volume of oil added and although the disc was applied to the agar surface, the
extract would have diffused in three dimensions, giving a hemispherical zone
difficult to measure accurately.
In this study, these problems were largely overcome by punching holes through
the agar, creating wells into which measured volumes (10/~1) of the plant oils were
placed. This ensured that radial diffusion from the well gave a clean and easily
measured zone of inhibition (Bennett et al., 1966). Other workers have used
different approaches, but were again based on diffusion of the oils ( R a m a d a n et al.,
1972a, b). Attempts have also been made to assess the antimicrobial properties of
oils using volatility within a micro-atmosphere (Benjilali et al. 1984; Maruzzella and
Sicurella, 1960).
Sterile polystyrene bio-assay plates (245 m m x 245 m m x 20 ram, N U N C Inter
Med, Roskilde, Denmark) were used throughout the study. Molten Iso-sensitest
agar, 250 ml in volume, was seeded with a known number of test bacteria (10 ml
volume, 10 6 per ml final concentration). The organisms were grown in Iso-sensitest
broth at 25 ° C in a shaken incubator. Cells from a 24 h culture were inoculated into
fresh lso-sensitest broth and incubated overnight at 2 5 ° C . This provided the
inoculum for the seeded plates. Once set, 100 holes (4 m m diameter) were punched
in the agar (Pharmacia gel punch). U p o n introduction of the plant oils to the wells,
the plates were left undisturbed for 30 min to allow the oils to diffuse into the agar.
The plates were incubated at 2 5 ° C for 48 h. Inhibition zones were measured by
vernier calipers (Mauser). The evaluation of inhibitory properties was carried out in
duplicate with two replicates on every occasion.

Results

All 50 plant essential oils were inhibitory to at least one test bacterium in the
undiluted form. 41 oils were inhibitory to 5 or more genera while 33 oils were
inhibitory to 10 or more of the 25 test organisms. The 10 plant oils which displayed
the most comprehensive inhibitory properties and the n u m b e r of genera against
which they were effective were tabulated (Table III).
The 10 essential oils which displayed the greatest inhibitory properties against the
test bacteria were thyme, cinnamon, bay, clove, almond (bitter), lovage, pimento,
marjoram, angelica and nutmeg.
The zone of inhibition measurements for each of the 4 concentrations of plant
essential oils were tabulated (Tables IV, V, VI, VII).
There was no evidence of degree of susceptibility to the oils being reflected in the
G r a m reaction of the organism: Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria were
both susceptible to the essential oils.
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TABLE III
Ten essential oils which displayed the most comprehensive inhibitory properties and the number of
genera against which they were active

Essential oil Number of genera

Angelica 25
Bay 24
Cinnamon 23
Clove 23
Thyme 23
Almond (bitter) 22
Marjoram 22
Pimento 22
Geranium 21
Lovage 20

In most cases, the inhibition zones became smaller with decreasing concentration
of oil. With some oils the inhibitory effect was absent in the 1 : 2 or 1 : 5 dilution
(v/v), while in others there was only a negligible reduction even at 1 : 10 dilution. It
was noted that with certain plant oils, in particular those of bay and thyme and to a
lesser degree angelica, marjoram and rosemary, multiple inhibition zones were
occasionally seen around single wells with those nearer the well being more
transparent.

Discussion

Plant essential oils are often complex mixtures of different compounds, some or
all of which are endowed with antimicrobial properties (Balandrin et al., 1985;
Connor and Beuchat, 1984a; Huhtanen, 1980; Morris et al., 1979). It is interesting
to note that variants of the same species can have differing levels of the constituents
in the essential oils (de Bouchberg et al., 1976). In addition, geographical location of
the growing plant has been shown to influence the final composition of the essential
oil (Rhyu, 1979).
The prospect of a more widespread adoption of plant essential oils as alternatives
to synthetic food additives will depend, at least to some extent, upon a demonstra-
ble uniformity of both flavour and preservative characteristics. It is therefore
imperative that the active constituents present in inhibitory oils can be chemically
separated and identified. Much effort has been expended on this task already, but
there still exist many oils which have yet to be subject to such scrutiny (de
Bouchberg et al., 1976; D a b b a h et al., 1970; Nadal et al., 1973).
In addition, the mode of action of the antimicrobial oil constituents requires
thorough elucidation if their exploitation is to be maximised ( G n a n and Sheriha,
1986). Studies of the effect of such oils on heat-stressed yeast cells have indicated
that when such cells were metabolically or structurally damaged by sublethal heat
treatment, the essential oils prevented repair of the injury (Connor and Beuchat,
170

TABLE IV
Inhibitory properties (inhibition zone diameter in mm) of plant essential oils (undiluted) towards the
bacteria ( A - Y ) listed in Table I

Plant Oil A B C D E F G H 1 J K L M
Almond(Bitter)t5.0 11.0 13,5 25.5 11.0 6.5 0 8.0 0 7.5 11 .0 7,5 17.5
Almond(Sweet) 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Angelica 10.5 13.5 10,5 8.5 15.0 15.0 11 5 8.0 10.5 10.5 10.5 7.0 10.5
Anise 0 6.0 0 0 0 9.0 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 6.0
Basil 6.0 8.5 4.5 5.5 17.5 6.0 7 0 0 0 0 5.5 5.0 7.5
Bay 16.5 13.5 10.0 6.0 10.5 16.5 9 0 13.0 0 9.5 14.5 12.5 16.0
Bergamot 8.5 6.0 0 11 .5 0 9.0 0 0 0 0 0 4.5 10.0
Calmus 0 7.5 0 9.0 0 0 7 5 0 0 0 0 0 7.0
Chamomile 7.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cananga 0 0 0 0 0 6.0 6 5 0 0 0 0 0 7.0
Caraway 30.0 8.5 5.0 6.0 7.0 0 0 10.5 0 0 7.0 9.5 0
Cardamon 0 6.5 0 5.5 0 7.5 5 5 5.5 0 0 7.0 0 9.5
Celery 0 0 0 7.5 0 60 50 0 0 0 0 0 9.0
Cinnamon 16.5 15.0 18.0 23.5 27.0 35 0 5,0 12.0 0 13.0 16.0 13.0 22.0
Citronella 11 .0 9.0 0 6.0 7.5 7 5 0 7.5 0 0 8.0 0 11 .0
Clove 16.0 16.5 11.0 12.5 15.0 14 0 5.5 9.0 0 8.5 14.5 8.5 15.0
Coriander 0 8.5 6.0 7.5 0 9 0 14.0 8.5 0 7.5 8.0 7.5 13.0
Dill 25.0 9.5 6.5 5.5 7.0 9 0 6.5 11.5 0 7.0 8.0 10.0 0
Estragon 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 9.0
Eucalyptus 7.0 7.5 0 7.0 0 4.5 0 6.0 0 0 6,0 0 10.0
Fennel 0 9.5 * 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.0
Geranium 11 .5 9.0 6.0 0 6.5 12.0 5.5 9.0 0 11 .0 8,5 * 9.5
Ginger 0 6.0 0 6.5 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 8.5
Laurel 14.0 7.0 0 9 5 0 8,0 5.5 9.5 12.0 7,0 5,0 7.5 11 .5
Lavender 10.0 8.0 0 12 5 0 8.5 5.5 8.5 0 7.5 6.0 7.5 0
Lemon 0 6.5 0 6 0 0 6.0 B.O 0 0 0 6.0 0 13.5
Lime 9.5 70 0 5 0 0 5.5 7,5 5.0 0 7.0 0 7.0 11.5
Lovage 17.0 13 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14.0 9.0 19.5
Mandarin 0 6 0 0 5 0 0 0 7.0 0 0 0 0 0 11 .5
Marjoram 17.0 14 0 9.0 15 0 9.0 10.5 6.0 15.5 15.5 9.0 11.0 10.5 0
Melissa 0 8 0 0 7 5 0 6.5 5.5 7.0 0 0 0 0 13.5
Mint 9.0 8 5 5.0 14 5 9.5 0 6.0 8.5 0 6.5 * 0 9.0
Nutmeg 10.5 11 5 8.0 8 0 7.0 7.5 5.5 13.5 0 10.5 9.0 10.5 13.0
Orange 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 8.0 0 0 0 0 0 10.0
Orange(Bitter) 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 8.0
Parsley 15 5 10 5 5.5 0 7.5 0 6.5 8.5 19.0 6.5 13.0 8.5 9.0
Pepper 11 5 9 0 5.5 8.5 0 6.0 0 6.5 0 5.5 7.5 5.5 10.5
Pimento 10 5 7 0 0 0 5.0 0 5.0 6.0 14.5 4.5 0 0 0
Peppermint 14 5 15 0 8.5 10.0 16.5 12.0 7.0 8.0 0 9.0 11 .0 9.0 12.0
Rose 5 5 10 5 0 7.5 6.0 13.0 6.5 6.0 0 5.5 7.0 6.0 9.5
Rosemary 15 0 7 0 0 20.0 0 5.5 6.0 8.0 13.5 8.5 7.5 12.0 8.5
Sage 0 0 0 6.0 0 8.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
St J o h n ' s Wort 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 0
Sassafras 10.5 6 0 7.0 0 7.0 0 0 6.0 0 J 5.5 6.5 * 7.5
Spike 10.5 9 5 0 9.5 7.0 8.0 5.0 9.5 0 5.5 B.5 5.5 11 .5
Star Anise 0 6 0 5.0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 9,0
Thuja 10.0 10 0 7.0 15.5 7.0 10.0 6.0 10.5 0 6.0 8.5 9.0 0
Thyme 19.0 22 5 20.0 12.5 20.0 24.5 16.0 21.5 0 25.5 21.5 22.5 38.0
Valerian 7.5 6 0 0 6.5 7.5 6.0 6.0 0 0 0 6.5 0 9.0
Verbena 13.5 10 0 5,5 6.0 5.5 5.0 6.0 6.5 0 0 8.0 6.5 19.0
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TABLE IV ( c o n t i n u e d )

Plant Oil N O P Q R S T U V W X Y

Almond(Bitter)13.0 8.5 9.0 8.5 0 8.5 12.0 8.0 25.5 7.5 8.0 13.5
Almond(Sweet) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Angelica 8.0 6.5 11.5 7.0 7.0 10.5 15.0 7.0 8.5 13.0 9.0 16.0
Anise 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Basil 0 0 7.2 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 10.0 6.5 5.0
Bay 8.0 12.5 9.0 19.5 18.0 12.5 15.0 19.0 21.0 10.0 7.0 13.5
Bergamot 0 7.0 0 0 6.0 0 0 6 5 0 10 0 8.0 0
Calmus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chamomile 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cananga 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Caraway 5.5 5.0 0 8.5 14 5 9 5 0 6 5 13 0 7 0 0 8.5
Cardamon 0 5.5 7.0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 5.5
Celery 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0
Cinnamon 18.0 19.0 8.0 18.0 0 15 5 13.0 21 2 12 0 10.0 9.0 20.0
Citronella 9.0 6.5 5.0 0 0 0 0 8 0 6 5 0 0 6.0
Clove 7.0 11.0 13.0 9.0 0 9 5 11.0 16 0 2 5 . 0 7.0 8.5 7.5
Coriander 8.0 9.0 7,5 7.0 0 6 0 0 11 0 7.5 5.0 0 7.0
Dill 8.5 0 0 9.0 10 0 8 0 0 7.0 13.5 0 5.5 11.0
Estragon 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Eucalyptus 0 0 9.5 0 0 0 0 6.0 5.5 0 0 6.0
Fennel 0 0 9.5 0 6 5 0 * * 0 7.5 0 0
Geranium • 7.5 0 8.0 10.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 10.0 5.0 0 13.0
Ginger 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 9.5 5.5 0 0
Laurel 5.0 6.5 0 7.0 8.5 6.0 0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 7.5
Lavender * 7.5 0 9.5 9.0 9.0 0 7.0 7.5 8.0 14.0 9.0
Lemon 0 0 7.0 0 0 0 0 7.0 0 0 7.0 0
Lime 0 0 8.0 0 0 0 0 9.0 6.0 0 0 5.0
Lovage 4 5 0 12.0 8.5 1 8 . 0 5.0 0 9.0 7.5 16.0 6.0 0
Mandarin 0 0 7.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Marjoram 8 0 9.5 12.0 8.0 18.0 8.5 6.5 12.0 11.0 10.0 16.5 12.0
Melissa 00 6.5 6.5 0 0 0 0 5.0 0 0 0
Mint 6 0
9.0 0 8.5 8.0 7.0 0 6.0 4.5 12.0 14.0 6.5
Nutmeg 9 0
7,0 9.0 0 0 6.0 0 17.0 18.0 0 0 10.5
Orange 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Orange(flitter) 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Parsley 6.0 O 6.5 0 8.5 0 10.5 8.5 9.0 8.0 5.0 9.0
Pepper 6.0 7.0 7.5 0 0 6.0 0 10.0 10.0 0 0 6.0
Pimento 0 6.0 0 6.0 8.5 5.0 0 5.0 0 9.0 0 0
Peppermint 11.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 0 8,0 9.0 15.0 20.0 8.0 0 13.0
Rose 6.0 7.0 6.5 5.5 9.5 6,5 0 0 7.0 0 0 6,0
Rosemary 6.0 8.0 8.5 6.0 9.5 8.5 0 5.0 7.5 12.0 15.0 0
Sage 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 0
St J o h n ' s W o r t 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sassafras 0 0 0 0 6.0 0 * 7.0 5.0 10.0 0 6.0
Spike 8.0 7.5 6.0 0 0 0 0 8.0 8,0 7.5 0 8.0
Star A n i s e 0 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 6.0 5.5 0 0 9.0
Thuja 5.5 7.0 7.5 6.5 1 0 . 0 7.5 0 13.5 5.5 8.5 1 7 . 0 9.5
Thyme 19.0 18.0 0 32.0 24.0 20.0 22.5 26,0 20.5 29.0 19.5 23,0
Valerian 7.5 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 12.0 0 0 5.5
Verbena 0 7.5 0 12.0 21,5 5.5 0 29.0 4.5 15.0 5.5 7.5

* Enhancement of growth.
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TABLE V
Inhibitory properties (inhibition zone diameter in ram) of plant essential oils (1 : 2 dilution) towards the
bacteria ( A - Y ) listed in Table I

Plant Oil A B C D E F G H I J K L M
A l m o n d ( B i t t e r ) 8.0 8.5 6.0 9.0 8.5 7.5 6.0 0 0 0 8.5 8.0 12.0
Almond(Sweet) 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Angelica 11 5 1 3 , 0 8.5 5.5 7.0 7.0 6 5 11 .0 0 6.0 0 7.0 0
Anise 0 5 .0 0 0 0 7.0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5
Basil 5 5 7.5 7.0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 6.5 5.0 0 0
Bay 17 0 1 4 . 5 1 0 . 5 1 1 . 5 1 1 , 5 0 8 0 13.0 0 6.0 13.0 7.0 15.0
Bergamot 8 5 6.0 0 5.5 0 8.0 6 0 7.0 0 6.5 0 0 0
Calmus 0 0 0 8.5 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5
Chamomile 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cananga 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 6.5
Caraway 11 5 8.0 5.5 0 5.5 0 5.5 10.5 0 8.0 6.0 5.0 5.5
Cardamon 0 5.0 0 6.0 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 6.5 0 9.0
Celery 0 0 0 7.0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.5
Cinnamon 9 5 13.0 18.0 22.5 13.0 16.5 5.5 10.5 0 6.0 13.5 8,0 19.0
Citrmnella 7 5 7.5 0 6.0 0 6.0 9.5 5.5 0 0 7.0 7,0 11.0
Clove 10.5 15,0 11 .5 9.0 7.0 11 .0 9.0 8.0 0 7,0 11.5 6,5 11 .0
Coriander 10.5 10,0 0 9.0 5.0 7.5 6.0 8.0 0 6.0 7.0 7.5 11 .0
Dill 14.5 8.5 6.0 0 6.5 0 0 12.0 0 11 .5 7.0 9.5 9.0
Estragon 0 6,0 0 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 7.5
Eucalyptus 0 6,0 Q 7.5 0 0 6.0 6.5 0 0 5.5 0 7.5
Fennel 0 5.5 * 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 5.0 4.5 0 0
Geranium 11 .5 8.0 5.0 0 5.0 9.0 6.0 5.0 0 5.0 7,0 * 9.0
Ginger 0 0 0 11 .0 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 5.5
Laurel 10.5 6,0 0 6.0 6.0 9.0 0 7.5 0 9.5 0 5.0 0
Lavender 10.0 7.5 0 8.5 6.0 7.0 5.5 8.0 0 6.0 6.0 6.0 0
Lemon 0 6.0 0 6.0 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 10.0
Lime 0 7.0 0 6.5 0 6.0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 11 .0
Lovage 9.0 10.5 0 B.5 0 11.0 6.5 7.0 0 6.5 8.5 0 11.0
Mandarin 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.0
Marjoram 14.0 13.0 B.O 16.0 7.0 10.0 6,0 17.0 12.5 10.5 10.0 8.0 0
Melissa 0 4.5 0 0 0 5.0 5,0 0 0 0 0 0 11 .0
Mint 6.5 8.0 7.5 12.0 6.0 7.0 5.0 7.5 15.0 6.0 * 0 7.0
Nutmeg 7.5 9.0 0 9.5 5.5 0 6.0 8.0 0 7.0 8.0 7.5 10.0
Orange 0 0 0 6.0 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 8.0
Orange(Bitter) 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.0 0 0 0 0 0 7.0
Parsley 10.5 8 0 0 0 4.5 0 0 0 0 6,0 0 6.5 6.0
Pepper 10.0 8 0 0 7.5 6.0 0 7.0 6.0 0 0 7.0 6.0 9.5
Pimento 10.0 9 0 0 16.0 5.0 9.0 5.5 9.0 0 7,0 0 6.5 12.5
Peppermint 1 2 . 0 16 0 8.5 8.5 8.0 11.0 5.5 8.0 0 6.0 10.5 6.5 12.0
Rose 8,0 7 5 0 6.0 0 19.5 6.5 6.0 0 0 5.0 0 10.0
Rosemary 9.5 8 0 0 7,0 7.0 0 5.5 1 0 . 0 1 0 . 0 8.5 5.0 5.5 14.5
Sage 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0
St J o h n ' s Wort 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0
Sassafras 7.5 7,0 8.0 0 4.5 0 0 0 0 5.5 6.5 * 5,0
Spike 6.5 8,0 0 7.0 0 6.0 6.0 7.5 0 0 7.5 7.0 12.0
Star Anise 6.5 5,0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0
Thuja 11 .5 8.0 4.5 14.0 5,5 6.5 0 1 0 . 0 11 ,0 8.0 7,0 7.5 6.0
Thyme 18.0 20,0 21.0 32.5 19,5 33.5 17.5 21.0 0 28.0 21.5 36.0 34.5
Valerian 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.5 0 0 0 0 0 11 ,0
Verbena 9.0 9.5 6.5 8.5 5.5 1 2 . 0 6.0 7.5 0 6.5 6.5 6.0 21.0
 173

TABLE V (continued)

Plant Oil N O P Q R S T U V W X Y

Almond(Bitter) 8.5 6.5 0 0 0 0 7.0 I0,0 19.5 8.0 10.0 11.0

Almond(Sweet) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Angelica 5.0 0 8.0 8.5 9.0 6.5 4.5 6.0 8.0 7.5 5.0 7.0
Anise 0 0 9.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Basil 0 0 8.5 0 6.0 5.0 0 6.5 5.5 8.5 5.0 5.0
Bay 8.5 9.0 14.0 16.0 16.5 10.0 7.0 18.0 8.0 31.5 12.5 11.0
Bergamot 5.5 0 0 8.5 6.0 5.0 0 5,0 5.5 6.5 6.5 0
Calmus 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chamomile 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cananga 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Caraway 5.5 0 8.5 0 7.5 5.5 0 6.0 7.0 18.5 0 8.5
Cardamon 0 0 6.5 0 0 5.5 0 0 7.5 0 0 0
Celery 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.0 0 0
Cinnamon 10.0 14.5 7.5 12,0 0 10.5 0 17.5 16.0 7.5 7,0 13.5
Citronella 7.0 5.5 6.0 0 0 0 0 5.5 6.0 5.0 0 5.0
Clove 9.0 10.5 9.5 7.5 0 7.0 5.0 12.0 20.0 9,0 5.5 9.5
Coriander 5.0 9.5 10.0 0 0 6.0 0 5.5 7.0 5.0 0 8.0
Dill 11 .5 0 0 5.5 9.0 6.0 0 7.5 10.0 0 0 7.0
Estragon 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Eucalyptus 0 0 8.0 0 0 0 0 7.5 6.0 0 0 7.5
Fennel 0 0 0 0 6.0 4.5 * * 0 8.0 0 0
Geranium • 6.5 0 6.0 7.0 0 0 6.0 6.0 11 .0 0 6.0
Ginger 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Laurel 8.0 0 0 9.0 7.5 8.5 0 6.0 9.0 10.0 7.5 0
Lavender 0 7.5 0 4.5 8.5 5.5 0 5.0 6.0 8.0 11.0 7.0
Lemon 0 0 8.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lime 0 0 8.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lovage 7.5 6.0 7.0 9,5 8.0 7.5 0 6,0 6.0 0 7.0 0
Mandarin 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Marjoram 7.5 5.0 0 7.0 9.0 7.0 0 6.0 7.0 7.5 17.0 10.0
Melissa 0 0 5.5 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mint 7.0 5.5 0 0 7.0 7.0 0 7.5 5.0 7.0 11.0 6.5
Nutmeg 6.0 0 10.0 0 0 5.5 0 9.0 8.0 0 0 7.5
Orange 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Orange(Bitter) 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Parsley 0 0 0 0 5.5 6.0 0 6.0 6.5 6.0 0 8.0
Pepper 0 6.0 8.0 0 0 0 0 0 7.0 0 0 6,0
Pimento 6.0 5,5 0 7,5 6.5 5.5 0 7.0 6.5 7.5 18.5 6,0
Peppermint 8,0 11.0 10.0 8.0 0 6.0 0 12.0 16.0 7.0 5.5 7.5
Rose 0 7.0 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 4.5 0 0 5.0
Rosemary 8.0 5.0 7.0 0 13.0 6.0 0 5.5 9.0 9.5 8.5 7.5
Sage 0 0 0 7.0 0 5.0 0 5.0 5.0 0 0 0
St J o h n ' s Wort 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sassafras 5.0 5.0 6.0 0 8.0 6.5 * 7.0 5.5 12.0 0 6.0
Spike 0 7.0 6,5 0 0 0 0 0 6.0 8.0 0 5.0
Star A n i s e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.0 5,0 0 0 0
Thuja 7.0 4.5 0 7.0 10.0 7.5 0 6.0 7.5 20.0 12.0 8.0
Thyme 19.5 2 0 . 5 15.0 27.5 18.5 20.0 21.5 22.5 21.0 10.5 15.5 24.0
Valerian 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Verbena 5.5 6.5 0 8.0 16,0 5.5 0 32.0 7.5 0 6.5 7.5

* Enhancement of growth,
174

TABLE VI
Inhibitory properties (inhibition zone diameter in ram) of plant essential oils (1 : 5 dilution) towards the
bacteria ( A - Y ) listed in Table I

Plant Oil A B C D E F G H 1 J K L M

Almond(Bitter) 0 5.0 0 5.5 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 6.5 0 7.5

Almond(Sweet) 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Angelica 9.5 12.0 7.5 5.0 0 7.5 6,0 9.5 0 6,0 0 0 7.0
Anise 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 7.0
Basil 6.0 7.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 0 0 5.0 0 6,0 6.0 4.5 0
Bay 20.0 16.0 10.5 6.5 8.5 7.0 8.0 13.5 0 6.0 12.5 9.5 11 .5
Bergamot 8.0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 5.5 0 5.0 0 0 0
Calmus 0 6.0 0 10.0 0 0 0 O' 0 0 0 0 8.5
Chamomile 6.5 0 0 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 4.5 0 0 0
Cananga 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 6.5
Caraway 8.0 8.0 5.5 0 5.5 8.0 0 7.5 0 7.5 6.0 6.0 11 5
Cardamon 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 5
Celery 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 5 .0 Q 0 0 0 0 5 0
Cinnamon 10.5 11 . 0 18.0 13 0 10.5 6.0 0 7.5 0 6.0 11 .5 6.0 17 0
Citronella 0 5,5 0 6 5 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 6.5 0 10 5
Clove 42.0 16.0 t2.0 9 0 8.5 8.0 0 8.5 0 7.5 11 . 0 8.0 11 5
Coriander 0 6.5 0 7 0 5.5 6.5 7.0 6.0 0 6.5 6.0 6,5 7.0
Dill 8.5 7.5 0 5 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 6.5 7,5 9.5 0
Estragon 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 7.0 0 0 0 0 0 7.5
Eucalyptus 0 6.5 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5,5 0 0
Fennel 6.0 5.0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 5.5 5,0 0 6,5
Geranium B.O 7.0 0 0 4.5 0 6.5 6.0 0 7.0 6,0 * 0
Ginger 0 0 0 6.5 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 6.0
Laurel 7.0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5 0 6.0 0 0 8.0
Lavender 10.5 8.0 0 5.5 * 0 6.0 7.0 0 7.0 6.0 5.0 0
Lemon 0 6.0 0 5.0 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 9.0
Lime 7.0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5
Lovage 8.5 9.0 0 0 6.0 9.5 0 5.0 0 5,5 7.0 5.0 8,5
Mandarin 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 7.0
Marjoram 10.0 8.5 7.0 8.5 6.0 0 5.5 7.0 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 11.5
Melissa 0 5.5 0 7.5 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 10.5
Mint 9.5 9.0 0 11 . 5 6,0 5.0 5.5 8.5 14,5 7.0 0 7,0 0
Nutmeg 7.5 7.0 0 6.5 5.0 6.0 5.5 4.5 0 6.0 7.0 6,0 8.0
Orange 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 7.0
Orange(Bitter) 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5
Parsley 6.5 7.0 0 0 0 0 0 6.0 0 4.5 5,5 0 8.0
Pepper 0 7.0 0 6.5 5.0 5.5 5.5 5.5 ,0 0 7.0 5,5 7.5
Pimento 11 .0 9.0 0 14.5 6.0 6.5 5.0 8.0 0 6.0 0 6.0 0
Peppermint 9.0 14.0 10.0 8.0 '8.5 8.0 5.5 8.5 0 9.0 10.0 8.0 11 .5
Rose 6.5 7.0 0 5.0 0 0 6.0 6.0 0 0 6 g 0 0
Rosemary 8.0 7.0 0 5.5 0 0 5.0 7.0 8.0 7.5 5 5 4 5 8.0
Sage 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9.5
St John's ~Jort 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0
Sassafras 8.5 8.5 5.5 0 5.5 12.0 0 6.5 6.0 6.5 6 5 4 5 7,5
Spike 8.0 7.0 0 6.0 0 6.0 7.0 5.5 0 0 4 5 6 0 9,5
Star Anise 5.5 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 5 8,5
Thuja 10.0 7.0 0 7.5 5 .0 6.0 6.0 7.0 0 7.0 6 5 6 0 0
Thyme 17.5 19.0 16.5 11.0 16.0 19.5 13.5 18.5 0 20.0 15 0 20 5 22,0
Valerian 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 4.5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Verbena 9.5 8.5 5.0 5.0 7.0 8.5 5.5 6,0 0 7.5 8 0 0 10.5
 175

TABLE VI (continued)

Plant Oil N O P Q R S T U V W X Y

Almond(Bitter) 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 6.0 6.5 10.0 0

Almond(Sweet) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Angelica 6.0 4.5 0 9 5 8.5 0 5.0 5.5 5.5 7.0 0 6.5
Anise 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Basil 0 0 7.5 0 6.0 4.5 5.0 6.0 0 7.0 0 5.5
Bay 7.5 8.5 9.0 6 0 13.0 11.0 6.5 1 5 . 5 1 3 . 0 1 5 . 5 6.5 1 1 . 0
Bergamot 0 0 6.5 10 5 6.0 6.0 0 5.0 6.5 0 9.5 0
Calmus 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Chamomile 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 0 0 6.0 0 0 0
Cananga 0 0 * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Caraway 7.0 4.5 0 0 7.0 6.0 0 5.5 8.0 24.0 0 5.5
Cardamon 0 0 4.5 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 0 0 0
Celery 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 6.0 0
Cinnamon 7.5 7.0 5.5 9.0 0 8.0 5.5 1 0 . 5 11 .0 7.5 0 8.5
Citronella 0 6.0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 7.0 6.0 6.0
Clove 7.5 1 0 . 0 11.5 8.0 0 7.5 7.0 8.0 14.0 9.0 0 9.0
Coriander 6.5 8 0 8.0 0 0 0 0 6.5 6.0 5.0 0 6.5
Dill 5.5 0 0 7.0 6.0 7.0 4.5 6.0 7.0 0 0 6.0
Estragon 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Eucalyptus 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 ?'.5 5.5 0 0 0
Fennel 0 0 8.0 0 6.0 6.0 0 7.0 4.5 0 0 0
Geranium 5.5 6 0 0 6.5 6.0 6.5 0 5.5 5.0 9.5 0 6.5
Ginger 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Laurel 6 0 6 0 0 0 5.5 8.0 0 6.0 6.0 10.5 0 0
Lavender 7 0 0 0 6.0 7.0 6,0 0 6.0 9.0 10.0 7.5 0
Lemon 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lime 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lovage 5 5 6.0 0 0 7.0 7.5 4.5 5.5 5.0 6.0 5.0 7.5
Mandarin 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Marjoram 6.0 5.5 0 0 7.0 10.0 5.0 5.0 6.5 0 9.0 7.5
Melissa 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mint 7.0 7.5 0 6.5 6.0 5.5 4.5 7.0 5.0 0 15.0 7.0
Nutmeg 5.5 0 8.0 0 0 5.5 0 0 5.5 0 0 0
Orange 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.5
Orange(Bitter) 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Parsley 5.0 0 7.0 0 6.0 6.5 0 5.5 * 0 0 0
Pepper 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 6.0
Pimento 6.5 6.5 0 5.5 7.0 6.0 * 6.0 5.5 0 15.0 7.0
Peppermint 9.0 9.5 9.5 7.0 0 8.5 6.0 7.5 1 9 . 0 7.0 0 8.5
Rose 0 5.5 6.0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0
Rosemary 6.0 0 8.0 0 7.0 6.0 0 5.5 7.0 0 5.0 0
Sage 4.5 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 6.0 5.0 0 0 0
St John ' s Wort 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sassafras 5.5 4.5 6.0 0 7.5 6.0 5.0 5.0 6.5 0 0 0
Spike 0 7.0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 5.5 5.5 6.5
Star A n i s e 0 0 0 0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 6.5 0 0 6.0
Thuja 7.5 0 0 6.5 7.0 5,5 5.0 6.0 6.5 6.5 7.0 7.0
Thyme 17.0 18.5 8.5 1 3 . 0 1 6 . 0 1 5 . 5 1 4 . 5 2 5 . 0 1 5 . 0 2 1 . 0 11.5 1 7 . 5
Valerian 0 0 5 .0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Verbena 5.0 5.5 0 6.5 1 0 . 0 6.5 5.0 20.5 6.0 8.5 5.0 6.5

* Enhancement of growth.
176

T A B L E VII
I n h i b i t o r y p r o p e r t i e s ( i n h i b i t i o n zone d i a m e t e r in m m ) of p l a n t essential oils (1 : 10 d i l u t i o n ) t o w a r d s the
b a c t e r i a ( A - Y ) listed in T a b l e I

Plant Oil A B C D E F G H 1 J K L M

Almond(Bitter) 0 0 0 5.5 O 6 0 5.0 0 0 0 6.0 0 0

Almond(Sweet) O 0 0 0 0 0 6.5 O 0 0 0 0 0
Angelica 7.0 6.5 0 0 0 9 5 5.5 0 7.0 5.0 5.0 0 6.0
Anise 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 6.5
Basil 5.0 0 5.5 0 4.5 0 0 5.0 0 5.5 5.0 0 6.0
Bay 15.0 16.0 10.0 6.0 9.5 0 7.0 7.5 0 7.5 10.5 8.5 7.5
Bergamot 6.5 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 7.0 5.0 0 0 6.5
Calmus 0 6.0 0 8.0 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 7.0
Chamomile 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 5.5 5.0 0 0 6.5
Cananga 8.5 O 7.0 0 0 5 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 6.0
Caraway 7.0 7.0 5.0 0 6.0 0 5 0 6.5 0 6.0 6.0 * 6.5
Cardamon O 5.0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5
Celery 0 0 0 9.5 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 70
Cinnamon 6.5 8.5 10.0 6.0 7.5 6 0 5 5 8.0 0 0 10.5 7.0 16.5
Citronella 5.5 6.5 0 7.5 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 5.5 0 9.5
Clove 15.0 13.0 10.5 9.0 9.0 7 5 6 0 8.0 0 6.0 11 . 5 8.0 12.0
Coriander 0 7.0 0 6.0 0 0 6 0 5.0 0 5.5 6.5 6.0 8.0
Dill 7.0 7.5 0 0 O 6 5 0 5.5 0 6.0 5 .5 * 6 5
Estragon 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 5,0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0
Eucalyptus 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.5 0 5 0
Fennel O 7.0 0 6.0 0 0 0 5.0 0 5.0 5 .0 0 5 5
Geranium 7.5 7.0 0 O 6.0 0 6,5 6.0 0 6.0 6.5 0 8 5
Ginger 0 0 0 10.0 0 0 6,0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5
Laurel 6.0 6.0 0 0 5.0 0 0 5,0 0 5.5 0 0 8 0
Lavender 6.0 8.0 0 0 7.0 0 5.0 6.0 0 6.5 6.0 * 9 5
Lemon 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5
Lime 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0
Lovage 7.0 8.0 0 0 5.0 8.5 5 5 6.0 0 6.0 7.0 0 7 0
Mandarin 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 60
Marjoram 5.5 6.0 5.0 8.5 6.0 8.0 5 5 5.5 0 7.0 6.0 5.5 9.5
Melissa 0 5.5 0 7.0 0 0 5 5 0 Q 0 5.5 0 80
Mint 7.0 7.0 0 8.5 5.0 0 5 0 8,0 10.5 6.0 0 7.5 0
Nutmeg 0 7.5 0 6.5 0 5.5 7 0 5.0 0 0 6.0 5.5 7.0
Orange 0 0 0 O 0 0 7 5 0 0 0 0 0 8.0
Orange(Bitter) 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 75
Parsley 6.0 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 5,5 0 5.0 0 0 9 0
Pepper 0 6.0 0 6.5 0 0 12.0 0 ,0 0 5.0 0 7.0
Pimento 13.0 12.0 9.0 7.0 5.5 0 5.5 5,5 0 6.5 6.0 0 0
Peppermint 8.5 8.0 0 13.5 8.5 7.5 5.0 6,5 0 8.0 10.0 8.0 11 0
Rose 7.0 6.0 0 5.0 0 0 5.5 5.5 0 0 5.5 0 90
Rosemary 6.0 6.0 0 0 4.5 0 0 6,0 15.0 6.5 * 0 50
Sage 0 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 4.5 O O b.O
St J o h n ' s Wort 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sassafras 8.5 8.5 6.5 0 5.0 0 0 5,0 0 6.0 6.0 5.0 8.5
spike 8.5 6.0 0 0 0 7.0 5.5 0 0 0 6.5 6.0 6.5
Star Anise 6.0 6.5 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 5.5 0 5.0 6.0
Thuja 7.0 7.0 0 7.0 4.5 0 5.0 0 9.0 6.5 6.0 0 7 5
Thyme 17.0 13.0 14.011.5 13.0 17.5 12.0 13,5 0 10.5 135 15.5 25 0
Valerian 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Verbena 9.0 8.5 6.0 7.0 7.0 22.0 7.0 6,0 0 6.5 0 4.5 130
 177

TABLE Vll (continued)

Plant Oil N O P Q R S T U V W X Y

Almond(Bitter) 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 7.0 5.0 7.5 0

Almond(Sweet) 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Angelica 5.0 5,0 0 0 7.0 0 4.5 4.5 5.5 0 0 0
Anise 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Basil 5.0 0 5,5 0 6.5 0 4.5 5.0 5.5 0 0 0
Bay 7.5 7.5 13.5 0 11.,5 9.5 6.0 8,5 10.0 20.0 7.5 9.5
Bergamot 0 5.0 6.5 5.5 6.0 6.0 4.5 5.5 0 0 0 0
Calmus 0 0 8.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0
Chamomile 4.5 0 0 5.0 0 0 * 0 4.5 0 0 0
Cananga 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Caraway 5.0 0 6 5 0 6.5 5.0 0 5.5 4.5 0 0 0
Cardamon 0 0 6 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Celery 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cinnamon 0 7.0 6 5 8.0 0 6.0 0 9,0 11 .0 6.5 0 8.0
Citronella 0 6.5 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.0
Clove 8.0 9.0 9 5 6.5 0 8.5 6.0 9.0 16.0 0 6.0 9.0
Coriander 5.5 6.0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.5 5.0 0 5.5
Dill 5.5 0 0 0 6.0 5.5 5.0 * 4.5 0 0 0
Estragon 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Eucalyptus 0 0 7.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fennel 0 0 6.5 0 5.5 5.0 * 5.5 5,0 0 0 0
Geranium 5.5 6.0 0 6.0 6.5 6.0 5.0 6.0 4.5 11.0 0 5.5
Ginger 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Laurel 5,5 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 5.5 7.0 5.0 0 0
Lavender 6.5 0 0 0 5.5 5.5 0 6.5 5.5 0 0 0
Lemon 0 0 5 .5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lime 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 (] 0 0 0
Lovage 5.5 4.5 7.0 6.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 6.5 6.5 0 0 7.0
Mandarin 0 0 7.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Marjoram 6.0 0 0 0 6.0 6.5 0 5.5 7.0 5.0 6.5 0
Melissa 0 0 5.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0
Mint 5.5 5.0 0 0 6.5 5.0 5.5 7.0 6,0 0 10.0 6.0
Nutmeg 0 0 7.5 0 0 5,5 0 0 6.0 0 0 5.5
Orange 0 0 7.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Orange(Bitter) 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Parsley 4.5 0 0 0 7.0 0 0 6.0 6.0 5.5 0 0
Pepper 0 0 6.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0
Pimento 5,0 6.0 0 0 5,5 7.0 5.0 6.0 6,5 0 0 0
Peppermint 8.0 8.0 12.0 7.0 0 8.0 5.5 8,0 14.0 7.0 5.5 9.5
Rose 0 6.5 0 0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.0
Rosemary 5.0 0 0 0 5.5 5.0 * 7.0 5.5 0 0 0
Sage 0 0 0 0 7.0 0 0 5.5 5.0 0 12.5 0
St J o h n ' s ~/ort 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sassafras 5,0 0 0 0 7.0 0 4.5 6.0 6,0 0 0 5.0
Spike 0 6.0 6.0 0 0 0 0 0 5.5 0 0 5.5
Star Anise 5.0 0 5.5 0 0 0 4.5 5.5 5.5 0 0 0
Thuja 5.5 0 0 0 6.5 6.0 6.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 6.0 6.5
Thyme 12.0 14.0 0 9.5 0 11.0 5.5 13.5 12.5 17.5 10.0 16.0
Valerian 0 0 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Verbena 5.5 0 0 7.5 7.0 7.0 0 16.5 6.5 15.0 5.0 6.0

* Enhancement of growth.
178

1984a). These workers suggested that the heat treatment caused impairment to or
lesions in the cytoplasmic membrane, allowing the anti-yeast components in the oils
access to the cytoplasm wherein normal metabolism was impaired. H u g o and
Russell (1980) described the site of action of several classes of non-antibiotic
antibacterial agents.
The relationship between inhibitor concentration (c) and reaction time (t) for an
antimicrobial agent has been defined by Tilley (1939) in the equation

log t 2 - l o g tl
FI=
log c l - l o g c2

where n indicated the order of the reaction and was referred to as the 'concentration
exponent' (Hugo and Denyer, 1987).
The activity of the antimicrobial agent was measured over a concentration range,
where t 1 was the time to kill at concentration cl and t 2 was the time to kill at
concentration c 2. Alternatively, the value of n can be estimated from the gradient of
the plot of log t against log c (Lusher et al., 1984). If an antirnicrobial c o m p o u n d
had a concentration exponent of 1.0, its killing power would be reduced by the
power of 1.0 on dilution. Thus, a three-fold dilution would reduce its activity by a
third, or it would require three times as long to achieve the same lethality as the
undiluted material. However, if the concentration exponent was 5.0, a three-fold
dilution would reduce its activity by a factor of 243. There was evidence of differing
concentration exponent values for the plant oils under examination in this study.
Problems associated with variation in the quality of plant essential oils may be
overcome by in vitro culture of plant cells in batch culture. Biotechnology is playing
an increasingly important role in the production of biologically active plant
metabolites (Allan and Fowler, 1985; Balandrin et al., 1985). Recent advances in
molecular biology (Hamill et al., 1986; Rhodes et al., 1986) have revealed that even
organized root tissue could be genetically modified to allow successful growth in
continuous culture reactors. Under such circumstances, above-normal concentra-
tions of readily recoverable exogenous secondary metabolites were realised.

Acknowledgement

The authors wish to acknowledge the excellent technical assistance from Mrs. E.
Eaglesham during this work.

References

Allan, E.J., and M.W. Fowler, 1985 Biologicallyactive plant secondarymetabolites - perspectives for the
future. Chem. Ind. 17 June, 1985.
Aktug, S.E., and M. Karapinar, 1986. Sensitivity of some common food-poisoning bacteria to thyme,
mint and bay leaves. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 3, 349-354.
 179

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