GRADE 12 HISTORY

UNIT 3
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
IN ETHIOPIA, MID 19TH C. TO 1941
PART-1
 UNIT 3
Social, economic and political developments
In Ethiopia, mid 19th c. To 1941
 Long Distance Trade and Peoples’ Interaction in Ethiopia in the 19th Century

 Power Rivalry and Consolidating Central Government, 1855-1913

 Territorial Expansion and the Incorporation of Kingdom

 External Relations, Challenges and Threats

 Victory of Adwa

 Religious Reforms

 Power Struggle among Ruling Elites, 1906-1935

 CONTENTS OF THE UNIT
3.1. Long Distance Trade and Peoples’ Interaction in Ethiopia in the 19th Century
3.2. Rivalry and Consolidating Central Government, 1855-1913
3.3. Religious Doctrinal Controversies
[Link] Expansion and Disappearance of Local States
3.5. External Relations and Challenges
3.6. The Victory of Adwa
3.7. The Birth of Eritrea as an Italian Colony
3.8. Power Struggle among Ruling Elites, 1906-1935
3.9. Italian Aggression and the Patriotic Resistance: Causes and Courses of the War
 Learning outcomes: at the end of this unit, you will be able to:
 Analyse the revival and consolidation of the central authorities and the unification of
the Ethiopian State;
 Explain the great struggle and survival of Ethiopia’s independence;
 Appreciate the Ethiopian people’s sacrifices for the causes of independence and
sovereignty
 INTRODUCTION

 The unit explores

 Ethiopia's historical developments from 1855 to 1941, highlighting trade, political
centralization, and the victory at Adwa.
 It addresses religious controversies, the rise of Eritrea and Djibouti as colonies, internal
power struggles, and Italian aggression.
 3.1. Long-Distance Trade and peoples’ Interaction in 19th Century
Ethiopia

Revival of Long-Distance Trade and Peoples’ Interaction

 Historical Context:
• Increased trade activity despite regional instability
• Interaction among Ethiopian regions and across borders
Factors Contributing to Trade Revival
 Oromo Monarchical Systems:
• Establishment of monarchical systems in south-western Oromo regions
• Rise of five Oromo Kingdoms in the Gibe region fostered economic stability

 Improved Political Climate:

• Reduced regional feudal conflicts over time
• Egyptian conquest of South Arabia in early 19th century stabilized the Red Sea region

 Significance of the Red Sea:

• Key trade route connecting Ethiopia to other regions
• Increasingly safe and essential for the flow of goods
Trade Routes and Market Centers
 Major Market Centers:
• Assendabo (Guduru): Connected Abay and Gibe River valleys, key trade hub
• Basso Market (Gojjam):
 North of Abay River, meeting point for diverse Ethiopian merchants
 Served Christian and Muslim traders from Tigray, Gondar, Wollo, Shewa, and
Oromia
• Wollo Centers:
 Bati and Ancharo: Major market hubs in Wollo
Long distance trade routes
Primary Caravan Trade Routes
 Main Routes:
• Route 1: Bonga → Jimma → Saka → Assendabo → Basso → Gondar
Extensions:
 Gondar → Metemma → Sudan
 Gondar → Adwa → Massawa (Red Sea)
• Route 2: Bonga → Jimma → Saka → Assendabo → Aussa → Tajura/Obock (coastal ports)
• Route 3: Bonga → Jimma → Soddo (Gurage land) → Ankober → Harar → Zeila/Berbera (Gulf of
Aden)
Expansion of Shewan Kingdom’s Influence
 Consolidation of Shewan Kingdom:
• Strengthened caravan routes connecting Shewa with Harar
• Enhanced trade from Harar to coastal ports (Zeila, Berbera)

 Harari Merchants’ Trade Growth:

• Frequent visits to Ankober and the Shewan Plateau, fostering trade links
 Summary
 Revival of Trade due to Oromo Kingdoms, Red Sea stability, and decreased feudal
conflicts
 Important Routes:
• Gibe to Basso and Gondar
• Gibe to Aussa to Tajura/Obock
• Gibe to Harar to Zeila/Berbera

 Main Market Centers: Assendabo, Basso, Bati, Ancharo, Soddo, and Gondar
 19th Century Trade Items in Ethiopia

 Main Export Commodities:

• Ivory, Civet, Gold, Wax, Animal Skins, Slaves

• Coffee emerged as an export item in the late 19th century

 Characteristics of Ethiopian Exports:

• Natural products, primarily sourced from southwestern Ethiopia

• Agriculture remains a primary export focus even today

 The Role of Slavery in Ethiopian Trade

 Historical Context:
• Slaves were a major Ethiopian export since ancient times
• Destinations included Sudan and Arabia
 Key Slave Markets:
• Yejjube (Gojjam)
• Abdul Rasul, near Aleyu Amba
 Growth of Coffee Trade
 Emergence of Coffee:
• Coffee became a notable export by the late 19th century
• 20th-century rail transport facilitated larger-scale exports
 Merchant Communities and Trade Leadership
 Merchant Groups:
• Jabarti Merchants: Predominantly Muslim traders from northern Ethiopia
• Caravan Leadership: One trader selected as Negade Ras (later Negadras), the head of the
caravan
 Rise of Afkala Merchants:
• Based in southwestern Ethiopia and dominated local trade in the Gibe region
• Stronger protection from local communities allowed safer travel between markets
 Trade Competition and Dominance

 Jabarti and Afkala Rivalry:

• Jabarti merchants initially held dominance in long-distance trade
• By mid-19th century, Afkala merchants gained control of key caravan routes and
trade items
 Market Network:
• Afkala merchants established connections across multiple trade routes and had
easier access to important trade goods
Impact of Trade on Political and Social Interaction
 Spread of Islam through Trade:
• Muslim merchants introduced Islam to the Gibe region in the first half of the 19th century
 Political Influence of Islam:
• Islam supported Oromo chiefs in forming monarchies
• Monarchies replaced the Gada system, reinforcing hereditary rule and centralizing authority
Trade as a Connector between Regions
 Cultural Exchange:
• Long-distance trade facilitated interactions between northern and south-western
Ethiopia
• Northern merchants and Gibe region people formed social and economic ties
 GRADE 12 HISTORY
UNIT 3
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
IN ETHIOPIA, MID 19TH C. TO 1941
PART-2
 3.2 Power Rivalry and Consolidating Central Government, 1855- 1913
Power Rivalry and Central Government Consolidation in Ethiopia (1855–1913)
 Background (1769–mid-19th century):
• Period of intense regionalism, known as the Zemene Mesafint (Era of Princes)
• Fragmented power with several semi-independent regions and weakened
Solomonic monarchy
 Yejju Rases (1769–1855):
• Also called the Worashe dynasty; Amharized Oromos with Mslimu origins
• Capital: Debre Tabor; title: Ras Bitwoded
• Could not achieve lasting peace or unity in Ethiopia
 [Link] Doctrinal Controversies in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
 Christianity in Ethiopia:
• Introduced in the 4th century; Orthodox Christianity became dominant

 Doctrinal Disputes:
• Medieval Period: Debate on Sabbath observance resolved in 1450 by Emperor Zerayacob
• Zemene Mesafint Disputes:
 Soset Ledet vs. Hulet Ledet: Disagreement on the number of Christ's births, with Hulet Ledet
(Karra) gaining Emperor Yohannis IV’s support
• Regional Doctrines:
 Qebat (Unction): Popular in Gojjam
 Ye Tsega Lej (Grace): First in Gondar, then Shewa
 Tewahedo (Union): Dominant in Tigray and Lasta, supported by the Egyptian Patriarch

• Impact on Unity: Regional loyalties deepened divisions, limiting the Church’s role as a
unifying force
Impact of the Zemene Mesafint on Ethiopian Society
 Civil Wars and Regional Conflicts:
• Regional lords frequently waged wars, with peasants as the primary victims
• Peasant Hardships:
 Forced military service and heavy taxation by local lords
 Obligated to shelter and support soldiers through the billeting system
 Disruption of agriculture, leading to widespread impoverishment

 Periods of Relative Peace:

• Under Ras Gugsa: Worashe hegemony briefly stabilized
• However, regions like Shewa and Tigray maintained semi-autonomy
Kassa Hailu’s Rise Against the Worashe Dynasty
 Kassa Hailu’s Campaign:
• Driven by a vision of unifying Ethiopia and restoring stability
• Fought four decisive battles against powerful regional lords:

1. Battle of Guramba (Nov 1852): Defeated Dejach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam

2. Battle of Gorgora Bichen (April 1853): Routed Ras Ali Alula’s vassals
3. Battle of Ayshal (June 29, 1853): Defeated Ras Ali Alula, ending Worashe rule
The Final Battle and the End of the Zemene Mesafint
 Battle of Deresge (Feb 1855):
• Kassa’s forces met and defeated the last powerful regional lord, Dejach Wube Haile Mariam of
Simen
• Following victory, Kassa Hailu ascended the throne as Emperor Tewodros II

Significance:
 Ended the Zemene Mesafint
 Marked the beginning of Ethiopia’s modern centralized government
Legacy of Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855–1868)
 Centralization and Modernization Efforts:
• Worked to centralize authority and curb the power of regional lords
• Pursued initiatives to modernize Ethiopia’s military and governance

 Enduring Challenges:
• Tewodros II’s rule faced internal resistance and external pressures, setting the stage for future
rulers
 Summary
 End of the Zemene Mesafint:
• The Era of Princes was characterized by regionalism, religious controversies, and civil unrest
• Tewodros II’s Rise: Signaled a new chapter focused on unity, central authority, and
modernization
 Legacy for Future Leaders:
• Established a foundation for centralized rule, influencing subsequent leaders in Ethiopian
history
 Emperor Tewodros II and His Reforms
Empire Origins:
 Emperor Tewodros II (1855-1868) aimed to modernize Ethiopia, unifying the
country and preparing it against foreign aggression, particularly from Egypt.
 Key Reforms
 Centralization:
• Introduced a centralized administration to strengthen imperial control over regional lords.
• Launched military campaigns against regions like Wollo, Gojjam, and Shewa.

 Military Reforms:
• Lessons from Defeat: After the Battle of Deberki (1848), he recognized the need for military
training and modern weapons.
• Training and Discipline: Established military ranks (e.g., Aser Aleqa, Hamsa Aleqa) and
emphasized modern training drills.
• Arms Production: Sought to produce firearms in Ethiopia, requesting skilled personnel from
Queen Victoria of England.
Conflict with the Church
 Tensions with the Orthodox Church:
• Attempted to confiscate church lands to redistribute to peasants, leading to conflict with
Abune Selama.
• Excommunication by the patriarch resulted in Tewodros imprisoning him, which contributed to
his downfall.
 Challenges and Downfall
 Resistance from Regional Lords:
• Loss of regional power among the lords led to increasing opposition against Tewodros.
• Key figures like Tisso Gobeze and Menelik of Shewa emerged as rivals.

 British Relations:
• After failing to receive British assistance, Tewodros took British consul Captain Cameron and
missionaries hostage to force arms production at his gun-foundry in Gafat.
• The situation escalated, leading to British military intervention in 1867.
 The Legacy of Emperor Tewodros II and His Successors
 The end of Emperor Tewodros II's reign set the stage for a power struggle among
regional lords and the evolution of the Ethiopian state
Conflict with Britain
 Attempts at Negotiation: The British sent Hormuzd Rassam to negotiate the release of
European captives, but Tewodros refused.
 Military Expedition: In 1867, General Robert Napier led a British force (32,000-40,000)
against Tewodros’s declining army (5,000-10,000).
 Battle of Arogee: On April 10, 1868, Tewodros’s forces were defeated, and his key
general, Fitawrari Gebreye, was killed.
 Final Surrender: Tewodros released the hostages and committed suicide on April 13,
1868, rather than surrender.
Aftermath of Tewodros's Death
 Power Struggle: His death led to a scramble for power among leading lords.
 Wagshum Gobezie: Became Emperor Tekle Giorgis but faced opposition and was
defeated by Dejzmach Kassa Mircha of Tigray in July 1871.
 Kassa Mircha Declares Himself Emperor: Became Emperor Yohannis IV (1872-1889).
Emperor Yohannis IV's Reign
 Political Style: Adopted a more liberal approach, allowing regional rulers autonomy.
 Successes:
• Defended against Egyptian and Italian invasions.
• Fought against Mahdist forces in Sudan but died at the Battle of Metemma in 1889.
Shift of Political Center to Shewa
 Succession: Negus Menilek of Shewa inherited the throne after Yohannis IV.
 Menilek II’s Achievements:
• Territorial Expansion: Expanded the Shewan kingdom significantly.
• Modernization Efforts: Continued Tewodros's legacy of modernization.
• Battle of Adwa (1896): Achieved a historic victory against Italy, establishing internationally
recognized boundaries for Ethiopia.
 Summary
 The aspirations for unification and modernization, initiated by Tewodros II, were built
upon by his successors, ultimately leading to the formation of a cohesive Ethiopian
state under Menilek II.
 GRADE 12 HISTORY
UNIT 3
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
IN ETHIOPIA, MID 19TH C. TO 1941
PART-3
 3.4. Territorial Expansion and Disappearance of Local States
Introduction to Territorial Expansion
 Common practice among kings of the central highland kingdom
 Significant expansions noted during the medieval period
King Amde Tsion's Expansion
 Major territorial expansion initiatives
 Focus on southwestern and southeastern territories of present-day Ethiopia
Menilek's Expansion of Territory
 Initiated territorial expansion while king of Shewa
 Desire to control long-distance trade in southern and southwestern Ethiopia
Phases of Menilek's Territorial Expansion
 First Phase (1870-1889): Incorporation of Oromo clans of Shewa and peaceful
submission of Kistane Gurage.
 Second Phase (1889-1896): Significant military campaigns against resistant regions.
 Third Phase (1896-1900): Consolidation of control over newly acquired territories
Key Battles and Resistance
 Battle of Embabo (June 6, 1882): Victory over Negus Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam
allowed expansion into southwestern Ethiopia.
 Resistance in Arsi: Six unsuccessful campaigns against the Arsi Oromo; finally
subdued in 1886 at the Battle of Azule.
 Incorporation of Southwestern Kingdoms
 Local rulers like King Aba Jifar of Jimma and Jote Tulu of Leqa Qellem accepted
peaceful submission.
 Internal administrative autonomy granted to these kingdoms in exchange for
submission.
The Emirate of Harar
 Subdued after the bloody Battle of Chelenqo (January 6, 1887).
 Control of Harar enabled dominance over eastern trade routes.
Impact of the Great Famine
 After the incorporation of Harar in 1887, no further campaigns until the Wolaita
campaign of 1894 due to the Great Famine (Kefu Qen) affecting northern and central
Ethiopia.
 Summary
 Territorial expansions were vital for resource acquisition and trade control.
 Centralization policies significantly impacted regional dynamics and governance.
Incorporation of the Kingdom of Wolaita
 Rich resources attracted Emperor Menelik's forces.
 The campaign for incorporation was one of the bloodiest.
Key Figures in the Wolaita Campaign
 Emperor Menelik personally participated.
 Notable leaders: Ras Michael, Fitawrari Gebeyehu, Liqe Meqwas Abate, Dejach
Balcha, Ras Wolde Giorgis, and Aba Jifar II.
Resistance from Wolaita
 The Wolaita people, led by King KawoTona, organized a determined fight.
 Employed indigenous techniques of warfare against Menelik's forces.
Outcome of the Wolaita Campaign
 KawoTona was wounded and captured, becoming a prisoner for life.
 The campaign in 1894 marked the end of Wolaita's independence, incorporating it
into the Ethiopian Empire.
Incorporation of the Kingdom of Kafa
 An independent state with its own dynasty.
 Campaign followed Ethiopia's victory over the Italians.
Resistance from Kafa
 Led by monarch Tato Gaki Sherecho, the Kafa people resisted Menelik's forces.
 Ras Wolde Giorgis commanded Menelik’s army during the campaign.
Outcome of the Kafa Campaign
 Concluded with significant loss of life and material damage.
 Tato Gaki Sherecho was wounded and captured, becoming a prisoner until his death.
Post-Adwa Campaigns
 Aimed to check European colonial advances.
 Incorporation of Beni Shangul, Gambella, Borena, and much of the Ogaden.
Role of Local Rulers
 Local rulers like Dejach Jote Tulu of Qellem and Dejach Kumsa Moreda of Neqamte
provided military support.
 Defection of Sheikh Abdurrahman Hojele weakened local resistance.
Aftermath of Incorporation
 Loyal rulers reinstated as vassals; peaceful submissions allowed local rulers to remain
in power.
 Resisting rulers dismissed, leading to land alienation.
The Nature of Land Tenure Systems in Ethiopia
Overview of Land Tenure Systems
 Distinct land tenure systems in northern and southern Ethiopia, especially post-19th
century.
 Traditional community ownership persists in the north.
Northern Ethiopia's Land Tenure
 Provinces: Tigray, Begemder, Gojjam, Wollo, Northern Shewa.
 Rist System: Communal land ownership based on blood connection to original
landowners.
 Gult System: Right to collect tax, initially non-hereditary.
The Gebbar-Melkegna System
 Gebbar: Land-holding peasants paying tribute (giber) to the state.
 Tribute often in kind or through unpaid labor.
 Services included agriculture, construction, and domestic tasks.
 Gult owners (Melkegnas) were influential local representatives of the government.
Changing Dynamics in Southern Ethiopia
 Menelik’s expansion altered land tenure in the south, west, and east.
 Eased congestion in northern rist lands by providing new settlement areas.
Transition of Gult Rights
 Gult rights became hereditary, leading to the rise of the riste-gult system.
 Gult land allocated to government officials, churches, and monasteries.
Impact on Southern Territories
 Transposed gebbar-melkegna relations to newly incorporated regions.
 Peacefully submitted areas retained some autonomy from the gebbar-melkegna
system.
Introduction of the Qelad System
 Gradual alienation of peasants from their land in the south.
 Qelad System: New land measurement system appropriating land for the central
government.
 Facilitated privatization and increased state revenue based on land fertility
Consequences for Southern Peasants
 Peasants reduced from land-owing farmers to insecure tenants.
 Poor peasants forced to migrate to urban centers in search of employment.
 GRADE 12 HISTORY
UNIT 3
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
IN ETHIOPIA, MID 19TH C. TO 1941
PART-4
 [Link] Relations and Challenges
The External Challenge
 Tewodros sought technological assistance from European nations for modernization.
 Lack of positive response from Britain led to the detention of the British consul and
other Europeans.
 Resulted in a British military expedition against Tewodros.
The Storming of Meqdela
 British forces stormed and plundered Meqdela.
 After securing the release of European captives, the British withdrew from Ethiopia.
The Battles of Gundet and Gura
 In 1875, Khedieve Ismael Pasha of Egypt launched a war of aggression against
Ethiopia.
 Egyptian forces attacked from three directions, occupying Harar and attempting to
enter through Tajura.
The Battle of Gundet
 Emperor Yohannis IV issued a mobilization order in October 1875.
 Commanded an army of 20,000 to 25,000 against the Egyptians at Gundet on
November 16, 1875.
 Ethiopians achieved a decisive victory, killing Colonel Arendrup and around 1,320
Egyptian troops.
Aftermath of Gundet
 Despite the victory, Egyptians did not withdraw from Ethiopian territory.
 Khedieve Ismael prepared a second, larger expedition to avenge the defeat.
The Battle of Gura
 In March 1876, 15,000 Egyptian troops invaded Ethiopia under Mohammed Ratib
Pasha.
 The battle took place between March 7 and 9, 1876, in Akale Guzay (modern Eritrea).
 Ethiopians captured 2,500 Egyptian soldiers and significant weaponry.
Consequences of the Battles
 Victories at Gundet and Gura did not lead to lasting peace or control over occupied
territories.
 Yohannis IV struggled to push Egyptians out of Massawa and Bogos.
 Khedieve Ismael learned that he could not annex Ethiopia by force
Impact on Ethiopian Leadership
 Ethiopian victories helped establish Yohannis IV's supremacy over regional lords.
 The captured weapons from the Egyptian troops bolstered Ethiopian military strength.
The Dogali Incident
 In 1885, Italy, supported by Britain, occupied Massawa and expanded inland.
 Conflict arose over control of Mereb Melash between Italians and Ethiopian forces.
Key Event:
 On January 26, 1887, Ras Alula destroyed an Italian army at Dogali, marking Italy's
first defeat in Ethiopia.
Consequences:
 Italy demanded an apology from Yohannis IV, which he refused, leading to
heightened tensions and preparations for war.
The Hewett (Adwa) Treaty of 1884
 Signed by Emperor Yohannis IV and Admiral William Hewett in 1884.
Key Points:
 Yohannis IV agreed to facilitate the evacuation of Egyptian troops via Ethiopia.
 In return, the British promised to return Bogos and make Massawa a free port for
Ethiopia.
Outcome:
 Yohannis honored his commitment; the British did not fulfill theirs, allowing Italy to
occupy Massawa.
Preparations for War
 After the Dogali incident, Emperor Yohannis mobilized an army of 80,000 in March
1888.
 He marched towards Saati but retreated when the Italians refused to engage.
Internal Challenges:
 Threats from Mahadists in Gondar and disobedience from regional leaders like
Menilek of Shewa and Teklehaimanot of Gojjam.
Ras Alula Engeda (Alula aba Aegga)
The Battle of Metemma
 In 1889, Yohannis faced a three-front crisis: Mahadists, Italians, and internal dissent.
 Battle Date: March 9, 1889.
Outcome:
 Ethiopian forces initially successful but lost due to Yohannis being fatally wounded.
 His death marked a significant shift in power dynamics within Ethiopia.
Consequences of Metemma
 The battle led to a power shift from the Tigrean house to Shewa.
 Menilek II was crowned Emperor, while the absence of strong northern defenses
allowed Italian advances into Ethiopia.
 Italy proclaimed Eritrea as a colony on January 1, 1890.
Religious Division and Doctrinal Debates
 Yohannis IV attempted to enforce religious uniformity, leading to tensions with
Muslims and within the Orthodox Church.
Council of Borumeda (1878):
 Offered Muslims conversion or loss of land; some complied, while others resisted.
Orthodox Church:
 Efforts to end doctrinal disputes by enforcing the Tewahedo doctrine.
The Battle of Adwa
 Menilek II's relations with Italy began in 1876, culminating in the controversial Treaty
of Wuchale (1889).
Key Conflict:
 Article 17 of the treaty had different interpretations, leading to Italian claims of
protectorate status over Ethiopia.
 Menilek abrogated the treaty in 1893, escalating tensions
VICTORY OF ADWA
The Adwa Campaign
 The Adwa campaign (1895-1896) included three phases: Ambalage, siege of Mekelle,
and the final battle at Adwa.
 Ethiopian forces, about 100,000 strong, were well-armed and united against the
Italians.
 Final Battle Date: March 1, 1896.
Outcome:
 Major Ethiopian victory; Italians suffered heavy losses, leading to a general retreat.
Aftermath of the Battle of Adwa
 Italy's ambitions to colonize Ethiopia ended in failure.
 The Treaty of Addis Ababa (October 26, 1896) declared the Treaty of Wuchale null
and void.
 Italy recognized Ethiopian independence, marking a significant moment in African
resistance against colonialism.
 GRADE 12 HISTORY
UNIT 3
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENTS
IN ETHIOPIA, MID 19TH C. TO 1941
PART-4
 [Link] Victory of Adwa
 Date: March 1, 1896
 Context: Ethiopian forces defeated the Italian army, marking a pivotal moment in
Ethiopian and African history
Significance of the Victory of Adwa
Political Impact:
 Resignation of Italian Prime Minister Crispi.
 Established Ethiopia as the only independent African nation recognized by colonial
powers.
Restoring Dignity and Pride
 The victory restored dignity for black people globally, particularly in South Africa and
the United States.
 Demonstrated that black people were not inferior to whites, challenging colonial
narratives.
Influence on Black Movements
 Inspired the rise of various movements:
• Pan-Africanism
• Ethiopianism
• Rastafarianism

 Adwa became a symbol of pride and resistance against colonialism.

Lessons Learned
 The battle taught that unity among black people could lead to victory over colonizers.
 Provided a model for anti-colonial struggles across Africa and the diaspora
Internal Consequences
 Guaranteed Ethiopia's political independence, despite Eritrea remaining under Italian
control until 1941.
 Fostered a sense of national unity and resilience among Ethiopians.
Boundary Recognition
 Enabled Ethiopia to establish internationally recognized borders.
 Signed boundary treaties with various colonial powers:
 French Somaliland (1897)
 Italian Eritrea (1900, 1902, 1908)
 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1902)
 British East Africa (1907)
 Italian Somaliland (1908)
Ongoing Conflicts
 Despite treaties, boundary demarcation was often not realized, leading to ongoing
conflicts.
 The legacy of Adwa continues to influence Ethiopian identity and politics.
 Summary
 The Victory of Adwa remains a cornerstone of Ethiopian pride and a symbol of
resistance against oppression.
 It serves as a reminder of the power of unity and the potential for liberation.
 [Link] Birth of Eritrea as an Italian Colony
 Date of Declaration: January 1, 1890
 Context: The establishment of Eritrea was rooted in treaties and relationships between
Italy and Ethiopia.
The Treaty of Wuchale
 Signed on May 2, 1889, between Menilek II and Count Pietro Antonelli.
 Key Article: Article III delineated borders between Italian-occupied territories and
Ethiopia.
 Impact: Set the stage for Italian colonial ambitions in the region.
Early Italian-Ethiopian Relations
 First Contact: 1876 with the Antinori mission.
Acquisition of Assab:
• 1879: Rubatino Shipping Company purchased Assab from the Afar Sultan.
• 1882: Assab transferred to the Italian government.

Strategic Alliances:
• Italians provided arms to Menilek, strengthening ties.
Treaties of Friendship
 1883: Treaty of Commerce and Friendship signed, enhancing relations.
 1887: Convention of Neutrality, where Menilek agreed to remain neutral in conflicts
involving Italy.
Menilek's Ambitions
 Menilek sought alliances to secure his claim to the Ethiopian throne.
 Italians aimed to colonize Ethiopia while maintaining friendly relations with Menilek.
Expansion of Italian Ambitions
 Article III of the Wuchale Treaty established boundaries, but Italians sought more
territory.
 Key Villages: Arafaile, Segeneity, Asmara, and Adi Yohannis marked the Italian
possessions.
 Italians began encroaching beyond these boundaries
Deception and Additional Convention
 Ras Mekonnen, Menilek's cousin, was misled into signing an additional convention on
October 1, 1889.
 This convention aimed to justify further Italian expansion into the Mereb Melash
region.
Italian Occupation
 Despite Menilek's protests, the Italians occupied the entire Mereb Melash region.
 This occupation laid the groundwork for the formal declaration of Eritrea as a colony.
 Summary
 The establishment of Eritrea marked a significant moment in colonial history, driven by
treaties and strategic relationships.
 It set the stage for future conflicts and the struggle for Ethiopian sovereignty.
 [Link] Struggle among Ruling Elites, 1906-1935
The Problem of Succession
 Year 1906 marked a turning point for Emperor Menilek II
 Menilek suffered a stroke; died in 1913
 Ras Mekonnen, probable successor, died in 1906
 Tripartite Treaty by Britain, France, and Italy to safeguard interests
Measures Taken by Menilek II
 Established the first Council of Ministers in October 1907
 Designated grandson Lej Iyasu as legal successor in May 1909
 Lej Iyasu was only 12; Ras Tesema Nadew appointed as regent
Etege Taytu’s Influence
 Etege Taytu, Menilek’s wife, opposed Lej Iyasu’s designation
 Strengthened her power through marriage alliances
 Significant marriage: Ras Gugsa and Menilek’s daughter, Zewditu
Opposition to Taytu
 Opposition from Shewan nobility led by Ras Tesema Nadew and Habte Giorgis
 Taytu’s actions provoked further dissent
 1910 coup led by Habte Giorgis removed Taytu from power
Lej Iyasu’s Rise to Power
 After Taytu’s removal, power shifted to Shewan nobility
 Ras Tesema Nadew died in April 1911; Lej Iyasu took control
 Exercised political authority from 1911 to 1916
Lej Iyasu’s Reforms
 Introduced social and economic reforms
 Integrated Ethiopian Muslims into administration
 Established municipal police force (Terenbule) and Department of Education
Controversial Religious Policies
 Aimed for equality between Christians and Muslims
 Accused of favoring Islam; continued church support
 Faced internal and external opposition
Lej Iyasu’s Leadership Challenges
 Accusations of immorality and irresponsible leadership
 Close ties with Somali leaders; seen as a national hero
 Promoted relatives; antagonized Shewan nobility
International Relations
 Followed pro-German and pro-Turkish policies
 Supported Somali nationalist Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassen
 Alarmed colonial powers during WWI
Coup Against Lej Iyasu
 Joint note from Britain, France, and Italy for Lej Iyasu’s removal
 Coup approved by Abune Mathewos; excommunication followed
 Deposed on September 27, 1916; Zewditu became Empress
 Summary
 Power struggles led to significant political changes
 Impact of leadership styles on Ethiopia’s history
 Legacy of Lej Iyasu and subsequent rulers
 The Diarchy (1916-1930)
The Rise of the Diarchy
 Battle of Segele restored Shewan political supremacy
 Zewditu crowned as Empress; Ras Teferi Mekonnen as heir
 Unusual selection of a woman as head of state
Power Dynamics
 Zewditu and Teferi ruled together theoretically from 1916 to 1930
 Teferi’s power grew; Zewditu became increasingly passive
 Teferi: ambitious, enlightened, and determined
Support and Opposition
 Zewditu supported by Shewan nobility and traditionalists
 Relations deteriorated as Teferi's power increased
 Teferi began to act as a "regent"
Teferi's Maneuvers
 1918: Teferi removed old ministers except Fitawrari Habte Giorgis
 Traditionalists supported by the patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church
 Key figures opposing Teferi passed away in 1926
Consolidation of Power
 1928: Teferi outmaneuvered Dejach Balcha Safo and took Sidamo
 Dejach Aba Weqaw imprisoned after rebellion
 Mehal Sefari pressured Zewditu to crown Teferi as king
The Battle of Anchim
 Last formidable opponent: Ras Gugsa Wole, Zewditu’s husband
 Disagreement led to the battle of Anchim on March 31, 1930
 Use of aircraft in Ethiopian warfare; Gugsa defeated and killed
Transition to Empire
 Zewditu died two days after the battle
 Teferi assumed the throne as Emperor Haile Selassie I
Foreign Influences
 Teferi gained support from European legations
 Seen as a prospect for capitalist investment in Ethiopia
 Sympathy from foreign powers after his 1924 European tour
Emergence of Autocracy (1930-1955)
 November 2, 1930: Haile Selassie crowned Emperor
 Laid groundwork for an absolutist state
 Promulgated the 1931 constitution to strengthen his power
Removal of Hereditary Rulers
 1932: Last hereditary ruler of Gojjam, Ras Hailu, removed and imprisoned
 1933: Kingdom of Jimma came under central government control
Military Developments
 1930: Established Imperial Bodyguard with Belgian advisors
 1934: Holeta Military Academy set up
 Developments interrupted by Italian Fascist Invasion in 1935
 Summary
 Transition from diarchy to autocracy marked by power struggles
 Haile Selassie’s reforms and military developments shaped modern Ethiopia
 Impact of foreign relations on Ethiopian governance
 [Link] Aggression and the Patriotic Resistance: Causes and Courses of
the War
Causes of the War
 Italy sought revenge for defeat at Adwa in 1896
 Benito Mussolini's rise in 1922 fueled colonial ambitions
 Desire to restore the glory of the Ancient Roman Empire
Invasion Timeline
 October 3, 1935: Italian troops crossed the Mereb River
 November 8, 1935: Italians entered Mekelle
 Initial Ethiopian response included tactical retreats and attempts to regroup
Ethiopian Command Structure
 Emperor Haile Selassie appointed Ras Kassa Hailu as overall commander
 Key commanders included:
 Ras Emeru Haile Selassie (Shire front)
 Ras Mulugeta Yegezu (Enderta front)
 Ras Seyoum Mengesha (Temben front)
Major Battles
Ethiopian forces fought valiantly despite lack of coordination
Key battles:
 Tembien (January and February 1936)
 Battle of Amba Aradom: Ethiopian forces routed
 Final battle at Maychew on March 31, 1936
Defeat and Occupation
 Italians captured Addis Ababa on May 5, 1936 amidest anarchy
 Marshal Badoglio became the first Italian viceroy
 Replaced by Marshal Rodolfo Graziani
 Aerial bombardments followed the defeat of Ethiopian forces
Defeat and Occupation
 Assassination attempt on Graziani
 Massacre of tens of thousands of civilians in Addis Ababa.
 Graziani replaced by the Duke of Aosta, a more liberal viceroy.
 Italian occupation lasted from 1936 to 1941.
 Italian rule marked by brutality and repression
Resistance and Urban Changes
 Occupation largely confined to major towns.
 Key towns: Addis Ababa, Gondar, Dessie, Harar, Jimma.
 Addis Ababa transformed with new urban patterns, electricity, and factories.
Political Changes
 Ethiopia renamed as part of the Italian East African Empire.
 Included Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland.
 Divided into six administrative regions, each with its own capital.
Infrastructure and Social Changes
 Large-scale road building and expansion of motor transport.
• Roads crucial for fascist military campaigns.

 Inter-racial marriages and expansion of prostitution occurred despite racial purity

principles.
 Italians controlled the import-export trade in Ethiopia.
The Patriotic Resistance
 Nationwide resistance began despite initial defeats
 Divided into two phases:
• First Phase: Conventional warfare (1935-1936)
• Second Phase: Guerrilla warfare post-February 1937 massacre
SOME OF THE ETHIOPIAN PATRIOTS
Key Resistance Leaders
Notable commanders included:
• Ras Desta Damtew
• Dejach Beyene Merid
• Dejach Gebre Mariam Gari

 Abune Petros emerged as a martyr after execution

Collaborations and Challenges
 Collaborators known as "banda" created internal strife
 Key collaborators included Ras Hailu Teklehaimanot and others
 Despite collaborations, patriotic resistance remained resilient
International Context
 Outbreak of WWII shifted dynamics; Britain sought to curb Italian expansion
 British support for Ethiopian patriots increased
 Major offensives launched from Sudan and Kenya
Liberation of Ethiopia
 British forces liberated Addis Ababa on April 6, 1941
 Emperor Haile Selassie returned to Addis Ababa on May 5, 1941
 The end of Italian occupation marked a significant turning point in Ethiopian history
 Summary
 Italian aggression ignited a fierce patriotic resistance
 The struggle highlighted national unity against foreign oppression
 Set the stage for Ethiopia’s future independence and sovereignty
 Women Patriots
Key Female Figures
 Kebedech Seyoum: Daughter of Ras Seyoum, wife of Abera Kassa.
 Shewanesh Abrha: Wife of Dejach Hailu Kebede.
 Lekye-lesh Beyan and Senedu Gebru: Important contributors.
 Roles in the Resistance (1936-1941)
• Collected wood, fetched water, prepared food.
• Cared for the wounded and encouraged fighters.
• Insulted those reluctant to join the fight.
 Direct Participation
• Some women fought directly in combat.
• Inner Patriots (West Arbegnoch): Operated within Italian camps.
 Provided information, supplies, and support.
 Notable Inner Patriots
• Woyzero Shewareged Gedle: Key in attacking the Italian garrison at Addis Alem.
• Woyzero Shewanesh Abebe: Used her Italian language skills to gather intelligence.
Thank you!!!