The periodic table and structure of

the atom
Q1
What is atomic number?
The atomic number of an element is equal to the total
number of protons in the nucleus of the atoms of that
element. The atomic number can provide insight into
the electronic configuration of the element. For
example, carbon has an electron configuration of [He]
2s2 2p2, since its atomic number is 6.
Q2
What is the atomic number and mass number?
The number of protons and the number of neutrons
shall determine the mass number of an element. Since
the isotopes of an element have slightly different mass
numbers, it calculates the atomic mass by obtaining
the mean of the mass numbers for its isotopes.
Q3
Can two different elements have the same atomic
number?
Atoms from two different elements may have the same
neutron count, but never the same proton count. The
number of protons is unique to the element and it
represents the number of atoms.
Q4
How do we calculate atomic mass?
Add the mass of protons and neutrons to compute the
atomic mass of a single atom of an element. Example:
Find the atomic mass of a carbon isotope which has 7
neutrons. From the periodic table, you can see that
carbon has an atomic number of 6, which is its proton
number.
Q5
Why is atomic number important?
Atomic number is called the number of protons in an
atom. This number is very important, because it is
unique to a given element’s atoms. An element’s atoms
all have the same number of protons and each element
has a different number of protons in its atoms.
What Is Atomic Structure?
The atomic structure of an element refers to the
constitution of its nucleus and the arrangement of the
electrons around it. Primarily, the atomic structure of
matter is made up of protons, electrons and neutrons.
The protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of
the atom, which is surrounded by the electrons
belonging to the atom. The atomic number of an
element describes the total number of protons in its
nucleus.
Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and
electrons. However, atoms may gain or lose electrons
in order to increase their stability, and the resulting
charged entity is called an ion.
Atoms of different elements have different atomic
structures because they contain different numbers
of protons and electrons. This is the reason for the
unique characteristics of different elements.
Subatomic Particles
Protons
 Protons are positively charged subatomic particles.
The charge of a proton is 1e, which corresponds to
approximately 1.602 × 10-19
 The mass of a proton is approximately 1.672 × 10 -
24

 Protons are over 1800 times heavier than

electrons.
 The total number of protons in the atoms of an
element is always equal to the atomic number of
the element.
Neutrons
 The mass of a neutron is almost the same as that
of a proton, i.e., 1.674×10-24
 Neutrons are electrically neutral particles and carry
no charge.
 Different isotopes of an element have the same
number of protons but vary in the number of
neutrons present in their respective nuclei.
Electrons
 The charge of an electron is -1e, which
approximates to -1.602 × 10-19
 The mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 × 10-
31
.
 Due to the relatively negligible mass of electrons,
they are ignored when calculating the mass of an
atom.
Atomic Structure of Isotopes
Nucleons are the components of the nucleus of an
atom. A nucleon can either be a proton or a neutron.
Each element has a unique number of protons in it,
which is described by its unique atomic number.
However, several atomic structures of an element can
exist, which differ in the total number of nucleons.
These variants of elements having a different nucleon
number (also known as the mass number) are called
isotopes of the element. Therefore, the isotopes of an
element have the same number of protons but differ in
the number of neutrons.
The atomic structure of an isotope is described with the
help of the chemical symbol of the element, the atomic
number of the element and the mass number of the
isotope. For example, there exist three known naturally
occurring isotopes of hydrogen, namely, protium,
deuterium and tritium. The atomic structures of these
hydrogen isotopes are illustrated below.

The isotopes of an element vary in stability. The half-

lives of isotopes also differ. However, they generally
have similar chemical behaviour owing to the fact that
they hold the same electronic structures.

Atomic Structures of Some Elements

The structure of an atom of an element can be simply
represented via the total number of protons, electrons
and neutrons present in it. The atomic structures of a
few elements are illustrated below.
Hydrogen
The most abundant isotope of hydrogen on the planet
Earth is protium. The atomic number and the mass
number of this isotope are 1 and 1, respectively.
Structure of Hydrogen Atom: This implies that it
contains one proton, one electron and no neutrons
(Total number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic
number)
Carbon
Carbon has two stable isotopes – 12C and 13C. Of these
isotopes, 12C has an abundance of 98.9%. It contains 6
protons, 6 electrons and 6 neutrons.
Structure of Carbon Atom: The electrons are
distributed into two shells, and the outermost shell
(valence shell) has four electrons. The tetravalency
of carbon enables it to form a variety of chemical bonds
with various elements.
Oxygen
There exist three stable isotopes of oxygen – 18O, 17O
and 16O. However, oxygen-16 is the most abundant
isotope.
Structure of Oxygen Atom: Since the atomic number
of this isotope is 8 and the mass number is 16, it
consists of 8 protons and 8 neutrons. 6 out of the 8
electrons in an oxygen atom lie in the valence shell.
Atoms and Molecules Definition
Atoms are much too small to be seen; hence
experiments to find out their structure and behavior
have to be conducted with large numbers of them.
From the results of these experiments, we may attempt
to construct a hypothetical model of an atom that
behaves like the true atom.
Molecules consist of one or more atoms bound together
by covalent (chemical) bonds. Atoms may be depicted
by circle shapes, each of which has a nucleus at the
center (containing protons and neutrons), surrounded
by one or more concentric circles representing the
‘shells’ or ‘levels’ in which the electrons surrounding
the nucleus of the atom are located and markings
indicating the [Link] each level. A molecule is the
smallest thing a substance can be divided into while
remaining the same substance. It is made up of two or
more atoms that are bound together by chemical
bonding.

What are Atoms made of?

An atom is composed of three particles, namely,
neutrons, protons and electrons with hydrogen as
an exception without neutrons.
  Every atom has a nucleus that bounds one or more
electrons around it.
 The nucleus has typically a similar number of
protons and neutrons which are together known as
nucleons.
 The protons are positively charged, electrons are
negatively charged and neutrons are neutral.
What is Atomic Mass?
It is the mass of an atom in a chemical element. It is
roughly equivalent to the total neutrons and
protons present in the atom. It is expressed in atomic
mass units (denoted by u). 1amu is equal to the exactly
one-twelfth of the mass of 1 atom of C-12 and the
relative atomic masses of elements is determined with
respect to-12 atom.

What is a Molecule?
Molecule Definition
A molecule is defined as the smallest unit of a
compound that contains the chemical properties of the
compound.
Molecules are made up of groups of atoms. Describing
the structure of an atom, an atom is also sub-divided
into smaller units. Protons, electrons, and neutrons are
sub-particles of an atom. The protons and neutrons are
contained inside the nucleus of the atom and electrons
revolve around the nucleus.
Protons are positively charged particles whereas
electrons are negatively charged particles. Neutrons do
not carry any charge. So we can say that the nucleus is
positively charged due to the presence of protons. The
nucleus is a bulk mass at the centre of an atom. Atoms
are largely vacant.
Every element has a certain atomic number. The atomic
number of an element is defined as the number of
protons present in its nucleus. It is denoted by Z.
When we talk about the mass of atoms, the mass of
their particles is taken into consideration. Electrons
have negligible mass. Hence the mass of an atom is the
sum of the mass of protons and neutrons. The mass
number is denoted by A.
A molecule is the smallest unit (particle) of a compound
having the physical and chemical properties of that
compound. This does not mean that molecules can not
be broken down into smaller parts, e.g. the atoms from
which they are formed or the fragments of the
molecule, each consisting of several atoms or parts of
atoms.
A molecule is defined as the smallest unit of a
compound that contains the chemical properties of the
compound. Molecules are made up of groups of atoms.
Describing the structure of an atom, an atom is also
sub-divided into smaller units. Proton, electrons, and
neutrons are sub-particles of an atom. The protons and
neutrons are contained inside the nucleus of the atom
and electrons revolve around the nucleus.

Examples of Molecules
A molecule is a collection of two or more atoms that
make up the smallest recognisable unit into which a
pure material may be split while maintaining its
makeup and chemical characteristics. Some examples
of molecules are
 H2O (water)
 N2 (nitrogen)
 O3 (ozone)
 CaO (calcium oxide)
 C6H12O6 (glucose, a type of sugar)
 NaCl (table salt)

Endothermic and exothermic

reactions

In simple terms, the endothermic reactions absorb

energy from the surrounding that is in the form of heat.
On the other hand, an exothermic reaction releases
energy into the surrounding of the system.
A popular example of an endothermic chemical reaction
is photosynthesis. During this process, plants absorb
energy from the Sun and convert it into carbon dioxide
and water into glucose and oxygen. An example of an
exothermic reaction is the chemical reaction between
sodium and chlorine, producing a bright yellow light
and a great amount of heat energy.
Endothermic Reactions
The endothermic process is a term that describes a
reaction where the system absorbs the energy from its
surrounding in the form of heat. A few examples of the
endothermic process are photosynthesis, evaporating
liquids, melting ice, dry ice, alkane cracking, thermal
decomposition, ammonium chloride in water and much
more.
As the name implies, ‘endo’ means ‘to absorb,’ and
‘thermic’ means ‘heat.’
This energy is produced as a result of the reaction of
reactants into the product. It occurs as a result of the
dissociation of the bonds between the molecules. The
energy is then released through the formation of new
bonds.
Heat is taken up from the surroundings in such
reactions, so the temperature of the system where the
reaction is taking place remains cooler. Also, at the end
of the reaction, the enthalpy, which is the change in
heat energy during the conversion of reactants to
products, increases.
Exothermic Reactions
The exothermic reaction is the opposite of an
endothermic reaction. It releases energy by light or
heat to its surrounding. A few examples are
neutralisation, burning a substance, reactions of fuels,
deposition of dry ice, respiration, solution of sulphuric
acid into water and much more.
The term ‘Exo’ refers to ‘to release,’ and ‘thermic’
refers to ‘heat.’
The energy released is caused by the formation of new
bonds (products) at a higher level. While the energy
required to break up the bonds (reactants) is lower. At
the end of the reaction, the enthalpy change decreases
as well. During chemical reactions, a great deal of
energy is required. This energy was used to maintain
the bond that held the molecules together. As a result
of the reactions between molecules and compounds, as
well as the breaking of bonds, a tremendous amount of
energy is released.
Difference between Endothermic and Exothermic
Reactions

Endothermic Reaction Exothermic Reaction

Endothermic reactions are An exothermic reaction is a

chemical reactions in which reaction in which energy is
the reactants absorb heat released in the form of light
energy from the surroundings
to form products. or heat.

The energy is absorbed from The energy is released from

the surrounding into the the system to its
reaction. environment.

Energy in the form of heat. Energy is released as heat,

electricity, light or sound.

Melting ice, evaporation, Rusting iron, settling,

cooking, gas molecules, and chemical bonds, explosions,
photosynthesis are a few and nuclear fission are a
examples. few examples.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Q1
In a chemical reaction, why is heat released or
absorbed?
Chemical bonds are either broken or formed in any
chemical reaction.
Heat is released when chemical bonds form, and heat is
absorbed when chemical bonds break.
Since molecules want to remain together, forming
chemical bonds between them requires less energy
than breaking them, which requires more energy and
results in heat being absorbed from the surroundings.
Q2
Define the enthalpy of a reaction.
The enthalpy of a reaction is defined as the heat energy
change (HH, H) that occurs when reactants become
products. ΔH is positive if heat is absorbed during the
reaction; if heat is released, ΔH is negative.
Q3
During the endothermic reaction, what type of
energy conversion will take place?
This is the conversion of kinetic energy to chemical
energy. Heat is absorbed and converted into chemical
energy during an endothermic reaction
Q4
Why is respiration regarded as an exothermic
reaction?
Since energy is released during the process of
respiration, it is an exothermic process. The carbon
dioxide in the food is broken down to form glucose
during the process. This glucose combines with oxygen
in our cells, releasing a large amount of energy.
Q5
What is the main difference between an
exothermic and an endothermic process?
The main difference between exothermic and
endothermic reactions is that an endothermic reaction
absorbs energy in the form of heat from its
surroundings, whereas an exothermic reaction releases
energy to the surroundings.
Reactivity and displacement reactions
Single displacement reaction:
A single displacement reaction which is also called as
single replacement reaction is a kind of oxidation-
reduction chemical reaction when an ion or element
moves out of a compound, i.e., one element is replaced
by the other in a compound.
When chlorine is added in its gaseous form (or as a gas
dissolved in water) to the solution of sodium bromide,
the chlorine acquires the place of bromine. Since
chlorine is more reactive than bromine, it displaces
bromine from sodium bromide, and the solutions turn
blue. The brown colour is the bromine that is displaced.
If you notice the equation, you can see that the Cl and
Br have swapped their original places.
chlorine + sodium bromide → sodium chloride +
bromine
Double Displacement Reaction
Double displacement reactions occur when a part of
two ionic compounds is exchanged and makes two new
components. The pattern of a double displacement
reaction is like this.
Double displacement reactions take place mostly in
aqueous solutions wherein the ions precipitate and
exchange of ions takes place.
For example, when a solution of barium chloride is
mixed with sodium sulphate, a white precipitate of
barium sulphate is formed rapidly. These reactions are
ionic in nature. The reactants get transformed into ions
when dissolved in water and an exchange of ions
occurs in the solution and results in the formation of a
product molecule.

Double displacement reaction between Barium Chloride

and sodium sulphate
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1
What is called displacement reaction?
A displacement reaction is a type of reaction that
replaces part of one reactor with another. Often known
as a substitution reaction or metathesis reaction is a
displacement reaction.
Q2
Why does a displacement reaction occur?
A single displacement reaction occurs when another
element in a compound is replaced by an element. A
metal only substitutes for a metal, and a nonmetal only
substitutes for a nonmetal. Only a more reactive
element in the compound with which it reacts can
replace the other element.
Q3
What is double displacement give example?
Between two aqueous ionic compounds, there is a
precipitation reaction to form a new insoluble ionic
compound. Here is an example of a reaction to form
(soluble) potassium nitrate and (insoluble) lead iodide
between lead (II) nitrate and potassium iodide.
Q4
What is a Neutralisation reaction?
A neutralization reaction is a chemical reaction in which
an acid and a base react to form a salt and water. The
pH of the salt formed depends on the pH of the reacting
acids and bases.
Q5
Are acid-base reactions double replacement?
There are two ionic compounds that exchange anions or
cations in double substitution reactions. Reactions to
neutralization occur when the reactants are acid and
base, and reactions to neutralization are generally
favourable as long as the reaction requires a solid acid
and/or base.
Reactivity series:
What is the Reactivity Series?
The reactivity series of metals, also known as the
activity series, refers to the arrangement of metals in
the descending order of their reactivities.
The data provided by the reactivity series can be used
to predict whether a metal can displace another in a
single displacement reaction. It can also be used to
obtain information on the reactivity of metals towards
water and acids.
A chart of the reactivity series of common metals is
provided below.
Metals tend to readily lose electrons and form cations.
Most of them react with atmospheric oxygen to form
metal oxides. However, different metals have different
reactivities towards oxygen (unreactive metals such as
gold and platinum do not readily form oxides when
exposed to air).
Salient Features
  The metals at the top of the reactivity series are
powerful reducing agents since they are easily
oxidized. These metals tarnish/corrode very easily.
 The reducing ability of the metals grows weaker
while traversing down the series.
 The electro positivity of the elements also reduces
while moving down the reactivity series of metals.
 All metals that are found above hydrogen in the
activity series liberate H2 gas upon reacting with
dilute HCl or dilute H2SO4.
 Metals that are placed higher on the reactivity
series have the ability to displace metals that are
placed lower from their salt solutions.
 Higher ranking metals require greater amounts of
energy for their isolation from ores and other
compounds.
Another important feature of the activity series is that
while travelling down the series, the electron-donating
ability of the metals reduces.
Long Tabular Form of the Reactivity Series
The reactivities of metals are tabulated below (in the
descending order) along with their corresponding ions.
Note that the metals in Red react with cold water, those
in Orange cannot react with cold water but can react
with acids, and those in Blue only react with some
strong oxidizing acids.
Despite being a non-metal, hydrogen is often included
in the reactivity series since it helps compare the
reactivities of the metals. The metals placed above
hydrogen in the series can displace it from acids such
as HCl and H2SO4 (since they are more reactive).
Important uses of Reactivity Series
Apart from providing insight into the properties and
reactivities of the metals, the reactivity series has
several other important applications. For example, the
outcome of the reactions between metals and water,
metals and acids, and single displacement reactions
between metals can be predicted with the help of the
activity series.
Reaction Between Metals and Water
Calcium and the metals that are more reactive than
calcium in the reactivity series can react with cold
water to form the corresponding hydroxide while
liberating hydrogen gas. For example, the reaction
between potassium and water yields potassium
hydroxide and H2 gas, as described by the chemical
equation provided below.
2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2
Therefore, the reactivity series of metals can be used to
predict the reactions between metals and water.
Reaction Between Metals and Acids
Lead and the metals ranking above lead on the activity
series form salts when reacted with hydrochloric acid or
sulphuric acid. These reactions also involve the
liberation of hydrogen gas. The reaction between zinc
and sulphuric acid is an example of such a reaction.
Here, zinc sulfate and H2 gas are formed as products.
The chemical equation is:
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
Thus, the reactions between metals and some acids
can be predicted with the help of the reactivity series.
Single Displacement Reactions Between Metals
The ions of low ranking metals are readily reduced by
high ranking metals on the reactivity series. Therefore,
low ranking metals are easily displaced by high ranking
metals in the single displacement reactions between
them.
A great example of such a reaction is the displacement
of copper from copper sulphate by zinc. The chemical
equation for this reaction is given by:
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)
This concept has several practical applications in the
extraction of metals. For example, titanium is extracted
from titanium tetrachloride via a single displacement
reaction with magnesium. Thus, the reactivity series of
metals can also be used to predict the outcome of
single displacement reactions.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1
What does a reactivity series show?
The metal reactivity series is a list of metals arranged
in the order of their decreasing activities. The metals at
the top of the series (K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al) are so
reactive that they are never found in nature as free
elements. It is difficult to separate them from their
compounds and extract. The metals at the bottom of
the activity series are the least reactive. Some of these
metals are found in the earth’s crust in their free state.
For example, Gold, Platinum is found in free state. So, it
becomes comparatively easier to extract such least
reactive metals
Q2
Which metal is the least reactive?
Platinum is the least reactive metal. It has remarkable
resistance to corrosion, even at high temperatures, and
is therefore considered a noble metal. Consequently,
platinum is often found chemically uncombined as
native platinum.
Q3
What is metal reactivity?
Reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in
decreasing order of their reactivity. Most reactive
metals are at the top while the least reactive metals at
the bottom. For any two metals in the series, the metal
placed higher in the series can displace lower metals
from their salt solution.
Q4
Which is the most reactive metal?
alkali metal are most reactive metals. Down the
reactivity increases. Francium is most reactive element
in periodic table. However, francium is artificial or only
few quantities have produced right now, so after the
francium, cesium is most reactive metal.
Q5
Are non-metals Reactive or non-reactive?
Non-metal properties have a relatively low boiling point,
and other non-metals are gases. Likewise, non-metals
are poor heat conductors, and solid non-metals are dull
and brittle. Many non-metals are strongly reactive,
while others are in no way reactive. It depends on the
number of electrons in the outer amount of energy.
Q6
What is the reactivity series of metal?
The reactivity series of metals refers to the array of
metals in the descending order of their reactivities. It is
also known as the activity series of metals.
Q7
What does the reactivity series of metals depend on?
The reactivity series of metals depends on the
reactivity of metals which is dependent on the atomic
radius, nuclear charge, sublevel electrons arrangement
and shielding effect.
Q8
How is the reactivity series of metals originated?
The reactivity of metal originated from the reactivity of
metals. In the activity series of metals more reactive
metal is placed on the top of the series while a less
reactive metal is placed at the bottom of the series.
Q9
What is the significance of the reactivity series of
metal?
The reactivity series of metals is the array of metals in
the descending order of their reactivities. It helps in
predicting if a metal can displace another metal in a
displacement reaction.
Q10
Why is hydrogen placed in the reactivity series of
metal?
Hydrogen is a part of the reactivity series of metals
because like metals it also loses electrons to form a
positive ion.
 Salts

What is Salt in Chemistry?

Salt is an ionic compound that contains a cation (base)
and an anion (acid).
It is present in large quantities in seawater, where it is
the main mineral constituent. Salt is essential for
animal life and saltiness is one of the basic human
tastes. Salt is an ionic compound that has a cation
other than H+ and an anion other than OH– and is
obtained along with water in the neutralization
reaction between acids and bases.
Eg:- NaCl, CuCl2 etc.
Acid + Base → Salt + water
Sodium chloride is one of the best-known salt. One salt
is known to almost everyone because of its widespread
use in every day.

Types of Salt
1. Acidic salt – The salt formed by partial
neutralization of a diprotic or a polyprotic acid is known
as an acidic salt. These salts have ionizable H + ion
along with another cation. Mostly the ionizable H + is a
part of the anion. Some acid salts are used in baking.
For eg:- NaHSO4, KH2PO4 etc.
H2SO4 + NaOH → NaHSO4 + H2O
2. Basic or Alkali Salt – The salt formed by the partial
neutralization of a strong base by a weak acid is known
as a basic salt. They hydrolyze to form a basic solution.
It is because when hydrolysis of basic salt takes place,
the conjugate base of the weak acid is formed in the
solution.
For eg:- White lead (2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2).
3. Double salt – The salts that contain more than one
cation or anion are known as double salt. They are
obtained by the combination of two different salts
crystallized in the same ionic lattice.
For eg:- Potassium sodium tartrate (KNaC4H4O6.4H2O)
also known as Rochelle salt.
4. Mixed Salts – The salt that consists of a fixed
proportion of two salts, often sharing either a
common cation or common anion is known as mixed
salt.
For e.g. :- CaOCl2
Properties of Salt
The compound’s sodium chloride has very different
properties from the elements sodium and chlorine.
 Saltwater contains ions and is a fairly good
conductor of electricity.
 This electrostatic force of attraction holds the ions
together and a chemical bond is said to form
between them.
Hydrolysis of a Salt
Hydrolysis of salt refers to the reaction of salt
with water. It is the reverse of a neutralization reaction.
In this reaction, when salt undergoes reaction with
water, the constituent acid and base are formed as
products. In hydrolysis, the salt dissociates to form ions,
completely or partially depending upon the solubility
product of that salt.