Modernization Theory: All states go through a similar process of economic

development. Economics provides the preconditions for political change (rostow +lipset)
Modernization theory is a sociological and economic framework that emerged in the mid-20th century to explain the process of
social and economic development in societies. It posits that societies evolve through a series of predictable stages, progressing
from traditional to modern forms. The theory suggests that the key to development lies in the adoption of Western-style institutions,
technologies, and values.

According to modernization theory, development is characterized by a series of interrelated changes, including industrialization,
urbanization, increased education, technological innovation, and the shift from agrarian to industrial economies. It assumes that as
societies modernize, they will experience improvements in social and economic indicators, such as increased income levels,
improved living standards, and enhanced political stability.

One of the notable contributions to modernization theory comes from sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset, who extended the framework to include the relationship between
modernization and political development, specifically the emergence and sustainability of democracy. Lipset argued that as societies modernize and undergo economic
development, they are more likely to adopt and maintain democratic political systems.

In the case of South Korea, the progression from an authoritarian regime to a democratic government in the late 20th century supports Lipset's proposition. The country's rapid
economic development and modernization played a crucial role in the establishment of a democratic political system. As South Korea's economy grew and its population
became more educated and affluent, there was increasing pressure for political liberalization and the demand for political participation.

Development theory:

Both countries have changed economically...

India
1.0 basically closed to trade
2.0 increasingly open to trade, esp. by sector
3.0? protectionism in some sectors
China
1.0 inward industrialization, largely closed
2.0 strong opening to trade
3.0? still open, but openness to trade wars
It’s not our (domestic) fault...
Dependency Theory
● Developing countries cannot replicate developed
countries.
● International system is biased.

Goals:
-Understand modern/dependnecy get good
definitions,,,and relation to india/china and dragon book
-Understand different types of govs (consolidated and
such)
-Understand Yashar and Van cott diff

-corporatist def

Introduction: What Have I Signed Up For?

1.​ McNamara: Ch 1: Introduction
a.​ Cultural Infrastructure as necessary for governments to naturalize new political authority
and generate a political identity
b.​ Socal processes, symbols, and practices lead to the natural accession of power for an
authority
c.​ Culture: A process of meaning making shared by some particular group of people, by
which they make sense of their world
d.​ Legitimacy: Subtle form of power that rests in a political authority’s ability to create
consent for its while also appearing to be established [in history]
e.​ EU-Specific
i.​ The EU is an emergent political actor
ii.​ EU as a sound political authority (e.g. healthcare)
iii.​ The EU as a social fact
1.​ Social Fact: a widely shared intersubjective understanding that seems to
exist on its own, separate from us, even as it relies on our collective
agreement for its existence (See Ch. 2)
 iv.​ There has emerged a common, but not single European identity
v.​ EU as Decracinated
1.​ EU activities presented as highly abstract terms, allowing for
nationalisms
f.​ Material as symbolic power: Processes of categorization, classification, and division
g.​ Development of Nation States: Security and coercion, markets and efficiency, social
logistics of community
The “Science” of Political Science and the “High Calling” of Politics
2.​ Aristotle: Politics
a.​ Democracy is failure/perversion
b.​ Every state is a community of some kind, every community is established with a view to
some good. As humankind strives to do good, political community is the highest good
c.​ State is a creation of nature and man by nature is a political animal
d.​ Citizens share in the administration of justice and in [(in)definite office]
e.​ A community of freedmen is preferable to that that serves the interests of the ruler
f.​ None of the forms of government are for the common good of all
i.​ Namely, royalty (monarchy), tyranny (monarchy), aristocracy, oligarchy
(wealthy), constitutional government, democracy (“needy”)
ii.​ Tyranny in all forms is perverted
3.​ Max Weber: “Politics as a Vocation”
a.​ Politics: Independent leadership in action of a political association/state; striving to share
power/influence the distribution of power (among/between states)
i.​ Political associations defined by means > ends (sociologically)
ii.​ “Monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a given territory”
b.​ State: Justifications of political authority
i.​ Traditional: “Eternal yesterday,” unimaginably ancient, habitual orientation
ii.​ Charismatic: “Gift of grace,” abs personal devotion/confidence in revelation,
heroism, individual leadership
iii.​ Legal-Rational: By virtue of belief in the validity of legal statute and functional
“competence” based on rationally created rules
4.​ Karl Popper: “Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach”
a.​ “The method of science is the method of bold conjectures and ingenious and severe
attempts to refute them”
i.​ Bold Conjecture: Theory with a great content (boldness/truth)
b.​ The validity of a statement can only be refuted by evaluating its falsity content in
comparative studies (i.e. nothing can ever truly be proven, a falsity content can only be
lessened)
c.​ Thus, make bold conjectures and then proceed to clear out the falsity content of them
d.​ Move from theory specific to general by testing “observable implications”
The Science of Comparison
5.​ King, Keohane, and Verba (KKV): “The Science in Social Science”
a.​ Social science as designed based on quantitative and qualitative approaches are both
based on a single, descriptive causal logic that connects the independent to the dependent
variable
 i.​ This is not always directly observable
b.​ Scientific research includes 1) a goal to reach a descriptive inference, 2) public
procedures, 3) uncertain conclusions, 4) methodological content
6.​ James Mahoney & Celso [Link]: “Historical Enquiry & Comparative Politics”
a.​ Causal inference can be studied through expanding the number of cross-national cases,
cross-case variation, within-case variation, and historical process tracing
b.​ “The method of agreement is used to potential necessary causes, whereas the method of
difference is used to eliminate potential sufficient causes. The methods usually operate
deterministically, such that a single deviation from a hypothesized patter of necessary or
sufficient causation is enough to conclude that a given factor is not (by itself) necessary
or sufficient for the outcome of interest.”
i.​ Mill’s Method of Difference: Finding differences between similar groups (PC)
1.​ More conclusive, A/B similar, but have different IV/DVs
ii.​ Mill’s Method of Agreement: Finding similarity between different groups
7.​ Samuel Huntington (1): Political Order in Changing Societies
a.​ Political Decay: Decline in the social order, authority, effectiveness, legitimacy, and/or
morale of a government
i.​ Political decay is likely where social change occurs
b.​ Political Gap: Between (under)developed political systems; corruption in “Third World”
leads to underdevelopment (bit he doesn’t mention colonization)
c.​ Approach to Strife: Macro-Political
8.​ Theda Skocpol: “States & Social Revs: A Comp. Analysis of France, Russia, & China”
a.​ Social revolutions occur during times of state breakdown and peasant mobilization
b.​ Social revolutions are a unique phenomenon that create a complete breakdown of existing
social class, etc. that should isolated from other revolutions
i.​ Rare, but powerful in these three case studies (China, Russia, and France)
c.​ Social revolutions are different because they change social and political structures at the
same time, as opposed to only one of each
9.​ McNamara: Ch.2 : “Constructing the EU as a Social Fact”
a.​ Cultural infrastructure is necessary to support the claim of legitimate authority generated
by the EU
b.​ European identities may vary in ways that relate to each other
c.​ EU explicitly promotes that members can have multiple identities despite frictions
i.​ Use of technology to promote community (e.g. census, museums)
ii.​ Nationalism is not easily malleable or readily replaceable
d.​ Social Facts: Invented realities, which are purely subjective, but take on the qualities of
objective material reality because of their widespread, under-appreciated role on a
population
e.​ Political authority is based symbolic power as symbols create vessels for discourse,
reference, and discussion
f.​ Culture has human agency (i.e. habitualism, performativity)
g.​ Approach to Strife: State-Centered
The Nation & Its Origins
10.​ Benedict Anderson: Imagined Communities
 a.​ Cultural tradition/approach
b.​ Imagined Communities: Define a nation, thinking that we are part of 1 community
c.​ IV (decline of hegemony, rise of print capitalism) to CL (rise of national languages, new
economic relations) to DV (national “imagined communities”)
11.​ David D. Laitin: “Nations, States, and Violence”
a.​ The nation is constructed by coordination
i.​ It is a population with a coordinated set of beliefs about their cultural identities
ii.​ The interdependence of choice and desire for coordination leads to the
“naturalness” of nations/languages as “genetic”
iii.​ Representatives claim ownership of the state
b.​ Language functions as a proxy for national identity
i.​ Abram de Swan’s Floral Model
c.​ Thomas Schelling’s Tipping Game (e.g. hockey players)
d.​ Identity = Relative Group Size + Boundaries + (Benefits - Costs)
i.​ Attribute choices as typically binary
e.​ Criticism: Language as tied to territory
12.​ Andreas Wimmer (1): “Why Nationalisms Work”
a.​ Nationalism fosters democracy, equality within the nation itself, and welfare state
measures to assist those in need, but is not effective in fostering the representation and
inclusion of all groups
b.​ Identifying nationalism as a tool of the political right ignores its influence on all modern
ideologies
i.​ “Civic nationalism” = Patriotism = Good
ii.​ “Ethnic Nationalism” = Racism = Bad
c.​ [NOT THIS READING] 3 Understandings of Culture/Nation
i.​ Essentialist/Primordialist: Identities as ascriptive, often associated with ethnic
identity and race
ii.​ Constructivist: Created through history, culture, experience
iii.​ Instrumentalist: Activated differently in different settings
The State and Its Origins
13.​ Robert H. Bates: “Property & Violence: The Political Economy of Development”
a.​ Bellicist Theory: Modern states are created out of violent struggle between social actors
b.​ State: Emphasis on efficient revenue extraction (taxes)
i.​ Parliamentary government as a means of bargaining to secure the financial means
for war
ii.​ Therefore, states were created from wars to secure resources to fight
14.​ Andreas Wimmer (2): “States of War: How Nations Create Modern Conflict”
a.​ “Ethnic likes should rule over likes” instead of an empire
b.​ Nation-states are more prone to conflict because heterogeneous elements amongst
relatively homogeneous populations can create turmoil, discrimination, etc.
c.​ A failed state is unable to govern (via parliament) and collect taxes from its people
15.​ Anthony Gill: “The Political Origins of Religious Liberty”
a.​ Religious actors exist in a world of scarcity of believers
 b.​ Dominant religious influences incentivize actors to act in accordance with/against the
status quo
c.​ Rational choice theorist (in religious choices)
d.​ Religious vitality is greater where it faces greater competition (religious market)
16.​ McNamara: Ch. 4: Buildings, Spectacles, and Songs
a.​ The EU’s cultural policies help to naturalize and legitimate its political authority
i.​ Cultural activities are political because they generate the most visible/apparent
symbols of identity
b.​ Examples:
i.​ Documents: Maastricht Treaty (1992, established EU citizenship, paved the way
for the Schengen Zone’s creation later that year), Adonnino Committee (“Europe
Day”)
ii.​ Buildings: “Capitals of Culture,” the heroization of spaces (Neoclassicalism),
major cities/capitals, rotating idea, Brussels as initially temporary/a
“non-capital,” split institutions (duplicates - 200m Euros)
1.​ Localizing yet unifying
2.​ “Nesting national symbols and practices inside of an EU shell”
(Conclusion)
iii.​ Spectacles: Eurovision, “Ode to Joy” ~ Beethoven
iv.​ [NOT THIS READING] Working definition of the state includes
1.​ 1) monopoly on the legitimate use of force (Weber), 2) territorial
control, 3) efficient revenue extraction, 4) resources to exploit
2.​ Nations as the seedbeds for states
How to Make Comparisons — The Role of Religion in the State
17.​ Charles King (1): “Writing a Political Science Essay”
a.​ Organization, transitions, subarg body paragraphs, opinion in the conclusion (essays)
18.​ Anna Guzymala-Busse: “Why Comp. Politics Should Take Religion (More) Seriously”
a.​ Religion is not refutable
i.​ “Claims of religion on politics can be absolute and irrefutable”
b.​ The study of religion should pay greater attention to doctrine
i.​ Doctrinal differences lead to distinct state institutions (e.g. Protestant democracy,
Catholic monarchy, the Catholic Church), economics (e.g. zakat, jizyah), and
policy (e.g. mobilization, lobbying)
c.​ Disaggregating the nation state
d.​ Religious pluralism does not breed religious fervor
e.​ Religion: “A public and collective belief system that structures the relationship of the
individual to the divine and supernatural”
Globalization & the State
19.​ Samuel P. Huntington (2): “Clash of Civilizations”
a.​ Analysts should examine groups based on their culture (cultural methodology)
b.​ Major World Civilizations (7-8)
i.​ Western, Confusion, Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic Orthodox, Latin American,
“and maybe African”
ii.​ Extremely racist (and almost primordialist/essentialist)
 c.​ Great divisions and the dominant source of conflict is cultural (between nations/civs)
i.​ e.g 9/11, War on Terror
ii.​ Why? Civilizations are real/basic, world is smaller (globalization),
economic/social changes separate people from long standing local identities,
Dual rule of the West (e.g. Indigenous movements vs. Americanization),
economic regionalism (e.g. ASEAN), cultural characteristics are less mutable
than economic/political ones (e.g. “½ Catholic and ½ Muslim”)
d.​ Ongoing/increasing civilizational/cultural differences persist
i.​ There is not a global convergence around a set of shared institutions/practices
1.​ E.g. UN
e.​ [NOT THIS READING] Impacts of globalization
i.​ Pessimistic: Rise in conflict, perhaps beyond states, economic competition
among firms will eclipse the state, state only left with lean/mean functions
ii.​ Optimistic: Rise in harmony; perhaps eclipsing states; trade and communities
foster understanding; states could play an important role in preserving distinct
identities, cultures, and institutions
20.​ McNamara: Ch. 5: “Citizenship & Mobility”
a.​ Borders, mobility, and citizenship implicate cultural dynamics with social and practical
implications
i.​ EU citizenship as a legal category
b.​ Mapping, culture, symbols, important for meaning-making and therefore allowing the EU
to be perceived as a nation state
c.​ E.g. Passports, reframing of histories, Eurozone, athletes, Erasmus
The EU & Its Future
21.​ McNamara: Ch. 8: “Conclusion”
a.​ “Cultural Infrastructure of Europe” is composed of labeling, banal authority, narrating,
and mapping, but NOT masquerading
b.​ Democracy in the EU can be enhanced through decreasing banality and increasing
healthy and inclusive political contestation (in the European Parliament)
c.​ Depoliticization initially allowed the EU to be quite successful
i.​ Although symbols and practices of everyday life have created a type of
legitimacy for the EU, its authority is tolerated > loved
ii.​ There exist cultural limits of the EU (e.g. renaming its constitution a “treaty,”
removal of highly visible symbols of the nation-state from the Lisbon Treaty)
iii.​ Thus, there must be an increase in politicization (not necessarily nationalism for
bad) and a decrease in technicization
1.​ Nationalism has been constructed to elicit emotional loyalties and fierce
sentiments of belonging, something that the EU lacks in full
2.​ Not insufficient democratic representation, xenophobia, or exclusion
Political Institutions: Resolving Deadlock Through Rules
22.​ Garrett Hardin: “Tragedy of the Commons”
a.​ ToC: Individuals will have an incentive to consume lots of a “public good” if they do not
directly pay the cost themselves
i.​ Maximizing one’s personal gain to the detriment of others’
 ii.​ If everyone over consumes, then the good will be depleted
iii.​ Applies to fishing, population growth, pollution, but not university admissions
b.​ Malthus: Populations grow “geometrically” (exponentially) and therefore we must
assume that technology stagnates and the world is finite”
i.​ Some dilemmas have no technical solution
c.​ The morality of an action is a function equal to the state of the system at the time it is
performed
d.​ Solution: Divide up the commons, the state needs to step in
e.​ Kids: Guilt leads to anxiety from the state’s monopoly on coercion
f.​ Conflict between individual and collective rationality
23.​ Peter Singer: “Should this Be the Last Generation?”
a.​ Continued reproduction will harm some children and help no one
b.​ Do non-existent people have rights?
c.​ Party until we die
24.​ Barrington Moore: “Social Origins of Dictatorship & Democracy”
a.​ The critical group in the development of democracy was the bourgeoisie
i.​ The middle class sanctions elites and participates in democracy
b.​ Examples
i.​ Facism: Weak bourgeoisie relied on ruling class, capitalist and reactionary
ii.​ Communism: Huge, non-modern peasantry, agricultural bureaucracy inhibited
the creation of a bourgeoisie class
iii.​ Bourgeoisie Revolutions: Independent economic groups in society, attacks
obstacles to democratic capitalism (e.g. peasants, upper classes)
iv.​ India: No capitalism from above or communism from below, weak modernity,
parliamentary, no peasant revolution (an exception?)
25.​ Daron Acemoglu & James Robinson (1): “Economic Origins of Dictatorship & Democracy”
a.​ Democracy is an institutional bargain between elites and citizens
b.​ Theory of Democratization: Transitory nature of de facto political power renders
institutions as durable actors in shaping (tomorrow’s) policies (and thus regulating the
future allocation of power)
c.​ [NOT THIS READING] Working definition of institution
i.​ Humanly devised constraints that structure political, economic, and social
interactions
1.​ E.g. Lau/HFSC (coordination?), Prisoner’s Dilemma (limits)
Political Regimes: Authoritarianism
26.​ Robert Jackson & Carl Rosenberg: “Personal Rule”
a.​ Personal rule involves a politics of leadership that is elite-based and monopolistic
b.​ Personal Rule: “A distinct political system in which the rivalries and struggles of
powerful and willful men are fundamental in shaping political life”
i.​ Legitimacy rests upon underlying national society and constituent groups/classes
ii.​ Relations of social and government concern group demands, policies, and new
policies
iii.​ Institutions/policy bases of government reflect power/privilege of groups in
society
 iv.​ Activity of government in policymaking is both social and technical
27.​ Steven Levistky & Lucan Way: “The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism”
a.​ Authoritarianism may involve independent challenges to the government by the media,
judiciary, legislature, and votes, but NOT religious authorities
b.​ Competitive authoritarianism has formed democratic institutions, but rights and liberties
are still violated such that authoritarianism > democracy
i.​ Authoritarianism can co-exist with meaningful democratic institutions without
rights abuses
28.​ Moisés Naím (1): “The Dictator’s New Playbook”
a.​ The new breed of autocrats use populism to convince voters to vote for them in
pseudo-elections, build strong identifications between themselves and “the people,” and
undermine the rule of law, but do NOT use it to construct an overriding ideology to
justify their power
b.​ Populism is not an ideology, but rather a technology for seeking power
c.​ [NOT THIS READING] Types of government?
i.​ Authoritarianism (personalist or hegemonic party) (Gaddafi), sultanism (Marcos),
totalitarianism (USSR), post-totalitarianism (E Europe), democracy
d.​ [NOT THIS READING] Self-reinforcing cycle of dictatorship
i.​ Dictator coerces, distributes spoils > people flatter him > doesn’t trust them &
seizes power > people show him more love (out of fear/Machiavellian) > dictator
fears more and becomes paranoid
ii.​ Until endogenous (e.g. social tensions) (e.g. Glorious Revolution) and exogenous
shocks (e.g. natural disaster, war)
Authoritarianism and Transitions to Democracy
29.​ Fareed Zakaria: “A Brief History of Human Liberty”
a.​ A new class of bourgeoisie yeoman capitalists was the most important in limiting the
power of European (English) kings and advancing liberty
b.​ Changes in law stem from actions by institutions (e.g. Catholic Church)
c.​ Culture as destiny -> democracy as destiny?
d.​ Liberty: Freedom of the individual from arbitrary authority of the state
30.​ Alexis De Toqueville: “Democracy in America”
a.​ A state must develop a knowledge of statecraft, educate democracy and reawaken its
religious beliefs, and develop a new science of politics to develop a democratic political
reality
b.​ Is there something inevitable about democracy?
i.​ “The gradual development of equality… is a providential fact”
31.​ Robyn Meredith: The Elephant & the Dragon (Intro, Ch.1, Ch. 2)
a.​ Intro: India (democratic, anti-business) was slow to modernize while China
(authoritarian, probusiness) ultra modernized
b.​ Ch. 1: China’s economic reforms as having begun in the countryside > urban centers (e.g.
Deng Xiaopeng’s specialized zones of capitalism)
c.​ Ch. 2: India pursued self-sufficiency for anti-colonial, independence-oriented purposes
What is Democracy, Really? And How Does it Fall Apart?
32.​ Philippe C. Schmitter & Terry Lynn Karl: “What Democracy is… And is Not”
 a.​ “The most distinctive element in democracies” is its citizens
b.​ Democracy is more than free and fair elections (case-informed concept formation)
i.​ General Criteria for Democracy: Control by elected officials; free and fair
elections; practically all adults can vote and run for office; citizens can express
themselves, seek alternate sources of information, and form independent
associations
ii.​ Additional Criteria for Democracy: Elected officials can govern without
intervention from unelected officials (e.g. military officials), polity must be
self-governing and free from the constraints of an overarching political system
(e.g. Cold War)
33.​ Hannah Pitkin: “The Concept of Representation”
a.​ Representation often reflects different emphases in a controversy between mandate
(substitutes) and independence (free agents)
i.​ Explicit instructions, some discretion (moderate), best/want
34.​ David Collier & Steven Levitsky: “Democracy with Adjectives”
a.​ Illiberal democracy is a diminished subtype
b.​ Diminished Subtype: Not a full democratic definition/a democracy with fewer attributes
c.​ Ladder of Generality (Giovanni Sartori): Concepts can be more or less specific by
adding attributes/criterion to create “subtypes” (Democracy with Adjectives)
i.​ Down ladder = More attributes = “classical”/full subtypes
ii.​ Up ladder = conceptual stretching = non-democracies
1.​ One created a diminished subtype by precising the definition of
democracy, which avoids conceptual stretching
2.​ One can also shift the subtype by lowering the standard of democracy
35.​ Daniel Ziblatt & Steven Levitsky: How Democracies Die
a.​ Anocracies are dead democracies
b.​ New “handbook” for ruining democracies
i.​ Not following the “rules” (e.g. canceling elections, encouraging mass protests)
ii.​ Destroying legitimate political opponents
iii.​ Tolerating/encouraging violence
iv.​ Readiness to curtail civil liberties/use repression
Electoral Systems
36.​ Charles King (2): “Electoral Systems”
a.​ Plurality: First past the post (FPTP), “winner take all,” (< 50%+1), not representative of
the interests of all (or the majority)
b.​ Majority: Attempts to provide a greater degree of representation by requiring 50% + 1
c.​ Proportional: Attempts to make the percent of office awarded proportional to the percent
of votes received
i.​ Closed Party List Systems: Parties determine candidates
ii.​ Open Party List Systems: Voters choose individuals
d.​ Single Transferable Vote (STV): Voters express multiple preferences, after 1 candidate
reaches the quota, second choices are used, a form of ranked choice voting, if none reach
the quota, then the lowest candidate is eliminated and votes are transferred, used in
Multi-Member Districts (MMDs), Ireland
 i.​ Close Cousins with Alternative Vote (AV): A form of ranked choice voting
used in Single-Member Districts (SMDs)
37.​ Richard Sondriette & Andrew Ellis: “Electoral Systems: A Global Snapshot”
a.​ Plurality/Majority: FPTP, 2-round system, AV, Block Vote (BV), Party-Block Vote
(PBV)
b.​ Proportional: Open or Closed List PR
c.​ Semi-Proportional/Mixed: Combination of the above 2 or “free” list systems (write-in)
i.​ Mixed Member Proportional (MMP): ½ of the legislature is elected by
plurality/majority vote and ½ is proportional
d.​ Other: STV, Limited Vote (LV), Bored Count (BC), SNTV
e.​ The world is trending away from majority/plurality and towards proportional
38.​ Maurice Duverger: “The Number of Parties”
a.​ The fact that the simple-majority ballot system favors the 2-party system is “nearly a
sociological law”
b.​ Generalizing Duverger’s Law: M+1 viable parties will be able to contend
39.​ Taagepera & Shugart: “Why Study Electoral Democracy”
a.​ We should study electoral systems because
i.​ Different candidates may be elected according to different rules
ii.​ They are the most easy part of the democratic system to manipulate to achieve
specific goals
iii.​ They shape voter behavior
40.​ Robyn Meredith: The Elephant & the Dragon (Ch. 3, Ch. 5, Ch. 6)
a.​ Ch. 3: “The Internet’s Spice Route,” Offshoring = “jobs moving,” India placed on map
for foreign companies, nature of personal (e.g. services) vs impersonal (e.g. animation)
work, problems (hurts wage security domestically, job losses, decreasing stability), India
specific (increase intellectual labor, increase in middle class optimism)
b.​ Ch. 5: “The Disassembly Line” (“supply chains”), China as a factoried superpower, Ease
of global transport
c.​ Ch. 6: “India’s Cultural Revolution” (Introduction of global brands as hallmarks of
success, persistent poverty issues)
d.​ [NOT THIS READING] Advantages/disadvantages of each electoral system
i.​ Advantages of each
1.​ Majority/plurality
a.​ Accountability & Decisiveness
2.​ Proportional
a.​ Representativeness & Compromise
3.​ Both
a.​ Express 1 preference, so lots of wasted votes
b.​ Sometimes you only get to choose a party over a candidate
c.​ You might have preferences among several candidates (and
therefore must strategize your voting)
Models of Democracy
41.​ Jose Cheibub: “Parliamentarianism & Presidentialism”
 a.​ Parliamentarianism: Chief executive comes from the legislature, legislature may vote to
replace the “government,” executive may dissolve the legislature, dependent on coalition
building
i.​ E.g. Germany, UK
b.​ Presidentialism: Chief executive popularly elected, terms of office are fixed for the
legislature & the executive, chief executive forms government without interference from
the legislature, executive has some legislative power as well (e.g. decrees, vetoes)
i.​ E.g. US, Mexico, Brazil
42.​ Daniel J. Elzar: “Exploring Federalism”
a.​ Federalism: “Self-Rule” + “Shared Rule,” balancing a diffusion of power with some
necessary concentration of power
b.​ Represents the need of people and polities to unite for common purposes yet remain
separate to preserve their respective integrities
i.​ Free people can enter into lasting yet limited political associations to achieve
common ends and protect certain rights while preserving their respective
integrities
ii.​ E.g. US
43.​ Arend Lipjart: “Constitutional Design for Divided Societies”
a.​ Democratic government is most effective in divided societies (especially those with
contending ethnic groups) when it involves power sharing and autonomy…
i.​ … and when it has parliamentary (closed list) proportional representation
b.​ Consociational Model: Crafting political institutions that guarantee power-sharing
among different identity groups in a divided society
i.​ Incentives to create power-sharing structures to promote stability in the long run
ii.​ Eg. Lebanon
c.​ [NOT THIS READING] Advantages/disadvantages of each model of democracy
i.​ Parliamentarianism:
1.​ Disadvantages:
2.​ Advantages: All stable democracies, Representativeness, accountability,
vote of no confidence, power-sharing, coalition-building, inter-party
cooperation
ii.​ Presidentialism:
1.​ Disadvantages: President lacks majority support, bipartisan leads to
deadlock, no incentives to form coalitions, decentralization, tends
towards majoritarianism, not easy to remove an inefficient executive
2.​ Advantages: Predictable, Centrist, Direct say in leadership, Decisiveness,
Greater direct choice for voters, electoral accountability & identification,
congressional independence
d.​ [NOT THIS READING] Other Aspects of Democratic Models
i.​ What’s the trade off between governability and representation?
1.​ Governability allows things to get done
2.​ But without representation, it might not be the stuff that you want done
3.​ With representation, minority rights are represented
ii.​ What are the benefits/drawbacks of term limits?
 1.​ Less abuse of power
2.​ Not much time to complete things
3.​ Pandering to a broader range of views to get re-elected
e.​ [NOT THIS READING] Other Models of Democracy
i.​ Unifying/Consensus Model: Executive power-sharing in coalition cabinets,
balance between executive and legislature, multiparty system, proportional
representation, decentralization
1.​ Uniting disparate peoples and finding common solutions
2.​ For divided societies, mutually-agreeable solutions, and power sharing
3.​ Cycle: PR > multiparty > coalitions > power-sharing > Decentralization
4.​ E.g. the EU
ii.​ Westminster Model: Governing & comp/executive, major institutions,
homogenous society, alterations in power
1.​ Focuses on debate, contention, clear mandates, and choices
2.​ For majoritarian institutions, homogenous societies, and those that prefer
alterations in power
3.​ Cycle: FPTP > 2-party > 1-Party cabinet > concentrated power >
Centralization
4.​ E.g. the UN (UNSC)
The Intersection of Economics & Politics
44.​ Edward R. Tufte: “Political Control of the Economy”
a.​ Between 1946 and 1976, the best way to beat inflation and unemployment in the US was
to host a presidential election
b.​ Modern democratic countries exert substantial control over national economic life
c.​ Political motives are attributed to economic policies in election years
d.​ Discrepancies based on 2/4 year electoral cycles
e.​ The government can mess development up
45.​ Seymour Martin Lipset: “Economic Development & Political Legitimacy”
a.​ Economic development can be an important factor explaining democracy and class
conflict
b.​ Modernization Theory: All states go through development and as they economically
advance, they become more democratic
i.​ Originally coined by Walt Whitman Rostow
1.​ All states undergo a similar process of economic development
2.​ Economics provide the preconditions for social change
3.​ Stages of growth: Traditional society, pre-conditions, takeoff, drive to
maturity, high mass consumerism
ii.​ Lipset adds one more stage: Democracy
1.​ “The more well-to-do a nation, the greater chances it will sustain
democracy”
iii.​ Critiques of Modernization Theory
1.​ Not necessarily true, no causal logic explained, very capitalist (assumes
capitalism is a precondition for democracy), no cultural competence
 (treats the West as prototypical), excludes backsliding democracies &
wealthy autocracies, communism isn’t supposed to be autocratic
2.​ Counter-examples: India, China
iv.​ How has this informed policies?
1.​ Aid “for democracy” is focused on economic development
a.​ Fault: Omits education and literacy
i.​ Literacy as social change AND democracy and access to
reading materials, easier in a democracy
46.​ Adam Przeworski: *Mentioned in Lecture*
a.​ Supporter of Modernization Theory
i.​ “There is no doubt that democracy is stable in affluent countries” (1999)
b.​ Complicates Lipset’s pathing
i.​ “Become well to do”
1.​ Urbanize, industrialize, grow literary rates and media capacities, and
develop institutions of participation
2.​ Do so at a moderate pace
ii.​ “Then, establish democracy”
Trade & Its Domestic Effects
47.​ Adam Smith” “An Inquiry into the Nature & Causes of the Wealth of Nations”
a.​ Invisible Hand: Individuals are best at making choices that benefit society
b.​ Division of Labor: Increases production quantity by increasing the dexterity of workers,
decreases time between jobs, increases mechanization
c.​ Trade is always more advantageous for both parties when 1 (or none) has an advantage
d.​ “The real price of everything is the trouble & toil of acquiring it”
e.​ [NOT THIS READING]: Trade
i.​ States make decisions to embrace (subsidies, tax incentives) or avoid trade
(prohibitions, quotas, tariffs)
48.​ Daron Acemoglu: “Root Causes: A Historical Approach to Assembling the Role of
Institutions in Economic Development”
a.​ Institutions are the main reason we see differences across countries’ economic
development
b.​ Institutional Hypothesis: Human influence creates some good institutions that invest in
society’s machinery, human capital, and technology, thus in turn benefiting the economy
i.​ (Acemoglu’s preferred answer); Colonization transfers European extractive
institutions, which leave legacies in ex-colonized states of minimal property
rights and inequality
ii.​ There exists no evidence that society will naturally gravitate towards good
institutions
iii.​ Democratic institutions need to be adopted willingly
1.​ Forcing American institutions is not right because there exist different
models of democracy
2.​ Not culturally competent (e.g. religion & the work week)
c.​ Geography Hypothesis: Geography, climate, and the ecology of society shape both its
technology and the incentives of its inhabitants
 i.​ e.g. geothermal energy in Iceland
49.​ Alan Blinder: “Offshoring: The Next Industrial Revolution?”
a.​ Personal services are least susceptible to offshoring (e.g. janitorial services)
b.​ Globalization can be good or bad based on the type of economy you are
i.​ (Boardly) Offshoring provides jobs to Asia, pollutes Africa/Asia, and decreases
the amount of jobs available in the US/Europe
c.​ Trade occurs to exploit comparative advantage
i.​ Man-Made Comparative Advantage: Kaleidoscopic Comparative
Advantage: Movement of textile production centers, “Silicon Valley could be
anywhere”
50.​ Robyn Meredith: The Elephant & the Dragon (Ch. 6-8)
a.​ Ch. 6: “India’s Cultural Revolution,” introduction of global brands, poverty persists
b.​ Ch. 7: “Revolution by Dinner Party,” China’s Cultural Revolution, More likely that
conflict will arise again that in India
c.​ Ch. 8: “Geopolitics Mixed with Oil & Water,” Globalization allows both economies to
grow, capitalism as an answer to poverty
d.​ [GENERAL] India
i.​ India 1.0: Basically closed to trade
1.​ 1947: Partition & Independence (47% below the poverty line)
2.​ In need of development: Industries, cities, education
3.​ Nehru & Gandhi pursue modernization (among other things lol)
a.​ Central planning & licensing focus (the License Raj’)
b.​ Import Substitution Industrialization
i.​ High Tariffs & Import Licensing (see as temporary)
c.​ Socialism with Low expectations
i.​ Bureaucracy & state employment
ii.​ “Hindu rate of growth”
d.​ Cycle: Limits the market and trade -> Stronger state role in
industries -> small welfare state, less public spending -> slow
growth -> The economy is designed to foster the state’s
development goals
i.​ Stable leadership, limited participation
ii.​ India 2.0: Increasingly open to trade, especially by sector
1.​ The Rao/Singh Model
2.​ Capitalize on outsourcing
3.​ Focus on exporting services (novel, technologically advanced)
4.​ 2-tiered economic model
5.​ Era of entrepreneurs (e.g. Naryana Murpthy)
6.​ An emerging capitalist economy
a.​ Cycle: Fosters the role of the market, promotes trade -> Strong
private role in ownership/funding many industries -> limited
public spending, education & rural -> fast growth -> segmented
economy, dynamic and traditional
b.​ Autonomy in leadership, more participation
 7.​ Poverty declines
iii.​ India 3.0?: Protectionism in some sectors
1.​ A swing to “Make in India” (domestic manufacturing, infrastructure)
2.​ Some Indians felt left out
3.​ Largely continuing a trade-driven model
e.​ [GENERAL] China
i.​ China 1.0: Inward industrialization, largely closed
1.​ Central planning with high expectations (Mao Zedong)
a.​ Cycle: Central planning from Beijing ->State owned enterprises
-> urban bias and rural quotas -> fast growth & famine ->
misaligned incentives
b.​ 5 year plans
ii.​ China 2.0: Strong opening to trade
1.​ Deng Xiaopeng (a change in vision)
2.​ Central planning with high expectations
a.​ Cycle: Central planning & autonomy -> State-Owned Enterprises
(SOEs) & Specialized Economic Zones (SEZs) & small
businesses -> eased urban bias and rural quotas -> growing
industry & urbanization -> some lingering mismatched
incentives
b.​ 5 year plans AND private initiative
3.​ Poverty declines
iii.​ China 3.0?: Still open, but openness to trade wars
1.​ State control of economy reasserted (& regulation of the private sector)
2.​ Emphasizes “self-reliance,” “common prosperity,” less dependence on
foreign imports (Xi Jingping)
f.​ [GENERAL] Meredith & Modernization Theory
i.​ Does India’s progression from democracy to development-oriented contradict
Lipset’s logic of Modernization Theory?
ii.​ Does China’s “progression from development to democracy” support Lipset’s
claim? Has China backslid?
iii.​ Both have changed their development models in recent years
51.​ Stolper-Samuelson: *Mentioned in Lecture*
a.​ Domestic Factors of Production: Determine 2 different kinds of economies
i.​ Labor-Abundant vs Capital-Abundant
ii.​ Political conflict is cross-class
b.​ Best analysis in the long-run
Econ Type Labor Abundant Capital Abundant

Labor will… Supp (free trade) ($) Opp (wages)

Capital will… Opp (control) Supp

52.​ Ricardo-Viner: *Mentioned in Lecture*

 a.​ Labor & Capital do not always behave as blocs
b.​ Inside Sectors, workers & capitalists have same interests; political conflict is sectoral
c.​ Best analysis in the short-run
Sector Will…

Exporting Supp (free trade) (want foreign markets)

Import-Competing Opp (protectionism)

Import-Employing Supp (cheaper inputs)

Non-Tradeable Supp (lower prices for other goods)

The Challenge of Poverty & Inequality (& Policymaking)
53.​ Milton Friedman: “Using the Market for Social Development”
a.​ Rapid change from a command to a market economy
b.​ Prefers total > partial privatization (e.g. airports - pre-9/11) & shock > gradualism
treatment for the economy (capital has been invested in ways no longer efficient)
c.​ Free-market capitalist advocate
d.​ He also wanted to subvert unions by bribing them with shares
54.​ William Easterly: “The Elusive Quest for Growth”
a.​ Misguided policies that kill economic growth include running high budget deficits,
import substitution industrialization, closing the economy to trade, and printing
money/creating inflation, because they provide bad incentives
i.​ Instead, government should create incentives for investments (in the market)
b.​ Believes in “the regulatory burden” — government should get out of the way of growth
c.​ Assumes good uses of resources by individuals
d.​ Often government is to blame for lack of development, but that doesn’t mean that
solutions (incentives) are easy
e.​ The problem of development is governmental (vs external Frank) (vs domestic society -
(De Soto) vs complex)
Explaining Different Development Paths (& Lack of Development)
55.​ Andre Gunder Frank: “The Development of Underdevelopment”
a.​ Dependency Theory: Developing countries grow/develop faster when least linked to
world trade
i.​ Satellites experience their greatest economic development when ties to the
metropolis are the weakest (e.g. Meiji Restoration)
ii.​ Critiques: Dependency theory framework may be true, but can’t find case
studies/conclusion, trade can be beneficial, resources. short term costs to just
isolating (hurts diplomatic relations of trade in a hyper-globalized world)
b.​ Ignorance of colonial histories has led to the false belief that ex-colonies are in “early
stages” of capitalism; underdevelopment is, in fact, a product of capitalism
c.​ Rejects the “Dual” Societies theory in ex-colonies which purports that pockets of
prosperity/deprivation arise from relations with the metropolis
i.​ Each metropolis seeks to maintain monopolistic & exploitative relations
 1.​ Developing world spends more and gets less, manufactured goods’ price
rise over time
ii.​ Favors Satellite Development: Regions that are the most underdeveloped today
were the closest to the past metropolis
1.​ This is neither self-generating nor self-perpetuating
2.​ Multilevel International System: Satellite relationships extend to
within colonized states (Core/Semi-Periphery/Periphery)
d.​ Burden now placed on ex-colonies to analyze their predicament
e.​ The problem of development is purely external (vs domestic (government (Easterly) vs
society - (De Soto)) vs complex)
56.​ Jared Diamond: “Guns, Germs, & Steel”
a.​ Why do we ask big questions in comparative analysis?
b.​ Due to curiosity and our own values
57.​ Daron Acemoglu & James Robinson (2): “Why Nations Fail”
a.​ Different economic outcomes are caused by institutions and policy
b.​ Inclusive economic and political institutions foster growth, whereas extractive institutions
keep places poor due to the incentives that they create
c.​ E.g. property rights & regulation in the creation of Bill Gates vs Carlos Slim
58.​ De Soto: The 5 Mysteries of Capital
a.​ The problem of development is societal (vs domestic government (Easterly) or external
(Frank) or complex)
b.​ Capitalism is institutionally developed not to work in developing countries due to the
prevalence of dead capital, as these countries don’t have legal structures to convert capital
into anything usable
c.​ This perpetuates a cycle of poverty (doesn’t discuss why)
d.​ High regulation or poor institution
e.​ “The 3rd World” and the West are unable to disentangle themselves
f.​ Culture cannot explain world inequality, rather the inability to produce capital is the
obstacle to capitalism’s benefits (e.g. documentation, machinery)
i.​ Capital: The force that raises the productivity of labor and creates the wealth of
nations
g.​ Mystery of Missing Information: Dead capital (e.g. discrimination laws), no
documentation of the poor’s capacity to accumulate assets, the poor as their own solution
to poverty, overregulation of business (e.g. Peru)
i.​ Dead Capital: Assets that cannot be used to their fullest
ii.​ Extralegality: Due to high regulatory burdens, people’s only option is to live and
work outside of the official law, using informally binding arrangements to protect
and mobilize their assets
1.​ Creates a vibrant, undercapitalized sector (e.g. Peru-168 steps)
iii.​ [From Second Next Unit] Titling Land: Legal recognition for squatters (“dead
capital”), creates capital out of land, strengthens the rule of law, impacts labor
markets
h.​ Mystery of Capital: No one knows what it is
 i.​ Mystery of Political Awareness: Ignored poor industrial-commercial revolution during
urban migration
i.​ Abstract Concept: Capital is made into a fixed, intangible form in order to be
useful (as understood in classical economics. In modern society, capital has been
conflated with money.
ii.​ “Fixing” the Economic Potential of Assets: “Fix” the economic potential of
assets with a process to change it into a form that can be used to initiate
additional production (e.g. a lake into hydropower)
j.​ Mystery of Missing Lessons from US History: “3rd World” early stage US largely
ignored
k.​ Mystery of Legal Failure: Copying a nation’s laws does not lead to capitalism
l.​ By Way of Conclusion: “Capitalism is the only game in town;” capitalist success is
cultural (e.g. “Protestant work ethnic”)
m.​ [NOT THIS READING] How much agency do governments have to influence
economic development?
i.​ Policies that positively affect on growth:
1.​ Tax incentives for FID, appropriate interest rates, import-export,
SEZs/enterprise zones, Command economy direct investment, Capitalist
economy “open the floodgates” to protect private property, Too little
regulation (e.g. central bank) (i.e. not anarchy), Media/economic
education
ii.​ Policies that negatively affect on growth:
1.​ Exchange rates, devaluing currency by printing a lot of money, keeping
interest rates artificially low for too long, Nationalization (Liz Truss,
instability, growth goes down), Over-regulation, Corruption,
Counter-narcotics (e.g. Columbia)
iii.​ The same policy can be positive or negative depending on the context
iv.​ Institutions can play a role in economic development
1.​ It varies (e.g. jobs training vs racism)
2.​ Institutions can provide incentives for quick fixes to societal issues (e.g.
CCT to send girls to school doesn’t fix sexism, but helps girls)
Varieties of Development & Capitalism
59.​ Gøsta Epsing-Andersen: “The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism”
a.​ There exist three forms of welfare states: corporatist, liberal, and social democracies
b.​ Liberal: Means-tested assistance, modest universal transfers, modest social-insurance
plans, caters to the low-income working class
i.​ The progression if societal reform has been severely circumcised by the
traditional work ethnic norms
ii.​ E.g. US, Canada, Australia
c.​ Corporatist: No contestation over social rights, no liberal obsession with market
efficiency or commodification, rights attached to class and status under state > market
i.​ Typically shaped by the Church, state only interferes when family’s capacity is
exhausted
ii.​ E.g. Austria, France, Italy, Germany
 d.​ Social Democracy: Universalism, de-commodification of social rights, middle classes
i.​ Equality of the highest standards > equality of minimal need (elsewhere)
ii.​ Preemptively socializes family costs > waiting until exhausted
iii.​ E.g. Scandinavian countries
60.​ Atul Kohli: “State-Directed Development”
a.​ The state can reinforce and help the market
b.​ The types of modern states include: Cohesive-Capitalist, Fragmented Multiclass, and
Neopatrimonal states
c.​ Goal of states is to achieve growth
i.​ The creation of effective developing states precedes the emergence of industrial
economies, the state intervenes to influence market behavior
d.​ Cohesive Capitalist States: Growth, cohesive policies, close with the capitalist class,
purposeful structures of authority, ideological mobilization, national security as a priority,
“developing world,” ideal, more legal-rational
i.​ E.g. South Korea, Brazil
ii.​ Most ideal at achieving growth
e.​ Fragmented Multiclass States: “Real modern states” (public arena), “developing
world,” broad class alliances (coalitions), obsessed with political legitimacy
i.​ Less effective at growth
f.​ Neopatrimonial States: Driven by greed, political patronage, or both
i.​ E.g. Nigeria
ii.​ Actively thwart growth
g.​ No country is a pure example of any type
h.​ [NOT THIS READING] Types of Market Economies
i.​ Liberal Market Economies (LMEs): Hierarchical firms, markets for
competition and exchange, formal contracts, venture/”impatient” capital, price
signals in stock markets, workers cultivate “switchable skills,” fluid labor
markets, few job protections, liberal welfare, free agents, little/no participation in
workplace decisions
1.​ Self-Reinforcing LME institutions: Deregulated labor market, general
skills, venture capital, strong competition/price signals, low-cost
hiring/firing
2.​ Liberal, majoritarian, plurality
ii.​ Coordinated Market Economies (CMEs): Strategic interaction among firms;
tripartite coordination among (firms, workers, governments); economies not
planned (coordinated by relevant actors); workers have specific skills;
industry-level collective bargaining agreements, government financed job
training programs, and long apprenticeships exist; capital is patient, not always
abstract, and consensus-based; industries and governments collab on tech transfer
1.​ Self-Reinforcing CME institutions: Employee cooperation in firms,
specific skills, patient capital, cooperation across firms, wage moderation
2.​ Social democratic, proportional, parliamentary
Innovative Approaches to Poverty & Inequality
61.​ Anthony Atkinson: “How to Spread Wealth: Practical Politics for Decreasing Inequality”
 a.​ Universal Basic Income (UBI)
b.​ Solutions to inequality: Targeted technological development, progressive taxation, wealth
tax, minimum inheritance, progressive child allowances, participation income, antitrust
laws, increase the wealth of small savers, tax/eat the rich
62.​ Jonathan Tepperman: “Brazil’s Antipoverty Breakthrough: The Surprising Success of
Bolsa Família”
a.​ Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs): Direct cash payments (e.g. mothers, farmers);
based on assessed need, measurable compliance (e.g. school, vaccines), recognizes
opportunity costs of missing work for these things
b.​ Unconditional Cash Transfers (UCTs): Basic dignity, prevents bad choices, generally
used well, lower/no administrative costs to assess compliance
c.​ Bolsa Família (Brazil) is low-cost, increases school attendance, increases support for
democracy, and decreases child labor, but does NOT increase learning outcomes
63.​ Global Citizen: “Mexico Gives Cash Directly to Moms — & it’s Succeeding in Major
Ways”
a.​ Another example of CCTs, gendered policy of assuming mothers are tied to families
64.​ The Economist: Pennies from Heaven”
a.​ UCTs > CCTs because of lower administrative costs
65.​ Annie Lowery: “Switzerland’s Proposal to Pay People for Being Alive”
a.​ Universal Basic Income: Decrease in poverty, decrease in hospitalizations, & increase in
high school completion, but NOT an increase in employment
b.​ Proposed in Switzerland, shut down to “maintain societal work ethic”
c.​ [NOT THIS READING] Other Solutions to Poverty/Inequality
i.​ Microcredit: Undercuts local lenders, supporting local “entrepreneurs”
ii.​ Titling Land: Legal recognition for squatters (“dead capital”), creates capital out
of land, strengthens the rule of law, impacts labor markets
iii.​ Problems: Access to Credit, Childhood development
Democracy, Development, & Institutional Change
66.​ Robert J. Barrow: “Democracy: A Recipe for Growth?”
a.​ The relation between democracy and development is complicated, but they do go together
in some way
b.​ Democracy survives better at higher levels of growth
i.​ “Democracy that gets ahead of the economy will not last”
67.​ Juan J. Linz & Alfred Stepan: “Toward Consolidated Democracies”
a.​ Rule of law, policial society, and economic society are required for consolidated
democracies but NOT homogenous national identity
b.​ Consolidated Democracy: A political regime in which democracy becomes “the only
game in town” (behaviorally, attitudinally, and constitutionally
i.​ Multiple peaceful transitions in regime power
1.​ Probability of reverting to an autocratic regime is much lower
2.​ Cannot turn back to another regime type
ii.​ Caveats: Democracies can die and exist as different types
 iii.​ Requirements: There exists a state, civil society, rule of law, state bureaucracy,
political society, and an institutionalized economy (no command economy or
pure market economy — regulations are necessary)
68.​ Francis Fukayama (1): “Trust: The Social Virtues & the Creation of Prosperity”
a.​ Social Capital: The ability to work together for shared purposes, trust, shared norms and
values, and an ability to put individual interest at the service of common good, but NOT a
specific productive skills and knowledge
b.​ “A nation’s well-being, that is its ability to compete is conditioned by a single, pervasive
cultural change: the level of trust inherent in the society”
Protests, Uprising, & Civil War
69.​ Ted Robert Gurr: “Why Men Rebel”
a.​ Relative Deprivation: What people think they deserve versus what they actually get,
perceived discrepancies cause discontent,
b.​ Revolution: A violent distrust of the old order
i.​ Group frustration and resentment are key factors of revolution
ii.​ A strategy for the discontented includes mobilization, justifications of claims,
and gaining institutional support
c.​ Approach to Strife: Micro-Psychological
70.​ Timur Kuran: “Now out of Never”
a.​ Revolutions can be retroactively explained, but never predicted; are based on rational
choice, and solve collective action problems (e.g. 1989 Color Revolutions)
b.​ Revolutionary thresholds/bandwagons (latent bandwagon never takes off)
c.​ There exists a revolutionary tipping point for collective action
71.​ Barbara Walter: *Mentioned in Lecture*
a.​ Theory of Bargaining: Civil wars are costly, human beings are rational
b.​ Why not bargain before a (civil) war?
c.​ Asymmetrical information, issue indivisibility, difficulties credibly committing to
settlements
72.​ Mancur Olson Jr: *Mentioned in Lecture*
a.​ Revolutions are “collective action problems”
i.​ Successful revolutions provide a new government, a public good that is
1.​ Non-excludable and non-rivalrous
ii.​ Incentive for free riders
b.​ [NOT THIS READING] 4 Classical Approaches to Strife:
i.​ Macro-Political: Huntington’s development gap and political decay
ii.​ Micro-Psychological: Gurr’s relative deprivation, mediated by intervening social
conditions
iii.​ State-Centered: Skocpol’s structural factors towards sweeping social
revolution/change, crisis of the state, and “class conflict” (not Marx)
iv.​ Agent-Centered
Indigenous Movements & Ethnic Politics
73.​ Donna Lee Van Cott: “From Movements to Parties in Latin America”
a.​ The existence of ethnic-based parties in Latin America varies
i.​ Success: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela
 ii.​ Failure: Argentina, Peru
b.​ Decline in state corporatism and improvements in democracy were the historical
shocks/trends that enabled organizing around Indigenous identities
c.​ Conditions for Success:
i.​ Formative Experiences: effective participation in a constitutional reform, dense
network of affiliates, high organizational unity, Indigenous majority electoral
districts
ii.​ Permissive Institutional Environment: decentralization, reserved seats
iii.​ Open Party System: fragmented or dealigned, decline of the electoral left
d.​ Beyond representation, internalizing/owning a political identity, becoming a political
party
74.​ Deborah J. Yashar: “Contesting Citizenship: Indigenous Movements & Democracy in Latin
America”
a.​ Post-structuralism and historical perspective on the formation of Indigenous parties
i.​ Identity does not map onto politics, is not always instrumental, is multiplicious,
and is activated by a shock/event
ii.​ E.g. Subcomandante Marcos
iii.​ Some factors may enable other groups to mobilize
iv.​ Any group incorporated in corporatist structures (e.g. state/industrial workers)
1.​ Or people given an opportunities by improved democracy/economy
Gender, Political Participation, & Social Change
75.​ Mala Htun: “Is Gender Like Ethnicity: The Political Representation of Identity Groups”
a.​ Women are different from ethnic groups because they are a cross-cutting > coinciding
group
b.​ Cross-Cutting: Identities overlap with multiple different groups; Quotas affect every
group
c.​ Coinciding: Identities tend to wan the same things (assumed); reservations
d.​ Advantages/Disadvantages of quotas/reservations
i.​ Quotas:
1.​ Disadvantages: Make groups mad, hard to get passed, how to implement
(e.g. what number), what people campaign for can be different,
perception of “fairness,” fosters resentment if prolonged, may not always
address imbedded societal/cultural inequalities, women can act as
figurehead for misogynistic parties
2.​ Advantages: More representation (e.g. for women), leads to more family
and women-oriented policies, lowers bar for future representation, more
perspectives
ii.​ Reservations:
1.​ Disadvantages: Make groups mad, hard to get passed, how to implement
(e.g. what number) (same), people receiving things by default, reflect
changing demographics, minoritarianism (e.g. Syria), assumed everyone
has the same interests
 2.​ Advantages: More representation (e.g. for women), leads to more
ethnic-group policies, lowers bar for future representation, more
perspectives
76.​ Amartya Sen (1): “Women’s Agency & Social Change”
a.​ Decisive change in focus of women’s movements in recent years is from well-being to
agency (women as recipients of development/“patients” -> agents)
b.​ Focus on empowerment and capabilities > outcomes
c.​ Results in increased authority for families, decline in infant mortality, and decline in
fertility rates
d.​ Dynamic change for women by women
i.​ “Development as freedom”
Citizenship in a Globalized World
77.​ Francis Fukayama (2): “The End of History?”
a.​ Liberalism is essentially a victory of ideas
i.​ Defeated: Facism, Communism
ii.​ Only remaining contenders: Religion, Nationalism
b.​ There has been a “total exhaustion of viable systemic alternatives to Western liberalism”
by 1989
78.​ Moisés Naim: “The Five Wars of Globalization”
a.​ Transnational problems (e.g. drugs, arms and human trafficking, intellectual property, and
money laundering) require looking beyond nations’ sovereignty and stronger
multinational organizations
b.​ History isn’t over (disagrees with Fukayama (2)) because
i.​ Nations and conflicts persist
ii.​ Transnational problems of illegality
iii.​ Governments vs illicit organizations
iv.​ Convergence is not assured (on a single political order or vision of the world)
c.​ Diversity and change are the future
79.​ Amartya Sen (2): “Individual Freedom as a Social Commitment”
a.​ Human capital is more than human capabilities
b.​ Wants development and freedom
c.​ Importance of agency in challenging Fukayama’s view that “there’s no alternative” to the
current world order of inequality
MY NOTES

-Causal Inference: its the why, the explanatory theory of why an event occurs, a bold general conjecture, built off quantitative and
qualitative data
-Empirical vs Normative: empirical is veriafle based on experience and observation, normative is value judgements such as “this
should happen”
Ex: Empirical: “unemployment is 3.5%” and normative is “every american should have a job”

-Independent vs Dependent Variables: independent variable is what one manipulates and dependent is the variable that changes

-Mill’s method of agreement vs Mill’s method of disagreement:

—---Most researchers prefer Mill’s disagreement method.

****Nation on exam wont be ask to defined maybe essay though but for Exams there will be concrete def terms such as
-”A nation is a historically constituted,
stable community of people,
formed on the basis of a common language, territory,
economic life, and psychological make-up
manifested in a common culture” -stalin

Structural Approach: An approach to looking at a political phenomena and how socio-economic

Culturalists Approach: how culture and identities affect dynamics in a country
Institution apprach: formal rules and legislation and how that affects dynamic of a country
Rational choice theory:
N: like 100 countries looking at large number of maybe dissimarl coutnries
N: small number of countries like 2 countries that are genrally similar to themselves
Experimental conditions: Why certain individuals make the choices they do
Primordialist: identities are innate or predetermined from birth
-Constructivist: identity is creared through history, experience, and culture
-Instrumentalist: activated identity in different settings, we cant control the other way people perceive us or attach identities to us
Tipping Point= the graph where risk equals reward in creating new identity or staying with an identity

What is a state?
Bates
Ability to collect taxes
States inspire people to pay taxes (e.g. with parliaments) (provide concessions to the public, yet these often contain clauses to
abrogate the money)
Violent struggle creates new states if this doesn’t work out
Difference between nation-state, nation, and state?
Nation: Wimmer
Like over like
Nation-states more prone to conflict because heterogeneous elements amongst relatively homogeneous populations can create
turmoil, discrimination, etc.
Nation-state vs nation???
E.g. Cherokee Nation as a nation, but not a nation-state as it is contained within the USuu7
What is a failed state?
Bates

Huntington:
Civilizations clash, they should clash cant stop it, they clash bc diff and they clash bc they need to assert superiority
Different stages of competitions and how nations develop into states in stages

Macnamara:
-4 main things are important to maintain restore nationalism is EU:
Labeling mapping symbols and cultur[Link] important for meaning making, leads to EU being perceived as singular nation

-Regime type vs government: gov is the actual governing body that the regime type describes such as democracy or totalitarianism,
-tragedy of the commons: define:concept highlighting the conflict between individual and collective rationality. Search for more
specifics and example and solutions
-institution? formal vs informal institutions: informal would be like norms or non stated idk double check

Reinforcing cycle: of dictator strives for power then reinoriming cycle (on pres slides), explain with democracy like ppl want then
congress acts (compare contrast with democracy and dictatorship)
-endogenous: internal shocks (social tension or class dynamic changes

-exogenous: external shocks (war, natural disaster)

Democracy with Adjectives: (class reading) (collier) (issue of conceptualizing democracy)

-competitive authoritarian regime: gotta define more, such as Turkey
-authoritarian regimes hold pseudo-democratic institutions: to give appearance of democracy but can give people the idea that their
voice somewhat matters
-illiberal democracy: While liberal democracies protect individual rights and freedoms, illiberal democracies do not. Elections in an
illiberal democracy are often manipulated or rigged, being used to legitimize and consolidate the incumbent rather than to choose
the country's leaders and policies.
-Is democracy inevitable? yes /no maybe so
-How to inc econ of society which regime type would you choose

Closed list conducive to multi party

Identify and define 3 types of electoral systems:

Majority plurality(FPTP) : whichever candidate gets most votes (majority or not) wins……

Prop representation (MMP/STV): open/closed list systems where votes percentage equals people in parliament
…………representative, prevents gridlock

Semi prop representation: plurality and prop rep using different strategies to elect say a president and prime minister

MMP: Mixed member proportional : one for local and political party mixed
Single transferable vote is like ranked choice voting under prop rep
How do they compare on decisive, compromise, representativeness, flexibvilty, direct connection to voter’s will

Presidential: much more independent chief executive elected by people, much more diff to take away power bc impeachment
lengthy process,

Benefits; terms arelimited so less abuse of power, incetive of reelection pushes ethical decisions less corrupt, big tent party less
radical, more decisive as dont need to consult coalition

Cost: deadlock more often

Parliamentry: executive chosen by parliament by coalition generally or one party, a part of parliament, lot less regular elections as
coalition can break up by snap election much less regular elections than presidential

Benefit: PM more accountable to legislature, vote of no confidence dont have to wait for another election to make legislature, power
sharing, votes arent waisted, inter-party cooperation

Cost:

Governability vs representation,,, more representation less being able to accomplish and govern,,,,,, or more representation leads
to diff issues being accomplished, term limits in presidential has impact

-What is a state:
—----Monopoly on the legitimate use of violence -weber
—---Made when they have territorial control-Stalin
—---Efficient revenue extraction-bates (coercion, taxation and benefits thus coerce)
—---Resources to exploit, such as Leviathan (Hobbes) to control people-wilmer

-Where does the state come from:

—----they can come from nations or national units and want to have control of their territory
—----war, they can come from war
Electoral system: how do votes get translated into seats
How many seats are available as the number determines approach to votes taking
One—--majority/plurality
More than one—--proportional representation

EXTRA INFO:
-Moore emphasizes the middle class as most important for calling change and restraining kinds (no bourgeosie no democracy)

-Tipping game:
As more people join an identity such as language or culture the incentives for the next person to join increases

Nation: “a defined community with a shared identity marked by a common culture, language, ethnicity or history etc” —-----by Laitin

State: an administrative unit with a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence/force as well as the one who collects tax —--By
weber, laitin, and Bates

Imagined Community: - a concept as that a nation is a socially-constructed community, imagined by the people who perceive
themselves as part of a group even thorough none will all meet each other—-- by Anderson

Tragedy of the Commons: Is a natural situation described by overgrazing of open land, basically a situation in which there is no
incentive to stop overusing a resource as reward is immediate with no downside but destroys it and thus need privitization and gov
control—--by hardin

Tipping Game/Rational Choice Theory: the theory that people choose identity based on risk vs reward of perceived benefit if more
ppl join the more benefit to keep or join—--by Laitin

Like-over-like principle: idea same people should rule same people—-by wimmer

FPTP: First past the post, plurality in which biggest wins, single district leads to dvergers law—-by king

STV: single transferable vote is pro rep style but each person votes for their own candidate not a party list and similar to ranked
choice voting—-king

MMP —two diff systems for PM and pres pro rep and majoritarian —-----by Soudrette and Ellis

Proportional rep: where each vote sme get seats —-by king and soudrette & Ellis

majoritarian/plurality —----by king and Soudrette and Ellis

Westminster —-system style of gov where one party rules dominate cabinet other party in opposition, disproportionate electoral
system, centralized —----by Lipjhart
Consensus: executive power sharing,,,, decentralized, pro rep voting, coalition cabinets—--by Linz

Presidential - elected leader terms by chiebub

Parliamentary—-coalition party leader from legislature —by cheibub

Electoral Map—how votes are distributed—shugart and rein

Competitive Authoritarianism—democracy with fake elections semblance of democracy liek turkey—--by levitsky and ziblatt

Democracy —-either the government form of rule by majority or certain ideals —--by zakaria, de toqueville,,,acemoglu

Authoritarianism —-gov where sole control by leader -levistky and ziblatt

Civilization — A civilization, according to Anderson, is the largest possible imagined community that a group of people can think off.
This falls short of a global human community.----by anderson

Duverger’s Law —-basic law where majority or plurality vote is usually then 2 party system favored —-by King or Duverger

The Dictator’s Dilemma: A self-reinforcing equilibrium

Dictator coerces, distributes—-People flatter him— He can’t trust it—-seizes more power- people show him more love (out of
fear)----dictator fears more—repeats when the dictator coerces and distrisbutes—by wintrobe

The Prisoner’s Dilemma:

Institutions: Humanly devised constraints that structure political, economic, and social interactions

Mill’s Method of Difference: Finding differences between similar groups (PC)

More conclusive, A/B similar, but have different IV/DVs
Mill’s Method of Agreement: Finding similarity between different groups —---by James Mahoney & Celso [Link]

Political Decay: Decline in the social order, authority, effectiveness, legitimacy, and/or morale of a government—----by Huntington

Social Facts: Invented realities, which are purely subjective, but take on the qualities of objective material reality because of their
widespread, under-appreciated role on a population by Mcnamra

Pessimistic: Rise in conflict, perhaps beyond states, economic competition among firms will eclipse the state, state only left with
lean/mean functions
Optimistic: Rise in harmony; perhaps eclipsing states; trade and communities foster understanding; states could play an important
role in preserving distinct identities, cultures, and institutions —by Huntington
The Intersection of Economics & Politics
1.​ Edward R. Tufte: “Political Control of the Economy”
a.​ Between 1946 and 1976, the best way to beat inflation and unemployment in the US was
to host a presidential election
b.​ —Tufte argues that politics significantly influence the economy through four
mechanisms: politicians manipulate the economy in election years, economic conditions
influence international politics, leaders and parties shape economic policy, and voters
hold governments accountable for economic performance. Though criticized for
overstating the role of politics and neglecting other factors, "Political Control of the
Economy" remains influential in understanding the complex interplay between political
and economic forces.
2.​ Seymour Martin Lipset: “Economic Development & Political Legitimacy”
a.​ Economic development can be an important factor explaining democracy and class
conflict
b.​ “The more well-to-do a nation, the greater the chances that it will sustain democracy.”
c.​ —-Argues that economic development is crucial for democracy's stability. Increased
wealth, education, urbanization, and a strong middle class foster democratic values and
institutions. (ie Modernization Theory)

Trade & Its Domestic Effects

3.​ Adam Smith” “An Inquiry into the Nature & Causes of the Wealth of Nations”
a.​ An invisible hand means that individuals are best at making choices that benefit society
b.​ -Adam Smith, in excerpts from "The Wealth of Nations," argues that specialization
increases productivity, free trade benefits both consumers and producers, individuals
pursuing their self-interest unintentionally contribute to the public good, free markets and
individual freedom are key to economic prosperity, and the true value of something is
measured by the labor required to obtain it. He concludes that a free market system,
guided by the "invisible hand," leads to greater prosperity for all, while emphasizing the
importance of individual freedom and limited government intervention in the economy.
4.​ Daron Acemoglu: “Root Causes: A Historical Approach to Assembling the Role of
Institutions in Economic Development”
a.​ Institutions are the main reason we see differences across countries’ economic
development
b.​ Colonization transfers institutions, European extractive institutions leave legacies in
ex-colonized states of minimal property rights and inequality
c.​ There exists no evidence that society will naturally gravitate towards good institutions
 d.​ -Daron Acemoglu argues in his article that institutions, not geography, are the primary
cause of long-term economic prosperity. He compares countries with different historical
legacies of institutions to demonstrate this point. He argues that good institutions,
characterized by property rights enforcement, limited elite power, and equal opportunity,
encourage economic growth. He uses the example of European colonialism to show how
extractive institutions in colonies hindered economic development, while settler
institutions facilitated prosperity. Despite the challenges of path dependence and vested
interests, Acemoglu believes institutional change is possible, citing Botswana's successful
transition as evidence. His work highlights the importance of institutions in economic
development and raises critical questions about power and inequality in shaping them
5.​ Alan Blinder: “Offshoring: The Next Industrial Revolution?”
a.​ Personal services are least susceptible to offshoring
b.​ -Alan Blinder argues that the practice of offshoring, where businesses move jobs to
countries with lower labor costs, is not just a passing fad but a fundamental shift in the
global economy. He sees it as the next industrial revolution, driven by technological
advancements and globalization. While acknowledging the potential benefits, such as
lower prices for consumers and increased profits for companies, he also explores the
negative impacts, including job losses and wage declines for U.S. workers. In response,
he proposes various policy options like tax breaks for companies creating jobs
domestically, retraining programs for displaced workers, and measures to ease economic
adjustments. Predicting continued growth in the future, Blinder emphasizes the need for
workers, businesses, and policymakers to adapt through education, training, and flexible
economic policies to navigate the changing economic landscape.

6.​ Robyn Meredith: The Elephant & the Dragon (Ch. 3,4,5,6-8)

Chap 3: China economic rise but problems it faces (corruption, gov interference)
Chap 4: Offshoring to India and how its boosted india economic rapid rise
Chap 5:_
Chap 6: Indias economic rise from unemployment to high income and jobs, yet india needs to maybe
cooperate public-private partnerships like china to advance further, gotta create more jobs asap and take
advantage of its wind
Chap 7: China rapid economic growth out of poverty, lot of gov cooperation, but faces political instabilty
Chap 8: Control of oil/water stuff

Two different approaches

● India:
○ from democracy to development?
○ Does it challenge the Lipset logic?
● China:
○ from development to democracy?
○ Does it support the Lipset logic?
● Both have changed their development models in recent years.
The Challenge of Poverty & Inequality (& Policymaking)
7.​ Milton Friedman: “Using the Market for Social Development”
a.​ Rapid change from a command to a market economy
b.​ - Friedman argues that the free market, guided by the "invisible hand," is a powerful tool
for social development. He emphasizes its efficiency in coordinating resources, its
capacity to unleash individual initiative through freedom and property rights, and its
preference for limited government intervention. He proposes market-based solutions for
social problems and stresses the importance of strong institutions to support this system.
Overall, Friedman sees the free market as the key to achieving greater prosperity and
social development.
8.​ William Easterly: “The Elusive Quest for Growth”
a.​ Misguided policies include running high budget deficits, import substitution
industrialization, closing the economy to trade, and printing money/creating inflation,
NOT creating incentives for investments
b.​ Government actions ruin financial incentives
c.​ -Easterly argues that economic growth, though crucial, is often hindered by government
policies. He debunks the "growth miracle" myth and highlights unintended consequences
of well-meaning interventions. He emphasizes the importance of strong institutions,
sound incentives, and an "aid agnostic" approach that prioritizes effective systems over
specific projects. He also underscores the power of ideas and creativity, acknowledging
the complexity of growth as an "elusive quest" requiring humility, learning, and
adaptation.
d.​ Easterly’s view: Government should get out of the way of growth, Problems arise from
anything that Slows growth or Diminishes incentives for productive economic activity

Explaining Different Development Paths (& Lack of Development)

9.​ Andre Gunder Frank: “The Development of Underdevelopment”
a.​ Developing countries grow faster when least linked to world trade “detachment”
b.​ -Frank argues that underdevelopment in Latin America is not a stage of development but
rather a result of the capitalist world system that exploits and maintains a dependent
relationship between core and peripheral nations.
10.​ Jared Diamond: “Guns, Germs, & Steel”
a.​ Why do we ask big questions?
b.​ -In "Guns, Germs, and Steel," Jared Diamond argues that geographical advantages and
the abundance of domesticated animals and plants gave Eurasian societies a significant
head start in developing powerful technologies and complex social structures. This
advantage, combined with immunity to Eurasian diseases, allowed them to dominate and
colonize other parts of the world, despite the historical contingency that different paths
could have been taken. Though controversial for its deterministic interpretation, the
book's insights into the role of geography and environment in shaping human history
remain highly influential.
11.​ Daron Acemoglu & James Robinson: “Why Nations Fail”
a.​ Different economic outcomes are caused by institutions and policy
 b.​ -They argue that political institutions, not geography or natural resources, are the primary
determinant of a nation's economic success. They posit that extractive institutions, which
concentrate power in the hands of a few and exploit the majority, lead to stagnation and
poverty. Conversely, inclusive institutions, which promote individual rights, rule of law,
and broad participation in economic and political life, foster prosperity and development.
They illustrate this argument by examining historical and contemporary examples,
emphasizing the importance of democratic institutions and checks and balances to
prevent power grabs and ensure equitable long-term growth.

12.​ De Soto: The 5 Mysteries of Capital

a.) -Soto identifies five key hurdles to capitalism's success: dead capital (assets without formal
titles), missing firms (informal businesses lacking legal recognition), weak contracts
(unenforceable agreements), knowledge gap (entrepreneurial skills deficit), and invisible
capitalists (untapped potential due to lack of formal recognition). By tackling these mysteries and
facilitating formalization, de Soto believes we can unlock the missing middle of entrepreneurs
and unleash the full power of capitalism.

Chap 1: Many countries in the world besides the west aren’t capitalist and Soto argues its because
they cant produce capital although they already have all the assets they need to be able to—--most
peoples assets not in west aren’t documented and can’t take out credit/loans on them
Chap 2: Lack of legal infrastructure to denote ownership of assets/capital,,, so much dead capital
that could be used but can’t due to limited legal infrastrucutre or land assets
Chap 3:Lacks property mechanism not absense of capital
Chap 4:
Varieties of Development & Capitalism
13.​ Epsing-Andersen: “The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism”
a.​ Corporatist, liberal, and social democracies
b.​ -Esping-Andersen categorizes Western welfare states into three models: Liberal (modest,
targeted assistance), Conservative-corporatist (occupational welfare tied to unions and
employers), and Social-democratic (universalistic, generous benefits for all). He argues
these regimes are shaped by unique historical, cultural, and political factors. Examining
their development, labor dynamics, and social policies, he highlights their strengths,
weaknesses, and challenges in the 21st century, emphasizing the need for adaptation and
innovation in these evolving systems.

14.​ Atul Kohli: “State-Directed Development”

a.​ The state can reinforce and help the market
b.​ Cohesive capitalist, fragmented multiclass, and neopatrimonial states exist
c.​ -Kohli examines the role that states play in building modern, industrial economies. In his
argument, economic development is the consequence of effective states, whereas economic
stagnation occurs when states are ineffective. The cause of success is not the amount of state
intervention in an economy, but the quality of the state that does the intervening. Kohli
distinguishes among several types of states. One supports capitalist development
(cohesive-capitalist states, as was found in South Korea and at times in Brazil). At the other end of
the spectrum, neopatrimonial states (as found in Nigeria) are characterized by economic failure
 and a lack of coherent efforts to build industrial economies. In between are fragmented-multiclass
states (as found in India and at other times in Brazil), which produce some "middling"
performance. Note that the power and capacity of states is shaped in large part by historical
developments in the different countries, including colonialism. Do you think that this focus on
history means that individual political actors or policies do not matter?

Innovative Approaches to Poverty & Inequality

15.​ Anthony Atkinson: “How to Spread Wealth: Practical Politics for Decreasing Inequality”
a.​ UBI
b.​ -In "How to Spread the Wealth," Anthony Atkinson argues that rising inequality poses a
significant threat and proposes practical policies to address it. He identifies sources like
globalization, technological change, and tax policies as culprits and outlines key
principles for effective redistribution: focusing on pre-tax income, combining universal
and targeted benefits, and ensuring efficient and equitable implementation. Atkinson
details specific policy proposals, including progressive taxation, refundable tax credits,
universal basic income, and investment in education and public services. He argues that
these policies can help reduce inequality while maintaining economic growth and
promoting social mobility.

16.​ Jonathan Tepperman: “Brazil’s Antipoverty Breakthrough: The Surprising Success of

Bolsa Família”
a.​ CCT programs-Conditional Cash Transfer
b.​ BF is low-cost, increases school attendance, increases support for democracy, and
decreases child labor, but does NOT increase learning outcomes
c.​ -Tepperman's 2016 article highlights the remarkable success of Bolsa Familia, Brazil's
conditional cash transfer program that significantly reduced poverty and inequality. The
program's key features – conditionality, targeting, scalability, and political sustainability –
led to impressive results like a 15% drop in extreme poverty within three years, improved
health and education outcomes, and economic benefits. While challenges like budgetary
constraints and political opposition remain, Bolsa Familia's success offers valuable
lessons for tackling poverty globally.

17.​ Global Citizen: “Mexico Gives Cash Directly to Moms — & it’s Succeeding in Major
Ways”
a.​ CCT
b.​ Conditional Cash Transfer (CCT): In social policy, CCT refers to a program that provides
financial assistance to poor families on condition that they meet certain requirements,
such as keeping their children in school or attending health checkups.
18.​ The Economist: Pennies from Heaven”
a.​ UCTs > CCTs because of lower administrative costs
b.​ CCTs:Conditional: Recipients receive cash payments only if they meet certain conditions,
such as enrolling children in school or attending health checkups.
c.​ UCT: Unconditional: Recipients receive cash payments without having to meet any
specific conditions.
19.​ Annie Lowery: “Switzerland’s Proposal to Pay People for Being Alive”
 a.​ UBI = Decrease in poverty, decrease in hospitalizations, & increase in high school
completion, but NOT an increase in employment
Democracy, Development, & Institutional Change
20.​ Robert J. Barro: “Democracy: A Recipe for Growth?”
a.​ The relation between democracy and development is complicated, but they do go together
in some way
b.​ Bascially the main problem in poor countries is standard of living and forcing democracy
wont help, it must be imposed from within
c.​ Essentially democracy and autocracy can be good or bad depending on the situation and
leader
d.​ Barro (and Przeworski) show that democracy survives better at higher levels of
development.

21.​ Juan J. Linz & Alfred Stepan: “Toward Consolidated Democracies”

a.​ Rule of law, policial society, and economic society are required for consolidated
democracies but NOT homogenous national identity
b.​ Discuss the conditions required for democratic consolidation and the completion of a
democratic transition. The authors emphasize that there is not only one type of
consolidated democracy and that improving the quality of consolidated democracies is an
urgent task. The authors also highlight the importance of a functioning state, a supportive
economic society, and the interrelatedness of various arenas in a democracy. Additionally,
the authors note that democratic institutions are only one set of public institutions
affecting citizens' lives.
c.​ They emphasize that a consolidated democracy is a political regime in which democracy
as a complex system of institutions, rules, and patterned incentives and disincentives has
become the norm. Additionally, they note that within the category of consolidated
democracies, there is a continuum from low-quality to high-quality democracies, and
improving the quality of consolidated democracies is an urgent political and intellectual
task.
d.​ Requirements: First, the conditions must exist for the development of a free and lively
civil society. Second, there must be a relatively autonomous political society. Third,
throughout the territory of the state all major political actors, especially the government
and the state apparatus, must be effectively subjected to a rule of law that protects
individual freedoms and associational life. Fourth, there must be a state bureaucracy that
is usable by the new democratic government. Fifth, there must be an institutionalized
economic society.

22.​ Francis Fukayama 1: “Trust: The Social Virtues & the Creation of Prosperity”
a.​ “Social Capital”: The ability to work together for shared purposes, trust, shared norms
and values, and an ability to put individual interest at the service of common good, but
NOT a specific productive skills and knowledge
b.​ Examples of Japan and US in 20th century high trust so good but inner city US or
southern italy lacking trust hurts their economies
Protests, Uprising, & Civil War
 23.​ Gurr: “Why Men Rebel”
a.​ Relative Deprivation
b.​ -Argues that relative deprivation, rather than absolute poverty, is the key driver of
rebellion. As individuals' expectations rise and they perceive a significant gap between
their aspirations and lived experiences, frustration and resentment can fuel discontent.
Understanding these grievances, coupled with identifying opportunities for rebellion and
recognizing the role of leadership, is crucial to mitigating political violence. Gurr's
analysis of different forms of rebellion and his proposed solutions for addressing
underlying grievances, promoting peaceful participation, and reducing inequalities
continue to be relevant for policymakers and practitioners seeking a more stable and
peaceful world.
24.​ Timur Kuran: “Now out of Never”
a.​ Revolutionary thresholds
b.​ Offers a compelling analysis of the unforeseen collapse of communist regimes in Eastern
Europe. He argues that these revolutions, dubbed "a political earthquake," were largely
unpredicted by both the ruling regimes and Western observers, due to several key factors.
c.​ One crucial factor was the gradual erosion of public trust in communist systems. Years of
economic stagnation, political repression, and growing social inequalities fueled
widespread discontent, creating a simmering resentment towards the regime. This
discontent, however, remained largely hidden due to the phenomenon of "preference
falsification." Under authoritarian rule, individuals often publicly endorsed the regime
while privately harboring dissent. This made it difficult to gauge the true depth of public
dissatisfaction, leading to miscalculations about the potential for rebellion.
d.​ Furthermore, the "coordination problem" hindered mass action. Fear of isolation and
repression made individuals hesitant to openly challenge the regime, creating a stalemate.
However, once a critical mass of individuals overcame this fear and began to express
their discontent, large-scale demonstrations and revolutions erupted across the region.
Unforeseen events, such as the fall of the Berlin Wall, further served as catalysts,
providing people with hope for change and emboldening them to openly challenge the
status quo.
e.​ Kuran's analysis offers valuable insights into the dynamics of political change and the
fragility of seemingly stable regimes. He demonstrates how underlying grievances,
amplified by the effects of "preference falsification" and the "coordination problem," can
reach a tipping point, leading to unexpected and transformative revolutions.
Indigenous Movements & Ethnic Politics
25.​ Donna Lee Van Cott: “From Movements to Parties in Latin America”
a.​ The existence of ethnic-based parties in Latin America varies
b.​ Decline in state corporatism and improvements in democracy were the historical
shocks/trends that enabled organizing around Indigenous identities
c.​ -Donna Lee Van Cott's book "From Movements to Parties: The Evolution of Ethnic
Politics in Latin America" examines the transformation of indigenous movements into
political parties across six Latin American countries. She argues that factors like growing
awareness of Indigenous rights, disillusionment with traditional parties, and democratic
openings paved the way for this shift. These newly formed parties developed
 organizational structures, participated in elections, and built alliances to broaden their
base. They achieved successes like increased political representation, rights legislation,
and policy influence, but also faced challenges like internal conflicts, limited resources,
and co-optation. Van Cott concludes that the emergence of ethnic parties has significantly
impacted Latin America by promoting greater participation, recognizing Indigenous
rights, and shifting political discourse towards multiculturalism.

26.​ Deborah J. Yashar: “Contesting Citizenship: Indigenous Movements & Democracy in Latin
America”
a.​ Post-structuralism and historical perspective on the formation of Indigenous parties
b.​ Yashar argues that indigenous movements have emerged in response to the challenges
posed by state reforms and political liberalization, which have restricted access to state
resources and jeopardized local political, material, and cultural autonomy that indigenous
communities had previously carved out. This has led to the mobilization of indigenous
communities around their identity to challenge the disadvantageous terms of
contemporary citizenship.
c.​ Yashar emphasizes that the political liberalization of the 1980s provided the
macro-political opportunity for organizing, as states demilitarized and legalized freedoms
of association and speech. However, the incentive for indigenous communities to
organize lay in state reforms that left them politically marginalized as individual citizens,
disempowered as corporatist peasant actors, and confronted with a challenge to local
political and material autonomy. Yashar's analysis underscores the enduring impact of
populist policies on the rights and options of indigenous populations, as well as the
evolving nature of state reforms that have reshaped the dynamics of political
representation and local autonomy.
Gender, Political Participation, & Social Change
27.​ Mala Htun: “Is Gender Like Ethnicity: The Political Representation of Identity Groups”
a.​ Women are different from ethnic groups because they are a cross-cutting > coinciding
group
b.​ Quotas in parties example is argentina or belgiumfor women
c.​ Reservations example is specific seats set aside such as new zealand for maori
28.​ Amartya Sen 1: “Women’s Agency & Social Change”
a.​ Decisive change in focus of women’s movements in recent years is from well-being to
agency
b.​ Discusses that women's ability to act and make choices is crucial for achieving true
development. This "agency" is not just a fundamental right but also a powerful engine for
social change and progress. He emphasizes that empowering women requires a
multifaceted approach, including legal reforms, social change, economic opportunities,
and investments in education and healthcare. Sen's work has had a profound impact on
development theory and practice, shifting the focus towards individual capabilities and
freedoms, with women's agency at the center.
Citizenship in a Globalized World
29.​ Francis Fukayama 2: “The End of History?”
a.​ Liberalism is essentially a victory of ideas
 b.​ -Argues that with the collapse of communism and the rise of liberalism, history has
reached its endpoint. Liberal democracy, he contends, represents the pinnacle of political
evolution and guarantees individual rights, prosperity, and peace. Despite criticisms of his
Eurocentrism and neglect of internal challenges, Fukuyama maintains that his thesis
refers to the end of major ideological conflict, not political struggle itself. His work
remains a landmark in political philosophy and continues to spark discussions about the
future of democracy.
30.​ Moisés Naim: “The Five Wars of Globalization”
a.​ Transnational problems (e.g. drugs, arms and human trafficking, intellectual property, and
money laundering) require looking beyond nations’ sovereignty and stronger
multinational organizations
b.​ -Argues that globalization has unleashed five "wars of networks" that challenge the
power of nation-states. These are the wars on drugs, intellectual property, arms, money
laundering, and people. These transnational networks, fueled by technology and open
borders, are undermining traditional power structures and raising questions about the
future of international order.

31.​ Amartya Sen 2: “Individual Freedom as a Social Commitment”

a.​ Human capital is more than human capabilities
b.​ Argues that individual freedom requires not only the absence of constraints (negative
freedom) but also the ability to achieve one's goals (positive freedom). He emphasizes
that social arrangements like economic inequality and social discrimination can limit
individual freedom. Therefore, achieving true freedom requires a social commitment to
justice, equality, and basic rights, ensuring individual freedom for all.

Key/ Notes Terms:

Modernization Theory: (Rostow) All states go through a similar process of economic development. Economics provides the
preconditions for political change—-----Traditiional society, preconditions for take off, take off, drive to maturity, and high mass
consumption (Lipset believes democracy is part of this path, and that econ development leads to democracy)

—-----In the context of Moderniztion Theory in which we say development leads to Democracy, the Dragon and Elephant book
describes India and China, one development to democracy and the other democracy to development

Trade (Adam Smith): The Division of Labor, Gains from Exchange, Comparative Advantage, An “Invisible Hand”,,,States make decisions to embrace
or avoid trade
—----Stolper-Samuelson: Factor abundance shapes the political incentives of actors –In labor-abundant economies, labor will favor freer
trade—- In capital-abundant economies, labor will favor limiting trade—-Political conflict is across classes
—----Ricardo-Viner:—-Different economic sectors have different interests—---Individual interests are driven by sector of the economy on which their
income depends (not factor)—---Political conflict is sectoral, not across classes

In short term, Ricardo-Viner but In the long run, Stolper-Samuelson

→ This is likely to shape behavior in democracies.
→ Leaders likely to choose trade policy based on its impact on their citizens.
Authoritarian regimes may behave differently.--- May be more willing to jeopardize their own populations for other goals,,, an example: recent “trade
wars”

Elephant and the Dragon:

India: basically closed to trade then increasingly open to trade, esp. by sector then protectionism in some sectors: Originally
socialism to grow the gov/institutions but then opened up the country to capitalism, trade driven model but new emphasis on
domestic production and infrastructure
China: inward industrialization, largely closed then strong opening to trade then still open, but openness to trade wars: Central
planning with high expectations (5 year plans), reduced poverty, special economic zones, State control of economy reasserted
More focus on state-owned enterprises And state regulation of the private sector, Emphasis on “self-reliance,” Focus on “common
prosperity”

Poverty: Inability to meet basic needs, Limited ability to function economically and politically (Lack of education, Uncertain security,
Limited representation and freedom)
---A poverty line: Basic “basket” of goods for a family to survive, Food, clothing, housing, health care,, tracks country living standards
—-Evaluating local poverty lines: Advantages: Correspond well to actual living conditions, levels
of development, Capture varied diets and economic needs, Match up with basic needs well. Disadvantages: Not easily comparable
cross-nationally, Surveys can be costly
—--Global Poverty Lines: Easy to access, comparable across countries yet each country is diff and no “absolute” def of poverty

Dependency Theory: Developing countries cannot replicate developed countries, International system is biased.
Andre Gunder Frank —-An “unfair” trade: Primary product prices fall over time And they’re volatile then Manufactured goods prices
rise over time then Developing world spends more, gets less and Falls further behind, The solution per se from Frank is to detach
from global world trade order, which was the basic premise of Latin America and india in 1960-1980s

Evaluating Dependency Theory: It importantly places development in a global context. But its expectations may not always be right
Terms of trade don’t always decline and Open economies may grow more quickly than closed ones, thus policmakers encourage
export-led growth and globalization
—---post-dependency export led world, east asian countries + Chile show that maybe interntioanl structure isnt the problem

Import substitution industrialization (ISI) is a trade and economic policy that advocates replacing foreign imports with domestic
production.[1] It is based on the premise that a country should attempt to reduce its foreign dependency through the local production
of industrialized products.

It’s our (the government’s) fault: William Easterly,, Policy mismanagement is the problem.,,Poor administrative capacity, Corruption,
Misunderstanding the world, Misaligning incentives. Thus problematic gov intervention can lead to all to debt inflation and black
market

But getting governance right is harder

● Governments can mess things up (Easterly/De Soto)
● Governments can manipulate the economy (Tufte)
● Individuals may have a hard time coordinating (Hardin)
● Some governments may be corrupt or ineffective (Easterly)
Classifying “types” as a way to simplify understanding
-Development Models (Kohli)
-Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Esping-Andersen)
-Varieties of Capitalism (Hall and Soskice)

A typology of development models (Kohli)

GOAL: Achieve GROWTH
The most effective states foster growth: Cohesive, capitalist states,
Other states are less effective:Fragmented, multiparty states
And some actively thwart growth: Neopatrimonial states

Liberal Market Economies (LMEs) Hall & Soskice,

● Hierarchical firms
● Markets for competition and exchange
● Formal contracts
Free agents who develop generalized skills

Coordinated Market Economies (CMEs) Hall & Soskice,

● Strategic interaction among firms
● Tripartite coordination between firms, workers, and government
● Not planned economies (by state), Coordinated by the relevant actors
specific skills (co-specific assets) Industry-level collective bargaining agreements Government financed job training programs Long
apprenticeships

VoC lines up (roughly) with electoral systems

○ LMEs Majoritarian/plurality
○ CMEs PR/Parliamentary

One supports capitalist development (cohesive-capitalist states, as was found in South Korea and at times in Brazil). At the other
end of the spectrum, neopatrimonial states (as found in Nigeria) are characterized by economic failure and a lack of coherent efforts
to build industrial economies. In between are fragmented-multiclass states (as found in India and at other times in Brazil), which
produce some "middling" performance. Kohli

Micro: institutional change from the ground up: Solutions at the local level
● Individual-level decisions
● Community/local decisions
● In the context of larger institutions

Macro: regime type and development; varieties of capitalism

CCTs
○ Get beyond the minimal poverty level today
○ Improve education or health in the next generation?

UCT:

Advantages of autocracy
● Can implement policy quickly
● Can force cuts in consumption
● Can force savings/investment and launch growth
● Can repel popular unrest
● Example: Chile under Pinochet
● Example: China under Xi?

Disadvantages of autocracy
● No incentives to maximize total output
● Can focus just on getting rents (corruption)
● Non-economic costs
● Lack of recognition and participation
● Human rights abuses
● Example: the Philippines under Marcos

Advantages of democracy
● Can use resources more efficiently
● Free flow of information
● Better protect property rights
● Incentives for long-term investments
● Example: US, Great Britain
Disadvantages of democracy
● Subject to pressure from the population
● May distribute away from investment
● Example: Argentina

Dictatorships may see faster growth where they invest

● Democracies may have better overall efficiency
● So effect could wash out ➝
○ Both grow at about the same rate

Barro (and Przeworski) show that democracy survives better at

higher levels of development.

Strength and type of the state

○ Linz and Stepan’s “consolidated” democracies
○ Kohli’s three types of developmental states
● Shared expectations and confidence
○ Fukuyama’s “trust” or social capital

Market-centered
○ Ex: Low-wage, low-skill labor trap
○ Skepticism and mistrust
● State-centered
○ Ex: Import-substitution industrialization
○ Ex: Command economy distortions
○ “Good” equilibria, by contrast, foster and give support to
trust and collaboration

Consolidated Democracies Linz and Stepan’s

Relate Fukuyama Social Capital to Friedman Anderson and Kohli

Four classic approaches to strife: insurgency, civil

wars, revolutions
● Macro-political
● Micro-psychological
● State-centered
● Agent-centered

Macro-Political: Huntington
● Explaining the recent (1960s) presence of
violence and instability in Asia, Africa, Latin
America
● Likelihood for revolution (DV)
increases when economic development
outpaces political development (IV)

Micro-psychological approaches: Gurr

● Look at when individuals will take up arms
● “Relative deprivation”
● Mediated by intervening social conditions

State-centered approaches: Skocpol

● Structural factors converge to produce social revolutions
○ Crisis of the state
○ Class conflict (including not just urban proletariat but
also rural peasants)
● Only applies to sweeping social change

These are “collective action problems” Olson

● Successful revolutions provide a new government
● This is a public good
○ Non-excludable
○ Non-rivalous
● Incentive for free riders

Economic Grievances
Political grievances
● Desire for self-determination; belief in a political ideal
● Frustration with weak state capacity
Material Incentives

Why aren’t bargains struck before fighting?Barbara Walter

● Civil wars are costly.
● Human beings are rational.
● Why not just settle disputes beforehand?
● Apply bargaining theory to civil war.

Surprising → people fight in spite of status quo bias Humphreys, Weinstein

● Risk of uncertain future if they fight
● The present’s not so bad . . .
● Hard to overcome inertia

TIpping Point Kuran

How a tipping point occurs
● Individuals with preference
for change
○ But differ in threshold to
take to streets
● Signals from authority
● Cascade of taking to streets
○ Low threshold individuals
first, send signal to others

The Emergence of New Movements

● Puzzle: Identity always existed
○ When does it get activated?
● Similar motivations to revolutions
○ Grievances
○ Desire for selective material incentives
○ Social bonds
● But enabled by recent political changes and history
Yasher: A historically-sensitive approach
● Identity does not necessarily
map onto politics
● Identity is not always
instrumental
● There are multiple identities
● Activated by a historical
shock/event

History creates the conditions

● 1940-1990: corporatist structures
○ Turned “Indians” into “peasants”
● 1990s: convergence of 3 factors
○ Economic inability to sustain corporatism
○ Political liberalization, but without better individual
representation
○ Economic dissatisfaction

Rallying points can be land or antineoliberalism (Zapatistas in Mexico 1994 opp against NAFTA)

Yashar’s theory may apply more broadly

● Same factors may enable other groups to mobilize
● Any group formerly incorporated in corporatist structures
○ Former state-sector workers
○ Former industrial workers
● Or people given opportunities by improved democracy or
economy

One more step Van Cott

● Beyond representation
● Internalizing/owning a political
identity
● Becoming a political party
Transforming a movement into a party (Van Cott)
● Formative experiences
○ Effective participation in a constitutional reform
○ Dense network of affiliates, high organizational unity
○ Indigenous majority electoral districts
● Permissive institutional environment
○ Decentralization
○ Reserved seats
● Open party system – leaving room for the new ethnic
party
○ Fragmented or dealigned
○ Decline of the electoral left

The emergence of movements...

● Focus on specific issue
○ often with a particular gendered or sexual component
● Facilitated by existing networks
○ Churches and religious organizations
○ Rural or civic associations
○ Social networks
● And a special new focus on women and LGBTQ+ people
as political actors with agency
The importance of agency (Sen)
● Empowerment (especially of women)
○ Focus on capabilities, not just outcomes
● Results in:
○ Increased authority in family
○ decline in infant mortality
○ decline in fertility rates
● Dynamic change

Implications of group types (Htun)

● When states decide to address inequalities...
● They use candidate nomination QUOTAS for women
● They use RESERVED SEATS for ethnic groups

How do women differ in the policy they pursue? (Swers)

● Choice of policy areas to emphasize
● Sponsoring bills and seeing them through committees
● An example: family leave policy
○ Women were important in promoting
enhanced family leave bills in states

Fukuyama (1989) says “yes” to converging on one universal state

● “total exhaustion of viable systematic alternatives to Western liberalism”
● A victory of ideas
● Defeated:
○ Fascism
○ Communism
● Only remaining contenders: ○ Religion
○ Nationalism
But Moisés Naim (and others) suggest history isn’t over...
Nations & conflicts persist Transnational problems of illegality Governments vs. illicit organizations
Convergence not assured
on a single political order
on a vision of the world Diversity & change are the future

Sen wants freedom and development ● Importance of agency

● Challenging the view that “there’s no alternative”

Francis Fukuyama's essay "The End of History?" was published in 1989, and it became widely discussed and debated, marking a
significant moment in political and philosophical discourse. In the essay, Fukuyama posited the controversial thesis that the end of
the Cold War and the apparent victory of liberal democracy over other ideological contenders marked the endpoint of mankind's
ideological evolution. He argued that liberal democracy, with its emphasis on individual rights, market economies, and the rule of
law, represented the final and universally appealing form of governance.

Here's an evaluation of Fukuyama's "The End of History?" essay:

Strengths:
Historical Context: The essay was written in a specific historical context, right after the fall of the Berlin Wall and during the
dissolution of the Soviet Union. Fukuyama captured the optimism prevalent at the time about the spread of liberal democracy.
Attention-Grabbing Thesis: The concept of the "end of history" is a provocative and attention-grabbing idea that stimulated
widespread discussion and debate. It forced intellectuals and policymakers to reevaluate their assumptions about the trajectory of
political and ideological development.

Weaknesses:
Overemphasis on Liberal Democracy: Critics argue that Fukuyama's emphasis on liberal democracy as the ultimate and final form of
governance oversimplifies the complex nature of political, cultural, and historical development. It neglects the potential for alternative
political systems to emerge and thrive.

Cultural and Historical Ignorance: Fukuyama's essay has been criticized for neglecting the cultural and historical factors that shape
political ideologies and systems. The notion that liberal democracy is universally appealing ignores the diverse cultural and historical
contexts in which political systems operate.

Failure to Anticipate Challenges: Fukuyama's thesis did not anticipate the subsequent challenges to liberal democracy, including the
rise of illiberal democracies, the reassertion of authoritarian regimes, and the challenges posed by economic inequality and social
unrest.

Technological Changes: The rapid advancements in technology and the interconnected global landscape have brought about new
challenges and changes that were not adequately considered in Fukuyama's original thesis.

Overall Assessment:
While Fukuyama's "The End of History?" sparked important debates and discussions, the subsequent developments in global
politics have revealed the limitations of his thesis. The world has witnessed the rise of populist movements, the erosion of
democratic norms in some countries, and the resurgence of geopolitical competition. Fukuyama himself has acknowledged the
limitations of his original thesis in later writings. In hindsight, it serves as a historical artifact of a particular moment in time rather
than a definitive conclusion to the complexities of political development.

Moisés Naím, a Venezuelan author, scholar, and former executive director of the World Bank, is known for his work on global affairs
and economic issues. One of his notable pieces is the essay titled "The Five Wars of Globalization." Published in 2006, the essay
explores the challenges and conflicts arising in the context of globalization.

Here is an overview and analysis of the key points from Moisés Naím's "The Five Wars of Globalization":

Summary:
War of States: Naím discusses how traditional interstate conflicts have not disappeared but have transformed. Rather than
large-scale conventional wars, we see asymmetrical conflicts, non-state actors, and unconventional warfare.

War of Civilizations: Naím examines cultural and religious clashes that have become prominent in the era of globalization. He notes
that identity-based conflicts are on the rise, fueled by a mix of economic, political, and cultural factors.

War of Companies: Globalization has led to increased economic interdependence, but it has also sparked intense competition
among companies. Naím explores how businesses, in their pursuit of profits and market dominance, engage in a form of economic
warfare.

War of Street Gangs and Other Illegal Armed Groups: Naím highlights the rise of non-state actors, such as criminal organizations
and armed groups, and their impact on global security. He discusses how these groups exploit weak states and engage in illicit
activities.

War of Ideas: Naím examines ideological battles in the era of globalization. Competing narratives, beliefs, and ideologies clash on a
global scale, influencing political and social dynamics.

Analysis:
Interconnectedness of Wars: Naím's framework illustrates how these different "wars" are interconnected. Economic decisions
influence political stability, which, in turn, affects cultural and identity dynamics. The blurring of lines between these categories
reflects the complexity of global challenges.
Non-State Actors: The emphasis on non-state actors, such as criminal organizations and armed groups, recognizes the changing
nature of conflict. Traditional state-centric views of security must adapt to address the challenges posed by non-state entities.

Economic Dimensions of Conflict: By including the "War of Companies," Naím emphasizes the economic dimensions of global
conflicts. Economic competition can have geopolitical implications and can be a source of tension between states and corporations.

Impact of Globalization: The essay underscores how globalization, while fostering greater connectivity, also brings about new forms
of conflict and challenges. The increased interdependence of nations and societies has both positive and negative consequences.

Conclusion:
Moisés Naím's "The Five Wars of Globalization" provides a thought-provoking framework for understanding the diverse challenges
that emerge in the era of globalization. By examining conflicts in various realms—states, civilizations, companies, street gangs, and
ideas—Naím encourages readers to consider the multifaceted nature of global challenges and the need for comprehensive and
adaptive approaches to address them.

Francis Fukuyama and Moisés Naím hold differing views on the trajectory of political and social development, particularly regarding
the idea of convergence or the convergence theory. Fukuyama, in his influential essay "The End of History?" argues that there is a
universal evolution of political systems, ultimately leading to the global triumph of liberal democracy. On the other hand, Moisés
Naím, in works such as "The Five Wars of Globalization," offers a more nuanced perspective, suggesting that the world is
characterized by diverse and dynamic challenges that do not necessarily lead to a uniform convergence.

Fukuyama's Argument for Convergence:

Liberal Democracy as Endpoint: Fukuyama suggests that liberal democracy represents the endpoint of humanity's ideological
evolution. He contends that the collapse of the Soviet Union and the apparent victory of Western liberal democracy signal the end of
ideological competition.

Teleological Development: Fukuyama's argument is somewhat teleological, positing a linear progression of political systems toward
liberal democracy. He sees this form of governance as universally appealing, offering individual freedoms, market economies, and
the rule of law.

End of Ideological Alternatives: According to Fukuyama, the decline of alternative ideologies (such as communism and fascism)
leaves liberal democracy as the only viable and attractive political system.

Naím's Opposition to Convergence:

Diverse Challenges in Globalization: Moisés Naím's work emphasizes the complex and diverse nature of global challenges. He
argues that globalization does not necessarily lead to the convergence of political and economic systems but rather brings about
various conflicts and competitions.

Five Wars Framework: In "The Five Wars of Globalization," Naím identifies different types of conflicts, including economic
competition among companies, identity-based clashes, and the rise of non-state actors. This framework suggests a multiplicity of
challenges rather than a universal convergence.

Recognition of Non-State Actors: Naím recognizes the influence of non-state actors, such as transnational corporations, criminal
organizations, and armed groups, which may operate outside the framework of liberal democracy. This challenges the idea of a
straightforward convergence toward a single political system.

Cultural and Historical Factors: Naím's approach acknowledges the importance of cultural and historical factors in shaping political
systems. He contends that the world remains marked by diverse ideologies and practices that resist easy categorization or
convergence.

In summary, while Fukuyama argues for the convergence of political systems toward liberal democracy as a universal endpoint,
Naím opposes this theory by highlighting the complex, diverse, and often conflicting nature of global challenges. Naím's perspective
emphasizes the role of non-state actors, the persistence of cultural and historical differences, and the multiplicity of ideological and
economic conflicts in the contemporary world.