Module I: Set Theory and Matrices
1. Sets
Definition: A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects, called elements or members
of the set.
Example: A = {1, 2, 3} is a set of numbers.
Notation: Sets are usually denoted by capital letters (e.g., A, B, C).
Types of Sets:
1. Empty Set (∅): A set with no elements. Example: B = {prime numbers less than 2}.
2. Finite and Infinite Sets: A finite set has a countable number of elements. Infinite sets have
unlimited elements (e.g., N, the set of natural numbers).
3. Subset: A ⊆ B means every element of A is also in B.
4. Power Set: The set of all subsets of A, denoted P(A). Example: If A = {1, 2}, then P(A) = {∅,
{1}, {2}, {1, 2}}.
2. Basic Operations on Sets
1. Union (A ∪ B): The set of elements in A or B (or both). Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {2,
3}, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3}.
2. Intersection (A ∩ B): The set of elements common to both A and B. Example: A ∩ B = {2}.
3. Difference (A - B): The set of elements in A but not in B. Example: A - B = {1}.
4. Complement (Aᶜ): The set of all elements not in A (relative to a universal set).
3. Venn Diagrams
A diagrammatic representation of sets using circles.
Example:
- A ∪ B: Combine two circles.
- A ∩ B: Shade the overlapping region.
4. Cartesian Product of Two Sets
Definition: A × B = {(a, b): a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
Example: If A = {1, 2} and B = {x, y}, then:
A × B = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, x), (2, y)}.
5. De Morgan’s Laws
1. (A ∪ B)ᶜ = Aᶜ ∩ Bᶜ
2. (A ∩ B)ᶜ = Aᶜ ∪ Bᶜ
Example: If U = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A = {1, 2}, and B = {2, 3}:
(A ∪ B)ᶜ = {4} = Aᶜ ∩ Bᶜ.
Matrices
1. Definition of a Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns.
Notation: A = [[a11, a12], [a21, a22]].
2. Types of Matrices
1. Square Matrix: Rows = Columns. Example: [[1, 2], [3, 4]].
2. Diagonal Matrix: Non-diagonal elements are zero.
3. Symmetric Matrix: A = Aᵀ. Example: [[1, 2], [2, 3]].
4. Singular Matrix: Determinant = 0.
5. Identity Matrix: Diagonal elements = 1, others = 0.
3. Operations on Matrices
1. Addition: A + B = [aij + bij].
2. Multiplication: (AB)ij = Σaikbkj.
4. Rank of a Matrix
The rank of a matrix is the maximum number of linearly independent rows or columns.
Examples and Problem Sums
Set Theory Problems:
1. Union and Intersection: A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4}.
Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, A - B. Solution: A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A ∩ B = {2, 3}, A - B = {1}.
2. De Morgan’s Law: U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4}.
Verify (A ∪ B)ᶜ = Aᶜ ∩ Bᶜ. Solution: (A ∪ B)ᶜ = {5}, Aᶜ ∩ Bᶜ = {5}.
Matrix Problems:
1. Rank of a Matrix: A = [[1, 2, 3], [2, 4, 6], [1, 1, 1]]. Find the rank of A.
Solution: Perform row reduction; rank = 2.
2. Matrix Multiplication: A = [[1, 2], [3, 4]], B = [[2, 0], [1, 2]]. Compute AB.
Solution: AB = [[4, 4], [10, 8]].
3. Eigenvalues: A = [[6, 2], [2, 3]]. Find eigenvalues of A.
Solution: Solve det(A - λI) = 0: λ₁ = 7, λ₂ = 2.
3. Functions and Their Properties
Definition: A function maps every element of (domain) to a single element in (codomain).
Example: , where .
Types of Functions:
1. Polynomial Functions: .
Example: (degree = 2).
2. Rational Functions: , where and are polynomials.
3. Exponential Functions: , where and .
Example: .
4. Logarithmic Functions: , the inverse of .
Example: .
5. Trigonometric Functions: Sine (), Cosine (), Tangent (), etc.
6. Graphs of Common Functions
1. Linear Functions: .
Example: . The graph is a straight line.
2. Quadratic Functions: .
Example: . The graph is a parabola.
3. Rational Functions: . The graph is a hyperbola.
4. Trigonometric Functions: Graphs of show periodic behavior.
5. Step Functions: Constant within intervals, jumps at certain points.
Example: (greatest integer function).
6. Modulus Function: .
Graph: A “V”-shaped curve.
7. Matrices: Advanced Topics
Determinant of a Matrix
Definition: A scalar value calculated from a square matrix.
For a matrix: , .
Inverse of a Matrix
For a matrix : , if .
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
, where is an eigenvalue and is an eigenvector.
Steps to Calculate:
1. Solve for .
2. Substitute into to find .
Examples and Problem Sums
Set Theory Problems
1. Union and Intersection:
Find .
Solution: .
2. De Morgan’s Law:
.
Verify .
Solution: .
Matrix Problems
1. Rank of a Matrix:
Find the rank of .
Solution: Perform row reduction; rank = 2.
2. Matrix Multiplication:
Compute .
Solution: .
3. Eigenvalues:
Find eigenvalues of .
Solution: Solve : .
