VARIATION AND SELECTION

VARIATION
Variation is the differences between individuals of the same species. Variation refers to the differences
between each organism in a species. Variation is beneficial to a species as it allows natural selection to
occur and reduces the risk of extinction from disease.
There are two types of variation: genetic variation and phenotypic variation.
● Genetic variation - each organism in a species has a different set of DNA which is due to genetic
variation. Genetic variation is increased during meiosis, which produces gametes. Each gamete has a
different set of alleles, which means that when the two gametes fuse an entirely new set of genes are
produced.
Examples of genetic variation in humans include:
blood group
eye colour
gender
ability to roll tongue
whether ear lobes are free or fixed

● Phenotypic variation - The phenotype of an organism refers to its observable characteristics, such as
height or hair colour. Phenotypical variation can be caused by both genetic and environmental factors. For
example, the potential height of an organism is decided in genes which come from the parents, although
some organisms will never reach this height as they do not receive enough nutrients from their
environment.

• Variation can be continuous and discontinuous.

Continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes, for example, height or
weight. Continuous variation is mainly caused by genes and environmental factors.

Discontinuous variation results in a limited number of phenotypes with no intermediates; examples

include, ABO blood groups which is limited to A, B, AB, or O in humans, seed shape in peas and seed colour
in peas. Discontinuous variation is mainly caused by genes alone.
 Continuous variation often follows a bell-
shaped curve when plotted on a graph.

Discontinuous variation results in distinct

bars on a graph, rather than a smooth curve.

MUTATION

• Mutation is a genetic change which results in a change in the sequence of DNA bases.
• Most mutations have no effect on the phenotype as the protein that a mutated gene produces may
work just as well as the protein from the non - mutated gene
• Rarely, mutations lead to the development of new alleles and so new phenotypes and if they do, most
have a small effect on the organism
• Occasionally, the new allele gives the individual a survival advantage over other members of the
species
• For example:
A bird develops a mutation leading to a change in feather colours
This makes it more attractive to birds of the opposite sex
Which causes the bird to breed more frequently and have more chances of passing on the mutated
phenotype to the next generation
• Mutations can also lead to harmful changes that can have dramatic effects on the organism – for
example, sickle cell anaemia in humans
• Mutations happen spontaneously and continuously but their frequency can be increased by exposure
to the following:
• Ionising radiation (e.g. gamma rays and X - rays) - which can damage bonds and cause changes in base
sequences
• Certain types of chemicals - for example chemicals such as tarin tobacco Increased rates of mutation
can cause cells to become cancerous, which is why the above are linked to increased incidence of
different types of cancer

An example of gene mutation is sickle-cell anemia: sickle-cell anemia is a condition where red blood
cells become sickle shaped. Sickle cells carry less oxygen and can block blood vessels. This condition is
caused by a mutation in the beta-haemoglobin gene, which alters the allele which produces
haemoglobin (protein). The mutation can also have positive effects; people who are homozygous or
heterozygous, i.e. have one sickle-cell allele and one un-mutated allele, are immune to malaria, as
the malaria parasite cannot infect the sickle-shaped cells. Sickle-cell anemia is therefore commonly
found in areas where malaria is common. This shows that natural selection for this gene is occurring in
these areas, as those with the gene do not catch the disease and are more likely to survive. This allows
this allele to be preserved.
Sources of Genetic Variation in Populations
[Link]
New alleles form through random changes to DNA
1. Meiosis
New allele combinations form through segregation
2. Random mating
Which partnerships form for sexual reproduction
3. Random fertilisation
Which sperm and egg combinations occur during sexual reproduction

ADAPTIVE FEATURES
• Adaptive feature is an inherited feature that helps an organism to survive and reproduce in its
environment.

Xerophytes are plants that are adapted to live in very dry climates, such as
cacti. They have number of adaptive features that help to increase survival
by reducing water loss:
● Fewer stomata - water vapour diffuses out of the plant via the stomata,
thus less water is lost if there are fewer stomata. Stomata are also sunken
in pits in the leaf, which allows bubbles of moist air to be trapped around
them. This lowers the water potential gradient, so less water is lost from the
leaf.
● Small, rolled leaves or spines - this reduces the surface area of the leaf and traps moisture to lower the
water potential gradient, reducing water loss.
● Deep roots - this allows plants to absorb water from the soil. Roots are also adapted to absorb lots of water
when it rains for storage, e.g. in monsoon seasons.
● Thick waxy cuticle - this provides a waterproof barrier around the leaf to prevent water loss.

Hydrophytes are plants which are adapted to live in very wet conditions
and includes species such as the water lily and the lotus. These plants are
adapted differently to xerophytes as they do not need to minimize water
loss:
● Leaf shape - leaves are usually large and flat to have a large surface area
which promotes water loss.
● Stomata - positioned on the top of the leaf where the sun hits. There is
also a large number of stomata, which are usually open to allow water vapour to diffuse out of the leaf.
● Thin/no waxy cuticle - water loss does not need to be restricted by this layer in hydrophytes.
● Small root system - as there is a large amount of water reliably available, root systems can be shallow, and
water can diffuse directly into the stem.
NATURAL SELECTION
• In any environment, the individuals that have the best adaptive features are the ones most likely to
survive and reproduce. This results in natural selection:
1. Individuals in a species show a range of variation caused by differences in genes
2. When organisms reproduce, they produce more offspring than the environment is able to support
3. This leads to competition for food and other resources which results in a ‘struggle for survival’
 4. Individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment have a higher chance of survival and
more chances to reproduce
5. Therefore the alleles resulting in these characteristics are passed to their offspring at a higher rate
than those with characteristics less suited to survival
6. This means that in the next generation, there will be a greater number of individuals with the
better-adapted variations in characteristics
• This theory of natural selection was put forward by Charles Darwin and became known as ‘survival of the
fittest’
• Within the population of snails there is variation in shell colour
• Normal varieties of shell colours in this snail species is black or grey (as evidenced by the first picture)
• Chance mutations lead to a small number of snails / one snail having a white shell
• This ‘small number’ is shown in the second diagram where there are less white shelled snails than black
or grey shelled snails
• The white shelled snail(s) survive longer
• This is the ‘survival of the fittest’, a term used to explain why some organisms succeed in the competitive
struggle for survival against other members of their population
• The reason the white shelled snail(s) survive longer is because they are better camouflaged
• This means that they are less likely to be seen by predators and eaten
• As they survive longer they get more opportunities to reproduce
• And so the allele for white shells is passed onto offspring more frequently than the alleles for black or
grey shells
• Over generations, this is repeated until the majority of snails in the population have white shells
 NATURAL SELECTION

(a) Genetic variation within

populations
(b) Production of many offspring
(c) Struggle for survival, including
competition for resources
(d) A greater chance of reproduction
by individuals that are better
adapted to the environment than
others
(e) These individuals pass on their
alleles to the next generation

Adaptation is the process resulting

from natural selection, by which
populations become more suited to
their environment over many
generations

SELECTIVE BREEDING
Selective breeding is where humans select animals or plants with desirable features and breed these
together to make more offspring with these desirable features. Offspring showing the desirable features are
selected as the best organisms. This process is repeated over many generations. As this breeding is
controlled by humans, it is known as artificial selection.
An example of selective breeding of animals is the German Shepherd. These dogs were originally bred as
working dogs to herd sheep as they are known for their intelligence and agility. Humans selectively breed
these dogs to exaggerate desirable qualities, such as their sloping backs and large ears. This involves
crossing dogs which show these traits so that the alleles are passed on to their offspring. Farmers also
selectively breed crops. For example, bananas are selectively bred for their size, shape and easiness to peel.
This means that plants which express these characteristics are bred to produce more offspring with
desirable characteristics.
SELECTIVE BREEDING BY ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
In the process of artificial selection, human, but not the environment does the selection. People
deliberately choose organisms with particular characteristics, to breed.

➢ Individuals showing good qualities are selected as breeding stocks

➢ The offspring showing desired qualities are selected

➢ The selected individuals are used for breeding

➢ This process is continued over many generations

Many crop plants and farm animals are produced by selective breeding programs. Some examples are:
• Increased milk production in cows
• Increased meat production in farm animals
• Increased yield from cereals
• Increased disease resistance in many crops
As a result, greater profits are made from greater quantity and better quality products.
Differences between natural and artificial selection

WORKSHEET
1. A man who was blood group A and a woman who was blood group B had four children, each with a
different blood group A, B, AB and O. Which type of variation does this demonstrate?
A. continuous, environmental and genetic
B. continuous and genetic only
C. discontinuous, environmental and genetic
D. discontinuous and genetic only

2. Cacti have fewer stomata than other plants.

How does this help them to survive in desert conditions?
A. It increases loss of water.
B. It increases uptake of carbon dioxide.
C. It reduces loss of water.
D. It reduces uptake of carbon dioxide.