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Solar Cell and Solar Energy Harvesting : An Overview

Preprint · January 2021

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.15631.10405

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Solar Cell and Solar Energy Harvesting : An Overview
Pritam Baidya∗
BS-MS(SEM - II), Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, India

Solar Cells and Solar Energy Harvesting is a very From Fig (1) , it is clear that we need to think about
potentially important technology in today’s world and renewable energy resources seriously.
for our future also.This paper describes the scenario of
this sector,from its very beginning to current develop-
ments. The basic scientific explanation,the working prin-
ciples,description of used materials, basic physical and
chemical phenomena regarding this technology are in-
cluded in this paper. Two developing sectors (Nanotech-
nology based solar cell & Organic Solar cell) are pre-
sented here as 3rd Gen PV technology. The ongoing
R&D projects in India had been also included in a differ- FIG. 1 Pie Chart representing Global Energy
ent section.Two make it versatile and simplified, difficult Consumption,2017(1)
mathematical derivations had been avoided.

CONTENTS

I. Introduction 1

II. Photovoltalic Effect 1

A. History 1
B. Semiconductors and PV effect 2
C. n-p Juction 3
D. Efficiency 4

III. Evolution of Solar Cells 4

A. 1st Generation: Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell 4
B. 2nd Generation : Thin Film Solar Cell 5 FIG. 2 Global Horizontal Irradiation.(The power per unit
C. Development of new technology 6 area recieved from the sun.) ©Global solar atlas (2)
1. Light Management 7
2. Partial Shading & bypass diodes 7
3. Multiple Juction 7 However Fig (2) shows some way to deal with it. Even-
D. 3rd Gen : Advanced, New Aspects of Solar cell 8 tually human have developed various ways to utilise this.
1. Nanopiller & Nanowire solar cell 8 The magnifying glass can be considered as one of the very
2. Nanonets 8 first device to utilise the thermal energy. However that is
3. Organic Solar cells 9
not the topic of our discussion. We will try to be focused
IV. Solar Energy and India 9 on a rather Chemo-Physical Phenomenon – Photovoltaic
Effect. A Solar cell is basically an energy converter, an
V. Conclusion and Outlook 10
electrical device which can convert photonic energy into
VI. Acknowledgments 10 electrical energy through Photovoltaic Effect.
References 10
II. PHOTOVOLTALIC EFFECT

I. INTRODUCTION A. History

Tackling Problems regarding production of Energy is It was 1839,French Physicist Edmond Becquerel ob-
one of the most important challenges for mankind in the served that when light was shone onto the electrodes of
21st century along with Pollution and Global Warming. a simple electrochemical cell made from two metal Elec-
trodes immersed in an electrolyte, the amount of elec-
tricity from the cell Increased.(3)
Photovoltaic Effect was demonstrated for the first time
∗ [email protected] in 1876 by two British scientist, William Grylls Adams
 2

and Richard Evans Day, in a Platinum-Selenium junc- due to the absorption of thermal energy.This process
tion , though the performance was very poor,but it was leads to the formation of mobile electrons and holes.
the very first time scientists understand the usability of Rather say there always presents some free movable elec-
Semiconductors. tron and holes. Now increase in temperature ,increases
An inventor Charles Fritts from USA managed to make the electron-hole concentration breaking more covalent
a Photovoltalic-device based on a Au-Se junction in 1883. bonds. This is the physical reason behind the semicon-
The energy conversion efficiency performance of that de- ductivity phenomenon.
vice was about 1%.
In 1887, discovery of Photoelectric effect by Heinrich
Hertz and in 1905,publication of Albert Einstein’s paper
explaining Photoelectric effect, opened up a new horizon
in front of the researchers.
In early 50s Bell Laboratories in the United states
started researching on phovoltalics and development of
solar cells started. Three scientists Calvin S. Fuller,
Daryl M. Chapin,and Gerald L. Pearson from there, cre-
ated a silicon-based solar cell in 1954. The efficiency of
the solar cell was about 6%. (3) In that period of time,
large solar panels from solar cells are produced mainly as
an alternative energy source for spaceships or satellites.
It was 1970s,when industrial companies stared investing FIG. 4 Amodel for crystalline-Si. (a)Without any broken
in solar research and solar plants due to the oil crisis and bond (b) A broken bond between two Si atoms, resulting in
usage of new technology decreased the production costs. a free electron and hole.©UIT Cambridge (3)
Now the whole world is working on this field, every coun-
try have taken their own initiatives to research on this There is an important quantity called Bandgap energy
sector. (Eg ). In a simple word, it is the minimum energy re-
quired to separate or remove an electron from its bond-
ing position and create a free conduction electron. For
B. Semiconductors and PV effect example Eg of Si = 1.12 eV.
Photovoltalic Effect is a characteritic feature of semi-
conductors where they can produce potential differece ,
rather say DC in presence of Photon. But how?
We can cosider the silicon cell as example. Silicon is
extensively used as a classic, common cell material(due
to its highly natural availability.)

FIG. 5 Schematic diagram of Energy gap.Eg amount of en-

ergy is needed to move an electron to conduction band from
the valence band i.e to break the covalent bond between two
Si atom.(3)

The funtioning behaviour of any semiconductor device

is dependent on the carriers(electrons and holes) concen-
FIG. 3 Representation of the silicon crystal lattice arrange- tration. As transportation of charge inside the semi-
ment.4 valance electrons forming covalent bonds with neigh-
conductor causes electrical currents. In a semiconduc-
bour Si atoms (4)
tor with bandgap Eg ,(conduction) electron density n and
hole density p satisfies the following relation:
The silicon atom has 14 electrons, with 4 valance elec-
trons, all of them forms covalent bonds with neighbour np = Be−Eg /kT (1)
Si atoms upon forming a Si crystal (Fig:3). Some bonds
start to break at temperatures higher than 0 K.This is where B is more or less a constant for all semiconductors.
 3

FIG. 6 Formation of a n-p Junction. Source : Basic Photovoltalic Priciples ©SERI, U.S. Dept.of Energy (4)

When photon hits a silicon crystal, three situations would roam about the crystal randomly.For a time being
can be occured.It may be either reflected or absorbed or they lose their energy thermally and return to valence
may pass right through.Here we will consider only the positions, so clearly something more is needed to produce
absorption of photon. We know energy of a photon can current,and that is a potential barrier.(5)(6)
be expressed as

E = h/ν = hc/λ = 1.24/λ (2)

C. n-p Juction
Now semiconductors can absorb photons with h/v
greater than Eg and create an electron-hole pair. Joining a n-type and p-type semiconductor, the po-
Each photon is capable of generating only one elec- tential barrier can be built. The n-type semiconductors
tron(maximum) The excess energy is dissipated as heat. are formed by doping of pentavalent atoms, which in-
So clearly the photon-absorption rate or carrier genera- creses the negetive carrier density, similerly p-type semi-
tion rate for a semiconductor is a function of of Eg . conductors are semiconductors with high positive carrier
However the electrons and holes generated by photon density, formed by trivalent atoms.
 4

Joining a n-type and p-type semiconductor(see Fig-

6), the potential barrier can be built. The n-type semi-
conductors are formed by doping of pentavalent atoms,
which increses the negetive carrier density, similerly p-
type semiconductors are semiconductors with high posi-
tive carrier density, formed by trivalent atoms.
The junction region,losing all mobile free carriers forms
the Space-charge region or depleted region.It actually
works as the potential barrier.Now if we connect this junc-
tion to a load and then can build such a mechanism that
forces the carriers to move along this, we are success-
ful. The solar Cell actually does this work. The photons
supply this energy.

FIG. 9 Solar Irradince Spectrum.It shows that maximum so-

lar radiations comes as visible light. (8)

Isc = Short circuit current (when the two terminals

are connected without any load)
Now we know,
Power delivered by the cell = (I x V)
Another important factor here is FF(fill factor).
M P P (M aximumP owerP oint)
FF = (3)
Isc .Voc
It actually provides an idea of the quality of the PV
panel.
Now according to the definition of efficiency,
FIG. 7 A schematic of a simple conventional solar cell. Cre- Poutput Voc .Isc .F F
ation of electron–hole pairs, e and h+, respectively.(5) η= = (4)
Pinput Pinput
There are several factors affecting the efficiency of a so-
lar cell.Fig.9. shows the Solar irradiance spectrum at
D. Efficiency surface and above atmosphere. Here Air mass (AM) is
a very important parameter,which is defined as recipro-
cal of Zenith angle. E(g) also roles a vital key here.(fig 9)
Another two physical Phenomenon are Reflection and
High temperature loss which we can not deny. How-
ever scientists have come up such mechanisms that can
overcome these in an optimal way.

III. EVOLUTION OF SOLAR CELLS

A. 1st Generation: Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell

The oldest and most popular solar cell technology with

FIG. 8 V-I characteristics curve of a Solar cell. It suggests a high efficiency. Fig 11. shows a most conventional type of
maximum power point. (7) c-Si solar cell, made out of a silicon wafer.However, the n-
type layer(emitter layer) over the p-type wafer is much
Fig 8. represents the V-I characteristics of a typical Si slimmer than the p-wafer.Because we want to produce
PV solar cell. Here Carriers near the juntion,if the n-layer becomes very thick
Voc = Open circuit voltage (when no load is connected) then most photons could not reach the junction.
 5

FIG. 12 Two types of solar cell : Mono-c Si and Poly-c Si

Solar cell. It is observable that Mono-c atoms are evenly
spread in the space , however Poly-c atoms are not like that.
FIG. 10 Relationship between E(g) and η.The limit of maxi- ©UIT Cambridge(3)
mum efficiency is around 33.7%. It is known as the Shockley-
Queisser Limit. (3)
To produce Mono-c Si cells, pure Si needed to be ex-
tracted from silica sand,SiO2 . And this process is costly
and complicated. It needs several steps to produce 99.9
percent Si. However this purity also gives a high effi-
ciency to the cell. But the problem is it loses its efficincy
at a temperature higher than 25 C.(4)
On the other hand Poly-c Si cells are made from veri-
ous types of Si fragments. Thus it consists many small
randomly oriented crystalline grains.Grain boundaries
are present between these grains. At the grain bound-
aries lattice gets imbalanced, that results many discrep-
ancies at these boundaries.Consequently, the lifetime of
charge carriers for polyc silicon is shorter than for monoc
silicon.(3)

B. 2nd Generation : Thin Film Solar Cell

One of the disadvantage of First generation Solar cell

was its size. The second generation Solar technology de-
creased its thickness to few micrometers.Thin-film solar
cells can supply lower cost electricity than c-Si wafer-
based solar cells.This type of solar cells are made of se-
quential thin layers( with a thickness just 1 to 4 µm),
of solar cells deposited onto a big, economical substrate
like polymer ,metal or more commonly glass. Basically
FIG. 11 A simple single - crystalline silicon pn junction solar three primary types of thinfilm solar cells that have been
cell.©SERI (4) commercially developed:(4)

• Amorphous silicon (a-Si and a-Si/c-Si)

Besically there are two types of 1st generation silicon • Cadmium Telluride (Cd-Te)
solar cells.
a. Mono-crystalline Si • Copper-Indium-Selenide (CIS)/Copper- Indium-
b. Poly-crystalline Si Gallium-Diselenide (CIGS)

Thin-film solar cells are in general more complicated

Mono-crystalline and Poly-crystalline Solar with a multiple layers than 1st generation cells.They are
Panels: A Comparative View improved for one or multiple motivations.Basically, two
configurations are possible for any thin-film solar cell as
Mono-c Si Poly-c Si shown in Figure.13.
Production cost high Production cost low Fig 13.(a) shows a diagram where light penetrate the
Higher efficiency relatively lower efficiency device through a transparent superstrate.The mechanical
 6

Amorphous silicon(a-Si) is a very common material

used to build the absorber layer. a-Si is noncrystalline
silicon.As an alternative of wafer based Si, it is made
by chemical vapour deposition (CVD) processes, where
a very thin layer (few µm thick) of Si is deposited on
the Superstrate or substrate from a gaseous mixture of
silane(SiH4 ) and Hydrogen.It Also allows to make the So-
lar Panel flexible as it completely depends upon the char-
acter of the substrate/superstrate. The band gap Eg of
a-Si is around 1.7 eV, which also allows to absorb a broad
range of light spectrum.(10) That is why it can work at
weak/low light. Apart from a-Si, PV Technology Based
on III-V Compounds is also a very important part. Here
the three valence electron - configured elements (Alu-
minium (Al),Indium(In) or Gallium (Ga)) and five va-
FIG. 13 Diagram of the two possible layer sequences to esca- lence electroned elements(Arsenic (As) or Phosporus(P))
late a thin-film solar cell system. ©Thomas Kirchartz et
al. (9)
are used to form the semiconductor PV cells.Though the
efficiency of this cells are relatively low,however it can be
increased using multi-junction technology. In a simple
Layer Type Possible tasks and requirements word,using multiple energy gaps.
Substrate/ Mechanical and thermal stability,
superstrate transparency (superstrate) Another remarkable difference between first and sec-
ond generation PV-solar cells is the working princi-
Front contact Light trapping, antireflection, electrical ple.The hydrogenated amorphous and nanoc si films have
contact, charge extraction a comparably enormous defect density causing a very low
(100-300nm) diffusion length, which is very lower than
Absorber Absorb light, charge extraction, low the width of the absorber layer. So,the Amorphous sili-
recombination
con solar cells are not formed on the basis of p-n junction
Back contact Light trapping, high reflection, electri- (dependent on diffusion) like wafer based c-Si solar cells.
cal contact, charge extraction Rather, they are based on the principle of p-i-n junction
where an intrinsic (undoped) layer is sandwiched between
TABLE I four types of layers in a thin-film solar cell together thin p-doped and n-doped layers.(fig-14)An integral elec-
with their specific tasks and requirements necessary for an tric field across the intrinsic absorber layer gets created
efficient solar cell ©Thomas Kirchartz et al. (9) in between the p- and n-doped layers.(3)

firmness or balance of the device has to be maintained

by the superstrate along with a high transparency.The
superstrate is succeeded by layers of the front contact.
The absorber layer and the back contact forming layers
make the lower part.
Fig 13.(b) shows the another possible structure i.e the
inverse of the previous one. It starts with the front con-
tact having the absorber, and the back contact as the
FIG. 14 Band diagram of an a-Si PV-solar cell.There is an in
succeeding layers. These layers are all staked on the top built electric field across the intrinsic absorber layer. ©UIT
of a substrate. This substrate can be translucent or im- Cambridge(3)
penetrable as photons do not have to go through the
substrate to enter the solar cell,. (9)
The front and back contact layers have to provide the
circuital contact for the solar cell. It also forms the actual
solar PV cell circuit. Basically Transparent conducting C. Development of new technology
oxides (TCOs)layer works as electric front contact of the
solar cell.It also directs the incident light to the ener- Before talking about the developing Third Gen tech,
gatic layers.Basic TCO layers are produced from fluor- some useful advanced developments in the field of first
doped tin oxide(SnO2 :F), aluminium-doped Zinc Oxide and second - generation solar cells must be discussed,
(ZnO:Al),Boron-doped Zinc Oxide (ZnO:B), hydrogen- which deals with various mechanical and chemical prob-
doped (hydrogenated) Indium Oxide (In2 O3 :H).(3) lem faced by scientists.
 7

1. Light Management

One of a very important technical aspect to increse

the efficiency of a PV cell is to manage or to optimise
the optical effectivness of the cell.
Solar Concentrator It is a very old , simple but ef-
fective technique to utilise the solar energy by capturing
more. There are many optical instruments which are
used for this like Mirror,lenses etc.

FIG. 16 A typical Textured Glass Surface.Modelled to reduce

reflection. ©UIT Cambridge(3)

cells act like a reversely biased source for the shaded solar
cell.The shaded PV cells stop producing energy,but start
to waste energy by heating up which is inappropiate for
the PV module.

FIG. 15 A wide field-of-view concentrator to utilize maximum

light. ©SERI, U.S. Dept.of Energy (11)

Antireflection Technologies To assure low reflec-

FIG. 17 Partially Shaded Solar Cell Arrey (above) Usage of
tion of incident lights, coating of Silicon Monoxide (SiO) Bypass diode(bottom) ©UIT Cambridge(3)
and dioxide (SiO2 ),titanium dioxide (T iO2 ); and/or tan-
talum pentoxide (T a2 O5 ) are used.A mono layer of SiO
decreases surface mirroring to about 11%,while a bi-layer To deal with this, Bypass diodes are used in solar
can bring down it to below 4% panel. A diode is a device which chokes the current un-
Selective Surface By making a selective surface, der negative voltage,and conducts under positive voltage.
which reflects unwanted light and allows only lights with Usage of bypass diodes allows to complete the circuit
an energy higher than a certion level, one can decrease without any problem at partial shaded situation.
unwanted heating issue.
Textured Glass Surface Another way to decrease
reflection is to texturize the uppermost cell surface. (Fig. 3. Multiple Juction
16)
It compels the reflected photons to hit a second surface One of the main drawback of thin-film PV-Solar cells is
before it can run away. In this way it increases the ab- its lower efficiency.However the concept of multiple juc-
sorption probability, effectively also the efficiency. (12) tion can increase device performance well beyond that
of single junction devices. Both the a-Si & III-V Photo-
voltic devices can achieve very high efficiencies based on
this , using more than one band gap.
2. Partial Shading & bypass diodes In a typical single -juction cell a large fraction of the
photonic energy gets vanished as thermal energy, as pho-
When series solar array is partially shaded, the current tons with energies lower than the band gap are not ab-
production reduces and the voltage across the module sorbed. However,using more band gaps, the same amount
gets dropped due to this.However the uncovered PV-solar of photons can be used less thermalization losses. In
 8

a multiple- Junction PV cell High Bandgap Material is using much less amount of semiconductor than the com-
used as the top layer. And the bottom layers are made by mercial thin-film solar cells. An array of nanopillars that
lesser bandgap materials. In this a good part of the solar are narrow at the top and thicker at the bottom,is used
spectrum and higher amount of energy can be utilised at here.(Fig.19) The narrow upper portion allow photons to
the same time. pass into the array without reflection. The thicker bot-
tom confines more photon to convert into electricity. The
design can absorb around 98% of visible spectrum.(14)

FIG. 19 A Typical Ge based nanopiller.The narrow upper-

most layer allow light to pass through the array without re-
flection. The thick bottom absorbs photons to convert into
electricity. ©Zhiyong Fan et al. (15)

Another technology is Light-absorbing nano-wires

formed out of high-perfarmance photovoltic materials. It
FIG. 18 Typical structure for an a-Si triple-junction device. have been developed on slim but very durable carbon-
High Bandgap Material is used as the top layer. And the nanotube fabric, embedding the tiny particles in flexible
bottom layers are made by lesser bandgap materials.©Ben polyester film. It is obseveved that around 40 % efficiency
Minnaert(13) can be achieve. The technology is based on nanowires
containing multiple layers of III-V semiconductor mate-
rial. It creates a special kind of multi-junction solar cells
with an absorbance to a greater range of spectrum,. Each
nanowire is around 10 to 100 nm broad and up to five
D. 3rd Gen : Advanced, New Aspects of Solar cell
microns long. (16)
The first generation solar cells were expensive.And
the materials used for second- generation solar cells had 2. Nanonets
toxicity and availability limitation issue.This two draw-
backs of the previous gen cells made to develop new A very genuine drawback of general PV-solar cells is
techniques of PV-solar cells technology .Third gen PV- that it only produce electricity during the daytime .It is
solar cells are intrinsically different from the previous found that Titanium disilicide (T iSi2 ),absorbing a broad
two generations.Leaving back the conservative p-n juc- visible spectrum, can split H2 O into H2 and O2 and
tions based technology,this new solar cells are devel- can reserve the H2 , which it absorbs or releases con-
oped based on nano technology and quantum program- trolled by temperature.It lead to the usage of the sun’s
ming,from various new materials like nanomaterials, sil- energy with more efficiency, enlisting it to break H2 O
icon wires,organic dyes,Quantum dots, conductive plas- into H2 gas that can be reserved and then can be used
tics etc. at any point of time,irresspective of day-time.It serves
as an efficient charge collector, as well as a structural
support.Nanostructured version of T iSi2 performs about
1. Nanopiller & Nanowire solar cell 100 times better than bulk T iSi2 .So the Nanonet based
technology developed.The nanonets,about 15 nanome-
University of California, Berkeley have developed A tres thick like flexible wires, grow spontaneously at high
special design using nanotechnology which could guide to temperatures from Ti and Si moving through a reaction
more affordable solar cells. It ingests photons effectively chamber. The 2D branching structure of it is made up
 9

of branching wires of titanium and silicon, it has high Name of the Project Name of the Project
surface area,effective to enhance the reaction.(16; 17) and Institution
Development of High Efficiency Prof. Utpal Gangopad-
selective large area N-Type hyay
3. Organic Solar cells crystalline silicon solar cell. Megnad Saha Insti-
tute of Technology,
Nazirabad Kolkata.
Organic or polymer solar cell technology was intro-
duced to create a more duuctile solar cell.Its active lay- Development of Electrode Ma- Dr. M. Sasidharan, Pro-
ers are created from completely organic materials. These terials for High Energy Density fessor, SRM Research In-
cells may have a bilayer or a bulk-heterojunction struc- Lithium ion Batteries and Com- stitute, SRM University,
ture, though the mechanism designs is the same for both. putational Studies of Solar Ab- Kattankulathur
The active layer contains donor and acceptor materials sorber layers
for charge separation and transportation. This donor
“Determination of Wind Forces Dr. Hassan Irtaza, De-
and acceptor materials are besically highly conjugated on Solar Photovoltaic Panels partment of Civil Engi-
organic polymers with lower Ionisation Potential & with Mounted on Different Types neering, Aligarh Muslim
high Electron affinity respectively. The HOMO(highest of Roof and on/above Ground University, Aligarh.
occupied molecular orbital ) and LUMO(lowest unoccu- in India Using Computational
pied molecular orbital ) states of the materials works sim- Fluid Dynamics Techniques”
ilarly just as the valance and conduction band of semi-
From Cell towards Module Dr. Shaibal K. Sarkar
conductors. (8)
using low cost Organo-Metal Indian Institute of Tech-
Halide Perovskite Materials nology Bombay, Powai,
Mumbai

Process development for fabri- Dr. Udai. P Singh.KIIT

cation CZTS based solar cell on University,Bhubaneswar.
flexible (Polyimide) substrate

Development of high efficiency Dr. A. K. Saxena, Addi-

(21%/ 19%) PERC type of c- tional General Manger
Si/mc-Si solar cells
Head, BHEL-ASSCP, Guru-
gram and Dr. Arun K. Tripathi,
National Institute of Solar En-
ergy, Gurugram

Porphyrin@Graphene Quan- Dr. A. K Narula,

tum Dots sensitized solar cells Guru Govind Singh
(PGSSCs) using polypyrrole- Indraprastha University,
graphene composites as counter Dwarka
electrode- A step towards 4G
solar cells
FIG. 20 Some organic molecules used for organic photo-
Flexible Perovskite Solar Cells Prof. Shaibal K. Sarkar,
voltaics.All of them are highly conjugated with available p-
and Intermediate Module Indian Institute of Tech-
orbital. (3)
nology Bombay, Powai,
Mumbai

IV. SOLAR ENERGY AND INDIA TABLE II On-going R&D project under MNRE,India
Source: Ministry of New & Renewable Energy(18)
India as a large tropical, developing country has a
high potential to utilise the solar energy.In India the
average solar insolation is roughly 200MW/km-square
with averagely 200–300 sunshiny day in a year.(19) R&D projects under MNRE. (18) Apart from Ministry
In such a situation more research and technical initi- of New and Renewable Energy(MNRE),GoI had initi-
atves must be taken up. However Govt of India has ated some projects with some private or semi government
taken up verious schemes and Projects.Various R&D organizations and associations to nurture solar energy
projects in solar-PV technology and solar thermal are peoduction in India like Indian Renewable Energy De-
endorsed by GoI to increase the solar power produc- velopment Agency Ltd.(IREDA)(20), Solar Energy Cor-
tion capacity.Table II is showing the current on-going poration of India(SECI)(21), National Institute of Solar
 10

Energy(NISE)(22). [3] A. Smets, K. Jäger, O. Isabella, R. van Swaaij, and

However various issues are still present in India in the M. Zeman. Solar Energy: The Physics and Engineering
sector of solar energy development like, of Photovoltaic Conversion, Technologies and Systems.
UIT Cambridge.
• More knowlegable human resourses are required to [4] Kenneth Zweibel Paul Hersch and Solar Energy Research
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[6] Richard M. White Chmming Hu. Solar Cells - from Basic
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Konagai, and Yukimi Ichikawa. Single crystalline silicon
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