Education 10.

22 During the period 1950-51 to

10.19 Education is universally recognized as a 19992000, the number of primary schools has
central component of ‘human capital’. The increased three fold, from 210,000 in 1950-51
role of education as a contributor to to 642,000 in 1999-2000. The number of
economic growth and its impact on upper primary schools has increased by about
population control, life expectancy, infant 15 times, from 13,596 in 1950-51 to 198,000
mortality, improving nutritional status and in 19992000. The ratio of upper primary
strengthening civil institutions is well schools to primary schools has also come
recognised. Moreover, the social rates of down from 1:15 in 1950-51 to 1: 3.2 in 1999-
return on investments in all levels of 2000. There are now 245 universities, 52
education much exceed the long-term deemed universities, five institutions
opportunity cost of capital. established through State and Central
legislations, nearly 11,831 colleges including
10.20 The total expenditure on education in 1,520 women's colleges in the country, in
India is currently 3.8 per cent of GDP (1998). addition to the unrecognised institutions in
Plan expenditure on education has also the higher education sector. According to the
increased rapidly since the First Five Year last i.e .Sixth All India Educational Survey
Plan. A high priority was accorded to this 1993, 83 per cent of the rural habitations and
sector in the Ninth Five Year Plan, with an 94 per cent of the rural population have
allocation of Rs. 24,908 crore against an access to primary schools/sections within a
expenditure of Rs. 8,522 crore in the Eighth distance of 1 km.; 76 per cent of the rural
Plan, representing a three fold increase in habitations and 85 per cent of the rural
funds available to this sector. The total Central population are served by Upper primary
Plan allocation for education has also been schools/sections within a distance of 3 kms.
enhanced from Rs. 5,450 crore in 2000-01 Access to primary/upper primary education
(BE) to Rs. 5,920 crore in 2001-02 (BE). Out of has improved further since 1993.
this, elementary education has received the
highest priority, increasing from Rs. 3609 10.23 The total enrolment at the primary and
crore in 2000-01 to Rs. 3800 crore in 2001-02 upper primary school levels in India has
(BE). witnessed a steady increase (Table.10.11 ).
Total enrolment at the primary stage (grades
10.21 The National Policy on Education (NPE), I-V) increased by 5.91 times, from 19.2 million
1986 and its Programme of Action (POA), as in 1950-51 to about 113.61 million in 1999-
reviewed in 1992, envisage improvement and 2000. Out of this, the relative share of girls’
expansion of education in all sectors, enrolment increased from 28.1 per cent in
elimination of disparities in access, a stress on 1950-51 to 43.6 per cent in 1999-2000. Total
improvement in quality and relevance of enrolment at the Upper Primary levels (grades
education at all levels, alongwith technical VI-VIII) increased by 13 times from 3.1 million
and professional education. The goal of in 1950-51 to 42.06 million in 19992000. The
education policy has been to provide relative share of girls’ enrolment which was
Education for All, the priority areas being free only 16.1 per cent in 1950-51 rose to about
and compulsory primary education to children 40.4 per cent in 1999-2000. During 195051
in the age group of 6-14 years (upto standard to 1999-2000, the growth rate of girls’
V), total eradication of illiteracy, enrolment at the elementary levels was
vocationalisation of education, covering higher as compared to that of the boys.
children with special needs, special focus on Participation of girls at all levels of school
education of women, weaker sections and education has improved appreciably over the
minorities. years.
10.24 The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at 10.25 Whereas the rising enrolment in
Primary and Upper Primary levels has elementary schools is a source of satisfaction,
improved perceptibly from 1950-51 to 1999- there is concern about the percentage of
2000 students actually attending school and those
(Table 10.12). The GER has risen at the dropping out of the education system
primary level from 42.6 per cent in 1950-51 altogether. Nearly 79 per cent of the 6-14 age
to 94.90 per cent in 1999-2000. Enrolment for group are attending school that is, of the
girls rose from 24.8 per cent to 85.18 per population of 200 million
cent during this period. The boys /girls in this age group in the year 2000, the
differential also declined substantially, from number of children attending school was
35.8 percentage points in 1950-51 to 18.90 about 158 million. The student retention rate
percentage points in 1999-2000. The GER at at the primary school stage was about 58 per
the Upper Primary level improved from 12.7 cent (1990-95). Dropout rates at the primary
per cent in 1950-51 to 58.79 per cent in 1999- and upper primary level have decreased over
2000 with that for girls increasing from 4.6 the years. From 64.9 per cent at the primary
per cent to 49.66 per cent for this period. The level in 1960-61, the dropout rate decreased
boys/girls differential at the Upper Primary to 40.25 per cent 1999-2000 and from 78.3 in
level which had increased to 29.6 percentage upper primary level in 1960-61, it decreased
points in 1990-91 has been in the range of 16- to 54.53 per cent in 1999-2000. Though
18 percentage points in 1996-97 to 1999- dropout rates at the elementary education
2000. Though the participation of girls at all stage have declined over the years, they are
levels of school education has increased still relatively high especially in the case of girl
substantially, the proportion of girls enrolled students for whom the rates are 42 per cent
both at the Primary and Upper Primary levels and 58 per cent at the Primary and Upper
continues to be lower than the gross Primary stages respectively.
enrolment of boys. Vast disparities exist 10.26 In absolute terms, the number of
amongst the States/ UTs in terms of teachers registered at the elementary level
enrolment with educationally backward states has increased five fold from 6,24,000 in 1950-
having a lower GER than the all India average 51 to 3.2 million in 1999-2000. The
(Table at Appendix). percentage share of female teachers to total
TABLE 10.11
Sex-Wise Enrolment By Stages/Classes Since 1951-Second Level (In Million)

Year Primary Middle/Upper Primary High/[Link]./Inter/pre-Degree

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

1950-51 13.8 5.4 19.2 2.6 0.5 3.1 1.3 0.2 1.5
1955-56 17.1 7.5 24.6 3.8 1.0 4.8 2.2 0.4 2.6 1960-61 23.6 11.4 35.0 5.1 1.6 6.7 2.7 0.7 3.4 1965-66 32.2 18.3 50.5 7.7 2.8
10.5 4.4 1.3 5.7
1970-71 35.7 21.3 57.0 9.4 3.9 13.3 5.7 1.9 7.6 1975-76 40.6
25.0 65.6 11.0 5.0 16.0 6.5 2.4 8.9 1980-81 45.3 28.5
73.8 13.9 6.8 20.7 7.6 3.4 11.0 1985-86 52.2 35.2 87.4
17.7 9.6 27.1 11.5 5.0 16.5 1990-91 57.0 40.4 97.4 21.5
12.5 34.0 12.8 6.3 19.1 1991-92 58.6 42.3 100.9 22.0 13.6
35.6 13.5 6.9 20.4 1992-93 57.9 41.7 99.6 21.2 12.9 34.1
13.6 6.9 20.5
1993-94 55.1 41.9 97.0 20.6 13.5 34.1 13.2 7.5 20.7
1994-95* 62.3 46.8 109.1 24.5 15.8 40.3 16.0 8.4 24.4
1995-96* 62.4 47.4 109.8 25.0 16.0 41.0 16.1 8.8 24.9
1996-97* 62.5 47.9 110.4 24.7 16.3 41.0 17.2 9.8 27.0 1997-98* 61.2
47.5 108.7 23.7 15.8 39.5 17.1 10.2 27.2
1998-99* 62.7 48.2 110.9 24.0 16.3 40.3 17.3 10.5 27.8
1999-2000* 64.1 49.5 113.6 25.1 16.9 42.0 17.2 10.9 28.1

* Provisional
Source :- Selected Educational Statistics 1999-2000, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India
teachers during this period has increased for education viz Operation Blackboard (OB),
from 15.2 per cent in 195051 to 35.81 per District Primary Education Programme (DPEP),
cent in 1999-2000. Despite the fact that the Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative
number of teachers has increased, this and Innovative Education (EGS&AIE), Mahila
increase has not kept pace with the growth of Samakhya, Teacher Education (TE), Mid day
enrolment. From 1: 24 in 1950-51, the Meals Scheme, Lok Jumbish, Shiksha Karmi
PupilTeacher Ratio (PTR) at the Primary Project (SKP), Janashala etc. In 2001-02
education level worsened to about 1:43 in significant steps have been taken towards
1999-2000. Similarly from 1:20 at the Upper achievement of the goals of UEE through a
Primary level, the PTR increased to 1:38 in time bound integrated approach, in
1999-2000. Apart from the worsening partnership with the States through launching
Teacher-Pupil Ratio, problem areas to be of the “Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan” (SSA). (Box

TABLE 10.12
Trends In Gross Enrolment Ratios In India
(in per cent)
Year Primary (I-V) Upper Primary (VI-VIII) Elementary (I-VIII)

Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls

1950-51 60.6 24.8 20.6 4.6 46.4 17.7 1960-61 82.6 41.4 33.2 11.3
65.2 30.9 1970-71 95.5 60.5 46.5 20.8 75.5 44.4
1980-81 95.8 64.1 54.3 28.6 82.2 52.1 1990-91 114.0 85.5 76.6 47.0
100.0 70.8
1991-92 112.8 86.9 75.1 49.6 101.2 73.2 1992-93 95.0 73.5 72.5 48.9
87.7 65.7
1993-94 90.0 73.1 62.1 45.4 80.2 63.7 1994-95 114.8 92.6 79.0 55.0
101.8 78.8 1995-96 114.5 93.3 79.5 55.0 101.8 79.3 1996-97 98.7
81.9 70.9 52.8 88.9 71.8
1997-98 97.7 81.2 66.5 49.5 86.4 70.0 1998-99 100.9 82.9 65.3 49.1
87.6 70.6 1999-00 104.1 85.2 67.2 49.7 90.1 72.0

Source:- Selected Educational Statistics, 1999-2000 (D/o. Education, M/O. Human Resource Develoment, GOI.

addressed are the distribution of teachers 10.4) The planning in SSA will be
among the schools invarious states/ regions, decentralised and highest priority accorded to
non-attendance of teachers on a regular community ownership and monitoring. This
basis, presence of single-teacher schools, programme will subsume all existing
inefficient teaching methods and the general programmes including externally aided
quality of education. programmes in due course within its overall
10.27 Within the education sector, framework with district as the unit of
elementary education has been given the programme implementation.
highest priority in terms of sub-sectoral 10.28 One of the measures for achieving the
allocations. Several schemes have been goal of Education for All (EFA) was the Ninety
launched by the Central government to meet Third Amendment of the Constitution passed
the needs of the educationally disadvantaged in the Lok Sabha on November 28, 2001, to
and for strengthening the social infrastructure make the right to free and compulsory
education for children for 6-14 years of age a
Fundamental Right and also, to make it a
Fundamental Duty of the parents/guardian to
provide opportunities for education to
children in the age group of 614 years.
10.29 The secondary education sector been initiated for internal generation of
prepares students in the age group of 14-18 resources. A hike in university fees along with
years for entry into higher education as well contributions from industry, private
as for the world of work. The number of individuals etc. in the constitution of funds/
secondary and senior secondary schools BOX: 10.4
increased from 7,416 in 1950-51 to 1,16,000
in 1999-2000 with a student enrolment of 28 Goals of “Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan”
million. The Sixth All India Educational Survey
● All children of age 6-14 in
1993 showed that there was an increase of 51 schools/Education Guarantee
per cent in enrolment of girls in classes IX to X Centres/bridge course by 2003
and a 54 per cent increase in classes XI to XII
as compared to 20 per cent in the primary ● All children of age 6-14 to complete five
and 40 per cent in the upper primary stages year primary education by 2007
during the period 1986 to 1993. The focus in ● All children of age 6-14 to complete eight
this sector is on reducing disparities, renewal years of schooling by 2010
of curricula with emphasis an
vocationalisation and employment oriented ● Focus on elementary education of
courses, expansion of the Open-Learning satisfactory quality with emphasis on
education for life
System and greater use of new information
and communication technologies, particularly ● Bridge all gender and social category gaps
computers. The NCERT provides academic and at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary
technical support for a qualitative education level by 2010 and ● Universal
improvement of school education. The retention by 2010.
Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan manages 871
Kendriya Vidyalayas and the Navodaya
Vidyalaya Samiti through more than 410 trusts like the Bharat Shiksha Kosh is also
institutions in predominantly rural areas has necessary. For higher/technical education
taken up activities for extension of recovery of user costs is now a paramount
infrastructural facilities, introduction of necessity.
vocational courses, training of teachers etc.
10.31 Technical and professional education in
10.30 There has been impressive growth in the country has played a significant role in
the area of University and higher education. economic and technical development by
Accreditation of all Universities and colleges producing quality manpower. There are at
has been made manadatory. It has also been present 1,058 approved engineering colleges
made possible for Deemed Universities to at the degree and 1,231 colleges at the
open campuses abroad. In addition, all higher diploma level. Apart from this, 797 institutes
educational institutions at all levels impart courses on Master of Computer
(postgraduate and undergraduate) can now Application (MCA). There are 820 approved
have 15 per cent supernumerary seats for Management Institutes imparting MBA
foreigners. These steps would not only courses. Strong linkages have developed
improve the quality of education offered but between technical institutions and industry.
also make the system more globally Through the high profile Technology
competitive. The Open University System is Development Missions (TDM), industry-
another step towards diversification of institution linkages have grown stronger in 7
courses offered for focussing on the generic areas at 5 Indian Institutes of
educational needs of women, the rural Technology as well as the Indian Institute of
segment as also for professional training of in- Science, Bangalore. For strengthening
service personnel. In view of the problem of technical education and improving the quality
resource constraint, some steps have already
of polytechnic passouts , massive efforts have
been made with the assistance of the World
Bank with States Sector projects in three
phases. The thrust in the coming years would
be on improving quality and relevance
through a networking of technical and
management institutions not only in the
government but also in the private sectors.