Module 1

Introduction to AC Generator System

Ts. Dr. Wan Ismail Bin Ibrahim

Faculty of Electrical & Electronics Engineering Technology
Contents
• Components of AC Generator
• Theory of Operation
• Single Phase AC Gen
• Three Phase AC Gen

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Introduction
• Components of AC Generator
a) Field
b) Armature
c) Prime mover
d) Rotor
e) Stator
f) Slip Ring

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Component of AC Generator

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Introduction
a) Field
• The field in an AC generator consists of coils of conductors within the generator that
receive a voltage from a source (called excitation) and produce a magnetic flux.
• The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to produce a voltage.
• This voltage is ultimately the output voltage of the AC generator

b) Armature
• The armature is the part of an AC generator in which voltage is produced.
• This component consists of many coils of wire that are large enough to carry the full-load
current of the generator.

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c) Prime Mover
• The prime mover is the component that is used to drive the AC generator.
• The prime mover may be any type of rotating machine, such as a diesel engine, a steam turbine, or
a motor

d) Rotor
• The rotor of an AC generator is the rotating component of the generator.
• The rotor is driven by the generator's prime mover, which may be a steam turbine, gas turbine, or
diesel engine.
• Depending on the type of generator, this component may be the armature or the field.
• The rotor will be the armature if the voltage output is generated there; the rotor will be the field if the
field excitation is applied there.

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Prime Mover : Steam Turbine

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Prime Mover : Hydroelectric Turbine

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Prime Mover: Diesel Engine AC Gen.

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Types of Rotor
There are two types of rotors
used in alternators
Salient Pole Type:
• Type of rotor that has a large
number of protruding or
projecting poles mounted on
a core made of magnetic
laminated steel or cast iron.
• The term salient refers to
protruding or projecting as
shown in the figure.

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Salient Pole-Continue…
• The salient poles are made of laminated steel or iron cast of good
magnetic properties to reduce the Eddy current losses.
• The pole shoes have multiple slots for damper winding that helps in
preventing haunting.
• The field coils are wounded across the poles and then connected in series.
• The field coil is energized by connecting its ends to a separate DC source
through a pair of slip rings. The slip ring and brushes are mounted on the
shaft of the rotor.
• The salient pole rotor has a large diameter and small axial length.
• Used in low and medium-speed alternators such as in hydropower
stations.
• Not suitable for high speed due to the increased windage loss at high
speed due to their design (salient poles).
• Its design does not have enough mechanical strength to handle high
speed.

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Cylindrical Type Rotor
• Type of rotor has very few 2 or 4
poles.
• It is made up of a laminated steel
cylinder.
• The cylindrical rotor has slots for field
winding that is connected in series.
• The poles are left unslotted as shown
in the figure.
• Since the poles are not protruding out
of the core, it is also known as a non-
salient pole or round rotor.
• It has very few and non-salient poles,
therefore its rotor diameter size is
small while its axial length is longer
than the salient pole rotor.

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Cylindrical Type
• The cylindrical design
provides mechanical strength,
robustness and uniform
distribution of magnetic flux.
• It has lower windage loss.
• Therefore it is suitable for
high-speed, noise-less
operation.
• They are designed for high-
speed alternators such as in
thermal power stations
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Rotor Construction

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Stator
• The stator of an AC generator is the part
that is stationary
• Like the rotor, this component may be the
armature or the field, depending on the
type of generator.
• The stator will be the armature if the
voltage output is generated there; the
stator will be the field if the field excitation
is applied there.
• The core itself is made of laminated steel
or cast iron of good magnetic quality to
reduce Eddy current losses. • The yoke is the outermost part of the alternator
• The rotor that carries the field windings that is used to provide mechanical support and
rotates inside the stator without physically protect the inner parts from environmental
conditions that can damage it.
touching it.

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Stator Generator

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 Slip Ring
• Slip rings are electrical
connections that are used to
transfer power to and from the
rotor of an AC generator
• The slip ring consists of a circular
conducting material that is
connected to the rotor windings
and insulated from the shaft.
• Brushes ride on the slip ring as the
rotor rotates.
• The electrical connection to the
rotor is made by connections to the
brushes.

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Slip Ring
• Slip rings are used in AC generators
because the desired output of the
generator is a sine wave.
• In a DC generator, a commutator was
used to provide an output whose
current always flowed in the positive
direction, as shown in Figure. This is
not necessary for an AC generator.
• Therefore, an AC generator may use
slip rings, which will allow the output
current and voltage to oscillate
through positive and negative values.
• This oscillation of voltage and current
takes the shape of a sine wave.

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AC Generator Components Summary

• The field in an AC generator consists of coils of conductors within the

generator that receive a voltage from a source (called excitation) and
produce a magnetic flux.
• The armature is the part of an AC generator in which output voltage
is produced.
• The prime mover is the component that is used to drive the AC
generator.
• The rotor of an AC generator is the part that is driven by the prime
mover and that rotates.
• The stator of an AC generator is the part that is stationary.
• Slip rings are electrical connections that are used to transfer power
to and from the rotor of an AC generator.

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Theory of Operation

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Concept & Operation
A simple AC generator
consists of:
a) a strong magnetic field,
b) conductors that rotate
through that magnetic
field, and
c) a means by which a
continuous connection is
provided to the
conductors as they are
rotating (as shown in
Fig.).
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Concept & Operation
• The strong magnetic field is produced
by a current flow through the field coil of
the rotor.
• The field coil in the rotor receives
excitation through the use of slip rings
and brushes.
• Two brushes are spring-held in contact
with the slip rings to provide the
continuous connection between the field
coil and the external excitation circuit.
• The armature is contained within the
windings of the stator and is connected
to the output.
• Each time the rotor makes one
complete revolution, one complete cycle
of AC is developed.
• A generator has many turns of wire
wound into the slots of the rotor.

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Voltage Generation

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Voltage Generation
• Figure shows a loop of wire rotated through a magnetic field.
• The position of the loop inside the magnetic field determines the amount of induced
voltage and the resulting current flow.
• Each side of the coil moves across the magnetic lines of force in opposite directions.
• This movement causes an equal amount of electrical current to flow in opposite directions
through the two sides of the loop.
• Note each position of the loop and the resulting output voltage as shown in Fig.
• With every complete revolution of the conductor, the electrical current flows in one
direction and then in the opposite direction.
• This method produces alternating current (AC)
• One complete rotation is called a cycle
• The number of cycles per second is known as the frequency. Most AC generators produce
60 cycles per second (Hz).

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Developing a Sine-Wave Voltage

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Voltage Generation
• The ends of each conductor that move across the magnetic field of the
generator are connected to continuous metal ring as shown in Fig
• This ring is called a slip ring commutator and is mounted on the same
shaft as the conductors.
• Carbon brushes are used to make contact with the slip rings.
• The electrical current induced into each conductor flows through the slip
rings to the brushes.
• When the conductor turns half a revolution, it causes current to flow in one
direction through the slip ring assembly.
• During the next half-revolution of the coil, the positions of the two sides of
the conductor are opposite.
• As a result of this, the direction of the induced current is reversed.
• Current now flows in the opposite direction. With all the generator parts
working together, electrical power is produced.

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Continue..
• The magnitude of AC voltage generated by an AC generator is dependent on the field
strength and speed of the rotor.
• Most generators are operated at a constant speed; therefore, the generated voltage
depends on field excitation, or strength.
• The frequency of the generated voltage is dependent on the number of field poles and the
speed at which the generator is operated, as indicated in Equation.

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Example 1: Calculating emf induced in a
Generator coil
• The generator coil shown in
Figure is rotated through
one-fourth of a revolution
(from θ =0 to θ =90º ) in
15.0 ms. The 200-turn
circular coil has a 5.00 cm
radius and is in a uniform
1.25 T magnetic field. What
is the average emf induced?

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Solution

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Example 2: Calculating maximum emf of a generator
• Calculate the maximum emf (emf0) in Example 4

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Single-Phase AC Generator

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Introduction
• The current produced by single-phase generators is in the form of a
sine wave; it is so called due to its mathematical origin.
• It is based on the trigonometric sine function used in mathematics.
• Two cycles of single-phase AC voltage are shown in Fig. This voltage
is known as a sine-wave voltage.

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• The voltage induced into the
conductors of the armature varies as
the sine of the angle of rotation
between the conductors and the
magnetic field (see Figure).
• The voltage induced at a specific time
is called instantaneous voltage (Vi).
• Voltage induced into an armature
conductor at a specific time is found
by using the following formula:
Vi = Vmax  sin 
• For example, at the 60° position,
assume that the maximum voltage
output is 100 V.
• The instantaneous voltage induced
at 60° is Vi = 100  sin 60 = 86.6 V

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Effective Values-RMS
• One way to refer to AC voltage or current is by peak voltage (Ep) or peak current
(Ip). This is the maximum voltage or current for an AC sine wave.
• Another value, the peak-to-peak value (Ep-p or Ip-p), is the magnitude of voltage, or
current range, spanned by the sine wave. However, the value most commonly used
for AC is effective value.
• Effective value of AC can be calculated by squaring all the amplitudes of the sine
wave over one period, taking the average of these values, and then taking the
square root.
• The effective value, being the root of the mean (average) square of the currents, is
known as the root-mean-square, or RMS value. In order to understand the
meaning of effective current applied to a sine wave, refer to Figure

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 Effective value-RMS
• The new axis is the average of the I2
values, and the square root of that
value is the RMS, or effective value,
of current.
• The average value is ½ Imax2. The
RMS value is then

2
2 I max 2
= I max = 0.707 I max
2 2

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Basic Equation

• There are six basic equations that are used to convert a value of AC
voltage or current to another value, as listed below.

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Example 3
• The peak value of voltage in an AC circuit is 200 V. Determine the RMS value of the voltage?

Solution :

RMS=peak value X 0.707

E = 0.707 (200 V) = 141.4 V

The peak current in an AC circuit is 10 amps. Determine the average value ofcurrent in the circuit?
Solution:

Iav = 0.637 Imax

Iav = 0.637 (10 amps)Iav = 6.37 amps

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Phase Angle/Phase Different
• The phase difference can be used to
describe two different voltages that
have the same frequency, which pass
through zero values in the same
direction at different times
• At 120°, e1 passes through the zero
value, which is 60° ahead of e2 (e2
equals zero at 180°).
• The voltage e1 is said to lead e2 by 60
electrical degrees, or it can be said
that e2 lags e1 by 60 electrical degrees.

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Phase different
• Phase difference is also used to compare two different currents or a current and a
voltage.
• If the phase difference between two currents, two voltages, or a voltage and a
current is zero degrees, they are said to be "in-phase.“
• If the phase difference is an amount other than zero, they are said to be "out-of-
phase."

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Frequency Calculation
• The frequency of an alternating voltage or current can be related directly to the
angular velocity of a rotating coil.
• The units of angular velocity are radians per second, and 2p radians is a full
revolution.
• A radian is an angle that subtends an arc equal to the radius of a circle.
• One radian equals 57.3 degrees.
• One cycle of the sine wave is generated when the coil rotates 2p radians.
• Equation below represented the mathematical relationship between frequency (f)
and the angular velocity (w) in an AC circuit.

w = 2p f
w = angular velocity (radians/sec)
f = frequency (HZ)

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 • Solution
Example 4
The frequency of a 120 V AC
circuit is 60 Hz. Find the
following:

a) Angular velocity
b) Angle from reference at 1
msec
c) Induced EMF at that point

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Losses in AC Generator

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Introduction
• The load current flows through the armature in all AC generators.
• Like any coil, the armature has some amount of resistance and inductive reactance.
• The combination of these make up what is known as the internal resistance, which
causes a loss in an AC generator.
• When the load current flows, a voltage drop is developed across the internal resistance.
• This voltage drop subtracts from the output voltage and, therefore, represents generated
voltage and power that is lost and not available to the load.
• The voltage drop in an AC generator can be found using Equation

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Hysteresis Losses
• Hysteresis losses occur when iron cores in an AC generator are subject to
effects from a magnetic field.
• The magnetic domains of the cores are held in alignment with the field in
varying numbers, dependent upon field strength.
• The magnetic domains rotate, with respect to the domains not held in
alignment, one complete turn during each rotation of the rotor.
• This rotation of magnetic domains in the iron causes friction and heat.
• The heat produced by this friction is called magnetic hysteresis loss.
• To reduce hysteresis losses, most AC armatures are constructed of heat-
treated silicon steel, which has an inherently low hysteresis loss.
• After the heat-treated silicon steel is formed to the desired shape, the
laminations are heated to a dull red and then allowed to cool.
• This process, known as annealing, reduces hysteresis losses to a very low
value.
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Mechanical Losses
• Rotational or mechanical losses can be caused by bearing friction,
brush friction on the commutator, and air friction (called windage),
which is caused by the air turbulence due to armature rotation.
• Careful maintenance can be instrumental in keeping bearing friction
to a minimum.
• Clean bearings and proper lubrication are essential to the reduction
of bearing friction.
• Brush friction is reduced by ensuring: proper brush seating, proper
brush use, and maintenance of proper brush tension.
• A smooth and clean commutator also aids in the reduction of brush
friction.
• In very large generators, hydrogen is used within the generator for
cooling; hydrogen, being less dense than air, causes less windage
losses than air.

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Efficiency
• Efficiency of an AC generator is the ratio of the useful power output to the
total power input
• Because any mechanical process experiences some losses, no AC
generators can be 100 percent efficient.
• Efficiency of an AC generator can be calculated using Equation below:

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Example 5
• Given a 5 hp motor acting as the prime mover of a generator
that has a load demand of 2 kW, what is the efficiency of the
generator?

• Solution

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Rating
• Typical name plate data for an AC
generator (Figure 4) includes:
1. manufacturer;
2. serial number and type number;
3. speed (rpm), number of poles,
frequency of output, number of
phases, and maximum supply
voltage;
4. capacity rating in KVA and kW at a
specified power factor and
maximum output voltage;
5. armature and field current per
phase; and
6. maximum temperature rise.

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Types of AC Generator
there are two types of AC generators:
1. Stationary field, rotating armature; and
2. Rotating field, stationary armature.

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Stationary field, rotating armature
• Small AC generators usually have a stationary field
and a rotating armature (as shown in Fig.).
• AC voltage is induced into the rotor conductors.
• The magnetic field is developed by a set of
stationary field poles.
• Relative motion between the conductors and the
magnetic field comes from a prime mover
connected to the generator shaft.
• Prime movers can be gasoline engines, diesel
engines, steam turbines, or electric motors.
• Remember that generators convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
• The rotating-armature method can only be used to
produce small amounts of electrical power.
• Stationary Field, Rotating Armature AC
Generator

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Stationary field, Rotating Armature
• The major disadvantages:

• One important disadvantage to this arrangement is that the slip-

ring and brush assembly is in series with the load circuits and,
because of worn or dirty components, may interrupt the flow of
current.
• High voltages would cause sparking or arc-over between the brushes
and slip rings.
• The maintenance involved in replacing brushes and repairing slip-ring
assemblies would be expensive.
• This method is used for alternators with low power outputs.

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Rotating Field, Stationary Armature
• If DC field excitation is connected to the rotor, the stationary coils will have AC induced into them
• This arrangement is called a rotating field, stationary armature AC generator.
• The rotating field, stationary armature type AC generator is used when large power generation is
involved.
• In this type of generator, a DC source is supplied to the rotating field coils, which produces a
magnetic field around the rotating element.
• As the rotor is turned by the prime mover, the field will cut the conductors of the stationary armature,
and an EMF will be induced into the armature windings.
• This type of AC generator has several advantages over the stationary field, rotating armature AC
generator:
(1) a load can be connected to the armature without moving contacts in the circuit;
(2) it is much easier to insulate stator fields than rotating fields; and
(3) much higher voltages and currents can be generated.

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Rotating Field, Stationary Armature

• Rotating Field Generator

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3-Phase AC Generator

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Introduction
• The principles of a three-phase
generator are basically the same as
that of a single-phase generator,
except that there are three equally-
spaced windings and three output
voltages that are all 120° out of phase
with one another.
• The individual coils of each winding
are combined and represented as a
single coil.
• The significance of Figure is that it
shows that the three-phase generator
has three separate armature windings
that are 120 electrical degrees out of
phase. • Stationary Armature 3Φ Generator

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• A simple diagram of a three-phase alternator and a
three-phase voltage diagram are shown in Fig.
• The alternator output windings are connected in
either of two ways – the wye connection and the
delta connection.

• Three-phase system: construction features

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Wye Connection
• In the wye connection of Figure 2-13(a), the beginnings or ends of each winding are connected
together.
• The other sides of the windings are the ac lines which extend from the alternator.
• The voltage across the power lines is called line voltage (VL).
• Line voltage is higher than the voltage across each phase. Line voltage (VL) is equal to the square
root of 3 (1.73) multiplied by the voltage across the phase windings (Vp), or VL =Vp X 1.73
• The line current (IL) is equal to the phase current (Ip), or IL = Ip.

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Delta Connection
• In the delta connection, shown in Fig. the end of the phase windings is connected to the beginning
• of the next phase winding.
• Line voltage (VL) is equal to the phase current (Ip) multiplied by 3 @ 1.73, or IL =Ip  1.73.

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• Three-phase power is used mainly for high-power industrial and commercial equipment. The
power produced by three-phase generators is a more constant output than that of single-phase
power.
• Three-phase power is more economical to supply energy to the large motors that are often used in
industries.
• Three separate single-phase voltages can be delivered from a three phase power system.
• It is more economical to distribute three-phase power from power plants to homes, cities,
• and industries.
• Three conductors are needed to distribute three-phase voltage.
• Six conductors are necessary for three separate single-phase systems.
• Equipment that uses three-phase power is smaller in size than similar single-phase equipment.
• It saves energy to use three phase power whenever possible.

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Power in Balance 3Phase Load

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Balance Load
• Balanced loads, in a 3f system, have identical impedance in each secondary winding (refer fig).
• The impedance of each winding in a delta load is shown as ZD (Fig. a), and the impedencein a wye load is
shown as Zy (Fig. b).
• For either the delta or wye connection, the lines A,B, and C supply a 3f system of voltages.

• In a balanced delta load, the line voltage (VL) is equal to the phase voltage (Vf), and the line
current (IL) is equal to the square root of three times the phase current ( 3I )
f

VL = V
I L = 3 If

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Balance WYE
• In a balanced wye load, the line voltage (VL) is equal to the square root of three times phase
• voltage ( 3V ) and line current (IL) is equal to the phase current (If).
f

I L = I
VL = 3Vf

• Because the impedance of each phase of a balanced delta or wye load has equal current, phase power is one
third of the total power.
• The mathematical representation for phase power (Pf) in a balanced delta or wye load is given by

Pf = Vf If cos f

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Total Power
• Total power (PT) is equal to three times the single-phase power.
• the mathematical representation for total power in a balanced delta
or wye load is given by:

PT = 3Vf If cos f

• For Wye /Delta connection load,

PT = 3VL I L cos 

• The total power formulas for delta- and wye-connected loads are identical

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Power Triangle
• Total apparent power (ST) in volt-amperes and total reactive power (QT) in volt-amperes-reactiveare related to
total real power (PT) in Watts.
• A balanced three-phase load has the real,
apparent, and reactive powers given by:

PT = 3VL I L cos 
ST = 3VL I L
QT = 3VL I L sin 

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Example 6
Each phase of a delta- connected 3f AC generator supplies a full
load current of 200 A at 440 volts with a 0.6 lagging power factor,
as shown in Figure. Calculate . VL, IL, PT, QT, and ST

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Solution

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Example 7
• Each phase of a wye- connected 3f AC generator supplies a 100 A
current at a phase voltage of 240V and a power factor of 0.9 lagging,
as shown in Figure. Determine VL, PT, QT & ST

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Solution

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Unbalanced Load
• An important property of a three-phase balanced system is that the
phasor sum of the three line or phase voltages is zero, and the phasor
sum of the three line or phase currents is zero.
• When the three load impedances are not equal to one another, the
phasor sums and the neutral current (In) are not zero, and the load is,
therefore, unbalanced.
• The imbalance occurs when an open or short circuit appears at the
load.
• If a three-phase system has an unbalanced load and an unbalanced
power source, the methods of fixing the system are complex.
• Therefore, we will only consider an unbalanced load with a balanced
power source.

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Example 8
• A 3f balanced system, as shown in Fig, contains a wye load. The line-to- line voltage is 240V, and the
resistance is 40 W in each branch. Find line current and neutral current for the following load conditions.
i. balanced load (Fig.a)
ii. open circuit phase A (Fig. b)
iii. short circuit in phase A (Fig. c)
•

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Solution

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• In a fault condition, the neutral connection in a wye-connected load will carry more current than the phase
under a balanced load.
• Unbalanced three-phase circuits are indicated by abnormally high currents in one or more of the phases.
• This may cause damage to equipment if the imbalance is allowed to continue.

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