1|Page

myF-09 Xl;l kpd;dpay;

V
gjhu;j;jq;fs; mtw;wpd; kpd; flj;Jk; ,ay;gpd;
mbg;gilapy; flj;jp > Fiw flj;jp > fhtyp vd
tifg; gLj;jg;gLk;. R

 flj;jp : jk;%lhf kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij gha

mDkjpg;git.
c-k; : Cu , Al , Au ,Ag A

flj;jpA+lhd kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F fhuzk; RahjPd

,yj;jpud;fshFk;. Rw;wpd; (+) Kbtplk; mk;gpau;khdpapd; (+)
flj;jpapd; ntg;gepiy mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ mjd; jil Kbtplj;JlDk; > Rw;wpd; (-) Kbtplk;
mjpfupf;Fk;. mk;gpau;khdpapd; (-) Kbtplj;JlDk; ,izf;fg;gl
Ntz;Lk;.
R
kpd;dOj;j NtWghL (V)
flj;jp xd;wpd; xU Gs;spapypUe;J ,d;DNkhu;
Gs;spf;F XuyF kpd; fzpak; ghAk; NghJ nra;ag;
gLk; Ntiy { ntspaplg; gLk; rf;jp mg; Gs;spfSf;F
,ilapyhd kpd;dOj;j NtWghL vdg;gLk;.

𝐻
 Fiw flj;jp : jk;%lhf kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij gha V=𝑄
mupjhf mDkjpg;git. ,jd; myF V or J C-1 MFk;.
kpd;dOj;j NtWghl;il msf;f Nthy;w;Wkhdp
c-k; : Si Ge
gad;gLk;.
Fiw flj;jpA+lhd kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;F fhuzk; Nthy;w;Wkhdp kpd; Rw;wpy; rkhe;jukhf ,izf;fg;
,yj;jpud;fSk; > JisfSk; MFk;. gLk;.

 fhtyp : jk;%lhf kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij gha

mDkjpf;fhjit fhtyp vdg;gLk;.
V
kpd; fdpak; (Q)
Fwpj;j Neuj;jpy; gha;e;j kpd;Ndw;wj;jpd; msT Nthy;w;WkhdpA+lhf rpwpa kpd;Ndhl;lk; gha;tjhy;
kpd; fdpak; vdg;gLk;. mJ fhl;Lk; thrpg;G ,w;F FWf;Nfahd mOj;j
,jd; myF C ( $Nyhk; ) MFk;. NtWghl;bYk; FiwT.
kpd;Ndhl;lk; MfNt Nthy;w;Wkhdp cau; jilia nfhz;bUf;f
XuyF Neuj;jpy; ghAk; kpd;Ndw;wj;jpd; msT. Ntz;Lk;.
Xkpd; tpjp
t Neuj;jpy; ghAk; kpd;Ndw;wk; - Q ntg;gepiy Nghd;w ngsjpf epiyikfs; khwhJ
𝑄
XuyF Neuj;jpy; ghAk; kpd;Ndw;wk; - cs;sNghJ Fwpj;j flj;jp xd;wpD}lhd kpd;Ndhl;lk;
𝑡
𝑄 mjd; Kidf;F FWf;Nfahd mOj;j NtWghl;bw;F
∴ I= 𝑡 Neu;tpfpj rkdhFk;.
,jd; myF A; (Ampere) / Cs-1 MFk;. ,q;F tpfpj rk khwpyp R MFk;. V
1A = 103 mA = 106 μA V∝I
kpd;Ndhl;lk; Neu; Vw;wk; ghAk; jpirf;F vjpu; V=I R
jpirapy; ghAk;. m= R
kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij msf;f mk;gpau;khdp gad;
gLk;. Y=mx
mk;gpau;khdp kpd; Rw;wpy; njhluhf ,izf;fg; jilapd; ,d; myF VA-1 / Ω MFk;. I
gLk;.

Safana Samad Bsc(r) 0775678725 [email protected]

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ntg;gepiy mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ gjhu;j;jq;fspd; I-V 𝑅∝𝑙

tiuGfs; 1
01. Xkpaf; flj;jpfSf;F 03. re;jp ,Uthap 𝑅∝
𝐴
𝑙
I I 𝑅∝
𝐴
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
V 𝑅𝐴
V 𝜌 −jilj;jpwd; > ρ= 𝑙
𝜌 ,d; myF 𝛺𝑚 MFk;.
𝐷2
(𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑜𝑟 𝜋 )
4

02. ,io tpsf;F OR fdtsT khwhJ ,Uf;f

; ePsk; khWk; NghJ
𝑙
I I 𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
𝑉
(fdtsT)𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙 ∴ A= 𝑙
V 𝑙2 𝜌
V 𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑉 (𝑉= k)
R∝𝑙 2

fdtsT khwhJ ,Uf;f

; FWf;F ntl;Lg; gug;G
04. jq;Fjd; ,io 05. fhtyp { Fiw flj;jp khWk; NghJ
I I 𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴
𝑉
(fdtsT)𝑉 = 𝐴𝑙 ∴ 𝑙 = 𝐴
V 𝑉
V 𝑅=𝜌 2
𝐴
1
R∝𝐴2
1
(A=π𝑟 2 ) ∴ R∝𝑟 4
flj;Jjpwd; (K)
flj;jp xd;wpd; jilapd; jiyfPo; ngWkhdk;.
06. ntg;g jilir 07. ntg;g ,Uthap 1
𝐾 = 𝑅 = Ω−1 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 (irkd;]);
I ntg;gepiyAld; jilapd; khwy;
I 𝜊
𝑅0 = 0 𝐶,y; jil
𝑅𝜃 = 𝜃°𝐶 ,y; jil
α = jil ntg;gepiyf; Fzfk;.
θ = ntg;gepiy
vdpd; >
 jputpak; xd;wpd; ntg;gepiyia 1℃ My;
V V mjpfupf;Fk; NghJ mjpy; Vw;gLk; jil
mjpfupg;Gf;Fk; 0 ℃ ,y; Vw;gLk; jilf;Fk;
ntg;gepiy khwhjNghJ jil jq;fpAs;s fhuzpfs; ,ilapy; cs;s tpfpjk; ∝ MFk;.

𝑅𝜃 − 𝑅0
𝑙 ∝=
𝑅0 𝛼
𝑅𝜃 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼𝜃)
𝐴 ∝ ,d; myF : K-1 / ℃-1
∝ ntg;gepiyapy; jq;fpapUf;Fk;.(+) & (-)
ngWkhdq;fis vLf;Fk;.

Safana Samad Bsc(r) 0775678725 [email protected]

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nka;rdu; tpistpd; FiwghLfs;

𝑅𝜃 mtw;iw kpf Fiwe;j ntg;gepiyf;F nfhz;L tu
Ntz;bAs;sJ.mjw;F kpf nrythFk;.MfNt >
miw ntg;gepiyapy; kP flj;Jk; ,ay;igf; fhl;Lk;
kPflj;jpfs; fz;Lgpbf;fg; gl Ntz;Lk;.
𝑅0
Fwpg;G :-
𝜃°𝐶 Vw;wj; Jzpf;iffs; miyT ,af;fj;ij Mw;Wk;
Nghjhd kpd;Ndhl;lk;
kPflj;jp
ρ/ Ωm q

Nq

TC ntg;gepiy { K
xU Vw;wk; q 1 sec ,y; xU miyit Vw;gLj;Jk;
NghJ mg; gug;gpD}L nry;Yk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; (I)
 nghJthf flj;jpfspd; jilj;jpwd;>
ntg;gepiy FiwtilAk; NghJ 𝐼=𝑞
FiwtilAk;. ntg;gepiy NkYk; 1 sec ,y N Rw;wy;fs; vdpy; > 𝐼 = 𝑁𝑞
𝑞
FiwtilAk; NghJ rpy flj;jpfs; { vdpDk; > 𝐼 = 𝑡 𝑡 −miyTfhyk; (T) vdpy; >
jputpaq;fspd; jilj;jpwd; (σ) 0 𝑞
ngWkhdj;ij vLf;fpwJ. 𝐼=
𝑇
 ,t;thW jho; ntg;gepiyapy; kpd; jil 1
= 𝑓 vdpy; > 𝐼 = 𝑞𝑓
Kw;whf mw;Wg;NghFk; flj;jpfs; kPflj;jpfs; 𝑇
𝜔 𝜔
vdg;gLk;. 𝑓= ∴ 𝐼 = 𝑞 2𝜋
2𝜋
 mt; ntg;gepiy khWepiy {mtjp 𝜔=
𝑉 𝑞𝑉
> 𝐼 = 2𝜋𝑟
ntg;gepiy vdg;gLk;. 𝑟

 ,f; flj;jpfs; rhjhuz ntg;gepiyapy; jilfspd; Nru;khzk;

flj;jpahfTk; > mtjp ntg;gepiyapy; 01. njhlu; ,izg;G
kPflj;jp ahfTk; njhopw;gLk;.
R1 R2 R
Eg:- Zn Al In Sn Mg Pb ⟹
𝐼 𝐼
kPflj;jpapd; ,ay;Gfs; V1 V2 V
1. kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij njhlu;e;J nrYj;j kpd;
Kjy; Njitapy;iy. vy;yh jilfs; ClhfTk; xNu msthd
2. vk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;Fk; flj;jp kpd;Ndhl;lk; nry;yj; jf;fthW > fpisfs; ,y;yhj
ntg;gkilahJ > cUfhJ. ,izg;G.
3. nka;rdu; tpisTf;Fl;gLk;. ,t; ,izg;gpy; nkhj;j mOj;j NtWghL
kPflj;jpapd; gad;fs; xt;nthd;Wf;Fk; FWf;NfAs;s mOj;j
1. fhe;jg; gupT tpk;g myfpLk; fUtp. (MRI NtWghLfspd; ml;ru fzpj $l;Lj; njhif MFk;.
,t; ,izg;gpd; NghJ rkhdj; jil mjpfupf;Fk;.
Scanner ) mr; rkhdj; jil Rw;wpYs;s kpfg; ngupa jilapYk;
ngupjhf ,Uf;Fk;.
nka;rdu; tpisT
kPflj;jpahdJ fhe;jg;Gyq;fis jd;D}Nl
nry;ytplhJ ntspNehf;fp js;Sk; tpisT V=V1 + V2+V3
nka;rdu; tpisT vdg;gLk;. IR=I R1 +I R2 + IR3
R=R1 +R2 + R3
nka;rdu; tpistpd; gad;fs; Fwpg;G :-
1. mjpAau; Ntf Gifapujj;jpd; ,af;fj;jpw;F
 XNu ngWkhdKila n vz;zpf;ifahd
cjTfpwJ.
jilfs;; njhluhf ,izf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;
2. G+kpapDs; Gije;Js;s cNyhfq;fis
NghJ >
fz;lwpa cjTfpwJ.

Safana Samad Bsc(r) 0775678725 [email protected]

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Req = R+R=R+……………Nr  rkhe;jukhfj; njhLf;fg;gl;l jilapfis

Req = Nr kpd;Ndhl;lg; gpupg;ghfg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
 njhluhfj; njhLf;fg;gl;l jilapfis I1
mOj;jg; gpupg;ghfg; gad;gLj;jyhk;.
I R2 I
02. rkhe;ju ,izg;G
I2
R1
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (V-khwpyp)
1
𝐼∝
𝑅
𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅2
V 𝐼1 𝑅2
vy;yh jilfSf;F FWf;NfAk; xNu msthd =
𝐼2 𝑅1
mOj;j NtWghL ,Uf;fj; jf;fjhf Kbtplq;fis
xd;whf Nru;j;J ,izj;jyhFk;.
Rw;wpD}lhd nkhj;j kpd;Ndhl;lk; jilfspD}lhd ctpj;jd; ghyk; ( WHEATSTONE BRIDGE )
kpd;Ndhl;lq;fspd; $l;Lj; njhiff;F rkd;.
,t; ,izg;gpd; NghJ rkhdj; jil FiwtilAk;.
mr; rkhdj; jil Rw;wpYs;s Fiwe;j jilapYk;
Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk;.
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= + +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Fwpg;G :-
 XNu ngWkhdKila n vz;zpf;ifahd
jilfs;; rkhe;jukhf ,izf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk;
NghJ >  ehd;F jilfs; ehw;gf;fy; tbtpy;
1 1 1 1 1 ,izf;fg;gl;L xU %iyapD}lhf
= + + …………+ EisAk; kpd;Ndhl;lk; vjpu; %iyapD}lhf
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅𝑛
1 𝑛 ntspNawj;jf;fjhf mikf;fg;gLk; Rw;W
= ctpj;jd; ghyr; Rw;W vdg;gLk;.
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅  ,jd; mLj;j %iyf;F FWf;Nf
𝑅 kpd;Ndhl;lk; nry;tij cWjp nra;a >
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑛 ikag; G+r;rpa fy;tNdhkhdp xd;W
 XNu ngWkhdKila ,U jilfs;; ,izf;fg;gLk;.
rkhe;jukhf ,izf;fg; gl;bUf;Fk; NghJ >  fy;tNdhkhdp G+r;rpa jpUk;giy
1 1 1 fhl;Lk;NghJ ctpj;jd; ghyk; rkdpiyapy;
= + cs;sJ vdf; nfhs;sg;gLk;.
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝑅2 𝑅1  ctpj;jd; ghyk; rkdpiyapy; cs;sNghJ >
= +  Gs;sp B Ak; D Ak; xNu mOj;jj;jpy;
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2
,Uf;Fk;.
1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2  fy;tNdhkhdp G+r;rpa jpUk;giy
= fhl;Lk;.
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2
 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝐷 & 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶
 AB A+lhd kpd;Ndhl;lk; = BC A+lhd
𝑅1 𝑅2 kpd;Ndhl;lk;.
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2  AD A+lhd kpd;Ndhl;lk; = DC A+lhd
kpd;Ndhl;lk;.

Safana Samad Bsc(r) 0775678725 [email protected]

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𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝐷
𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅------------(1) kpd; Rw;nwhd;wpy; ahNjDk; re;jpia Nehf;fpg; ghAk;
Xl;lq;fspd; ml;rufzpjf; $l;Lj;njhif
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐷𝐶 g+r;rpakhFk;.
𝐼1 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑋------------(2)
(1) 𝑃 𝑅 fpu;f;Nfhgpd; ,uz;lhk; tpjp
⁄(2) ⟹ =
𝑄 𝑆
𝑃 𝑅  kpd;Rw;W tiynahd;wpy; ahNjDk; %ba
 = vdpd; > BD ,w;F FWf;Nf jlnkhd;wpd; IR ngWf;fq;fspd;
𝑄 𝑆 ml;rufzpjf; $l;Lj;njhifahdJ> jlj;jpy;
,izf;fg;gLk; jilA+lhf kpd;Ndhl;lk; cs;s kpd;dpaf;f tpirfspd; ml;ru
ghahJ. fzpjf; $l;Lj;njhiff;Fr; rkkhdJ.
εΕ = ε IR
mOj;jg; gpupifr; Rw;W
jug;gl;l Xu; mOj;j NtWghl;by ,Ue;J Njitahd cjhuzk; (1)
mOj;j NtWghl;il ngWtjw;fhd Rw;W mOj;jg;
ABCDA Rw;Wf;fhf> fpu;f;Nfhgpd; ,uz;lhtJ
gpupifr; Rw;W vdg;gLk;. tpjpapd; gb
V0 = IR1+IR2 E1 + E2 = I r1 + I r2 + IR
I V0 = I(R1+R2) 𝐸1
D C
𝑉0
R1 I=(R1+R2) 𝑟1 R
V=IR2 I
V0 𝐸2
R2 𝑉𝑅
V V= (𝑅 0+𝑅2
1 2) A B
𝑟2
cjhuzk; (2)
,q;F > 𝐸1 R
D C
ρl 𝑟1
V0 =IR ; V0 =I 𝐴

𝑉𝐴
0
𝐸2
I= 𝜌𝑙
A 𝑟2
I ABCDA Rw;Wf;fhf> fpu;f;Nfhgpd; ,uz;lhtJ
L
R1 tpjpapd; gb
x E1 - E2 = I r1 + I r2 + IR
V0 cjhuzk; (3)
R2
V A 𝐼1 x 𝑅1 D
𝐸3 𝐸1
𝐼2 𝐸2 𝑅2
V=IR B C
(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) y
𝑉0 𝐴 𝜌𝑥
v=
𝜌𝑙 𝐴
E
R F
𝑉0
V= 𝑥 ABCDxA
𝐿
𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = (−𝐼2 𝑅2 ) + 𝐼1 𝑅1
yBEFCy
𝐸2 + 𝐸3 = (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )𝑅

fpu;f;Nfhgpd;; tpjp ( Kirchchoff’s Law ) kpd;fyk;

fpu;f;Nfhgpd; Kjyhk; tpjp  FwpaPL + -


 kpd;Rw;W xd;Wf;F rf;jpia toq;f kpd; fyq;fs;
gad;gLk;.

Safana Samad Bsc(r) 0775678725 [email protected]

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 (+) Kid vg;nghOJk; cau; mOj;jj;jpy;  kpd;fyk; kpd; gpwg;gpf;fg;gLk; NghJ >
,Uf;Fk;. mjhtJ kpd;Rw;Wf;F kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij
 kpd; fyq;fs; ,yj;jpud;fisNah { toq;Fk;NghJ >
Vw;wf;fhtpfisNah cw;gj;jp nra;tjpy;iy. (1)
khwhf mtw;iw ,af;f Njitahd kpd;dpaf;f E
I
tpiria toq;Fk;. A B
r
V
kpd;dpaf;f tpir (E)
 XU kpd; fyk; Fwpj;j kpd; Rw;wpYs;s NghJ> 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟
{ kpd; fyj;jpD}lhf kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghahj V=𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
NghJ mjd; KidfSf;F FWf;NfAs;s (2)
mOj;j NtWghL kpd;dpaf;f tpir MFk;. I E
A B
 my;yJ > r
kpd; fyj;jpD}lhf kpd;Ndhl;lk; V
nry;Yk; NghJ > mk; kpd; fyk;
gpwg;gpf;Fk; tYtpw;Fk; > mjpypUe;J 𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑟
Njhw;Wtpf;Fk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpw;Fk; 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
,ilapYs;s tpfpjk; kpd;dpaf;f (3)
tpir MFk;.
𝑃 = 𝐸𝐼 R I E
kpd; fyj;jpd; mfj;jil (r) A B
r
 kpd; fynkhd;W %ba Rw;nwhd;wpy; V
,Uf;Fk; N;ghJ mjd; KidfSf;F
,ilapyhd mOj;j tpj;jpahrk; MdJ 𝐸 = 𝑉 − 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
fyj;jpd; Clhf kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk;NghJ 𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
cs;s kpd;dpaf;f tpiriatplf; Fiwe;j 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
ngWkhdj;ijg; ngWk;. mjw;fhd fhuzk;  ,e; epiyapy; kpd; fyk; kpd;Ndw;wg;gLk;.
kpd;fyj;jpd; Clhf Xl;lj;jpd; gha;r;rYf;Fj;
jil fhzg;gLfpd;wikahFk;. (4)
 kpd;fynkhd;wpy; fhzg;gLk; ,j;jilahdJ R I E
kpd;fyj;jpd; mfj; jilahFk;. A B
r
≡ V
r r 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
KidtOj;j NtWghL (V) 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼(𝑅 + 𝑟)
 XU kpd; fyk; %ba kpd; Rw;wpYs;s NghJ> { 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
kpd; fyj;jpD}lhf kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk; NghJ  ,e; epiyapy; kpd; fyk; kpd;dpwf;fkilAk;.
mjd; KidfSf;F FWf;NfAs;s mOj;j
NtWghL mjd; KidtOj;j NtWghL Fwpg;G :
vdg;gLk;.  fyj;jpypUe;J Xl;lk; ntspNa ghAk;NghJ
A D fyj;jpd; KidfSf;F ,ilapyhd mOj;j
tpj;jpahrk; 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟 %yk; fhl;lg;gLk;.
 fyk; kpd;Ndw;wkilAkhW fyj;jpDs;
Xl;lk; ghAk; NghJ KidfSf;F
,ilapyhd mOj;j tpj;jpahrkhdJ 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑟
R ,dhy; fhl;lg;gLk;.
B C
kpd; fyj;jpd; kpd;dpaf;f tpir - E kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; ntg;gtpisT
kpd;fyj;jpd; mfj; jil – r  xU jilapD}lhf kpd;Ndhl;lk; ghAk;NghJ>
ntspj;jil – R kpd; rf;jp ntg;grf;jpahf khw;wg;gLk;.
Rw;wpD}lhd kpd;Ndhl;lk; - I  ,t; ntg;g rf;jp [_ypd; tpjpapdhy; jug;gLk;.
KidtOj;j NtWghL – V [_ypd; tpjp
ABCD w;F fpu;f;Nfhgpd; ,uz;lhtJ tpjpapd; gb >  kpd;NdhLk; flj;jpnahd;wpy; gpwg;gpf;fg;gLk;
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝐼𝑅 − − − − − − − (1) ntg;grf;jpahdJ>
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝑉  mjD}lhd kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; tu;f;fj;jpw;Fk;
(1) ,ypUe;J > 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟  mf; flj;jpapd; jilf;Fk;
 kpd;Ndhl;lk; nrYj;jg;gl;l Neuj;jpw;Fk;
Neu;tpfpj rkd;.

Safana Samad Bsc(r) 0775678725 [email protected]

7|Page

𝐻 ∝ 𝐼2  Neuj;ij ,uz;L klq;fhfTk; > %d;W

∝𝑅 klq;fhfTk; mjpfupj;J > ntg;gepiy
∝𝑡 NtWghl;il kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; msf;Ff.
𝐻 ∝ 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡  mtjhdk; : -
Neumjpfupg;Gld; ntg;gepiy NtWghLk;
 𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡-------------(1) mjpfupj;jJ.
 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 ∴ 𝐻 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡--------(2) gbKiw 02
 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡 ∴ 𝐻 = 𝑉𝑄---------(3)
𝑉 𝑉2  ,upa epWj;jp %yk; kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij
 𝐼 = 𝑅 ∴ 𝐻 = 𝑅 𝑡---------(4) khw;wpathW rk Neu ,ilntspfspy;
kpd; tY (P) ntg;gepiy NtWghl;il kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk;
 rf;jp tpuakhFk; { gad;gLj;jg; gLk; tPjk; msf;Ff.
kpd; tYthFk;.  mtjhdk; :-
𝐻 kpd;Ndhl;lj;jpd; mjpfupg;Gld; ntg;gepiy
𝑃= NtWghLk; mjpfupj;jJ.
𝑡 gbKiw 03
𝐻 = 𝑃𝑡 − − − − − −(5)
(1), (5) ⇒  kpd;Ndhl;lj;ij khw;whJ > ,iuNahjw;iw
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 − − − −(6) nrg;gk; nra;J > jilia gbg;gbahf
(2), (4) ⇒ mjpfupj;J (t) Neuj;jpy; ntg;gepiy
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 − − − (7) NtWghl;il kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; msf;Ff.
(4), (5) ⇒  mtjhdk; :-
𝑉2 jil mjpfupg;Gld; ntg;gepiy NtWghLk;
𝑃= − − − (8) mjpfupj;jJ.
𝑅
KbT :-
kpd;Nd
; hl;lj;jpd;; ntg;gtpisT kPJ nry;thf;F
nrYj;Jk; fhuzpfs;  jilapd; ntg;g tpisT Neuk; >
1 kpd;Ndhl;lk; > jilAld; mjpfupj;jJ.
2 MfNt >
jilapd; ntg;g tpistpy; Neuk; >
kpd;Ndhl;lk; > jil vd;gd
3
nry;thf;Fr; nrYj;Jfpd;wd.
9 7
gupNrhjid tOf;fSk; Kw;fhg;Gf;fSk;
4 01. ntg;gepiy > kpd;Ndhl;lk; Nghd;wtw;iw
8 5 mstpLtjw;F gad;gLj;Jk; fUtpfs;
rupahf mstPL nra;a ; g;glhtpl;lhy; > mJ
1-mk;gpau;khzp 2- ntg;gkhzp 3- fyf;fp jtwhd KbTfSf;F top tFf;Fk;. MfNt
gupNrhjidia elj;Jtjw;F Kd; midj;J
4- Kfit 5- Njq;fha; vz;nza; mstPl;Lf; fUtpfSk; rupahf mstPL
nra;ag;gl;Ls;sjh vd;gij
6- epf;Nwhk; fk;gpr;RUs; 7- Msp(s) cWjpg;gLj;jTk;.
8- ,iuNahjw;W (,upa epWj;jp ) 02. Rw;Wr; R+oy; ntg;gepiy Vw;w ,wf;fq;fs;
kpd;Nd
; hl;lj;jpd;; ntg;gtpisit
9- kpd; fyk; ghjpf;fyhk;. MfNt fl;Lg; gLj;jg;gl;l
R+oypy; gupNrhjidia elj;jTk;.
 Njq;fhnaz;nza; mlq;fpAs;s
Kfitnahd;wpDs; epf;Fnuhk; fk;gpr; RUs;
xd;wpid mkpo;j;jp> RUspd; ,uz;L
KidfSf;fpilNa glj;jpy; fhl;bAs;sthW
,upa epWj;jp> mk;gpau;khdp> Msp> kpd;fyk;
Mfpatw;iwj; njhLj;Jr; Rw;iw
mikf;Ff.
gbKiw 01
 Mspia %b > ,iuNahjw;iw nrg;;gQ;
nra;J khwh kpd;Ndhl;lk; I I t Neuj;jpw;F
Rw;wpD}lhf nrYj;jp Njq;fha; vz;nzapd;
ntg;gepiy cau;it mtjhzpf;Ff.

Safana Samad Bsc(r) 0775678725 [email protected]