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CHAPTER TWO 2.1. Introduction

THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN Geology: studies the evolution of the earth, the materials of which it is
made of, and the processes acting upon them.
• concerned with events that took place in the remote past ( under the
Objectives of the Chapter earth’s surface) when no one was around to witness them.
Geological understanding can therefore be obtained by inference, using
After completing this chapter, the students will be able to: clues from what can be seen and what can be measured.
 Direct method (rock samples)
• Analyze the geologic processes and the resultant land forms of  Indirect methods (use of seismic waves)
There are many such clues not only the rocks and landforms which can
Ethiopia and the Horn.
be observed and studied at the Earth’s surface, in addition provided by:
*Geological time scale and age dating technique - geophysics (e.g. studying earthquake waves which can penetrate deep
beneath the Earths surface),
• Examine the formation of the Rift Valley.
- geochemistry (analysis of the detailed composition of rocks which can
• Recognize the current status of Ethiopian mineral endowment give clues as to their origin) and
- geochronology (methods for finding the ages of rocks, usually from the
associated with geologic processes.
radioactive elements they contain).
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2.1. Introduction cont.…

German Climatologist Alfred Wegener proposed the hypothesis that the continents
were once assembled together as a supercontinent, called the Continental Drift
Theory.
The earth’s continents were once bunched up together in to a single huge continent
called Pangaea. The large super continent was then split into Gondwanaland and
Laurasia.

Wegener’s principal observations were:

• Fit of the continents: opposing coastlines of continents often fit
together
• Match of mountain belts, rock types: Ex. mountains in West Africa,
North America, Greenland, and Western Europe match up.
• Distribution of fossils: The distribution of plants and animal
fossils on separate continents forms definite linked patterns
• Paleoclimates: rocks formed 200 million years ago in India,
Australia, South America, and southern Africa all exhibited evidence
of continental glaciations. 28 29
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2.3. The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques

2.2. The Geologic Processes • The Eras are given names that indicate the kind of life that existed
These processes are divided into two major groups: Endogenic and in them.
Exogenic Forces For instance the,
Endogenic (internal) Processes:  Paleozoic Era (ancient life) is the age of invertebrates,
• Include volcanic activity and all the tectonic processes (folding,
faulting, orogenesis (mountain building), and epeirogenesis (slow  Mesozoic Era (the middle life) is the age of reptiles,
rising and sinking of the landmass).
 Cenozoic Era (recent life) is the age of mammals.
• Result in building of structural and volcanic features like plateaus,
rift valleys, Block Mountains, volcanic mountains, etc. and These geological time divisions basically differ from each other in
Exogenic (external) processes. such characteristics as the;
• Are geomorphic processes.
• They include weathering, mass transfer, erosion and deposition. • relative position of land and sea, kind of climate and
• They act upon the volcanic and structural landforms by modifying,
• most important the kind of animal and plant life that developed and
roughening and lowering them down.
existed during that Era or period.
The land mass of Ethiopia is the result of combined effect of both
 Geological time is difficult to measure precisely.
processes. 30 31

The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques … The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques …
• The Earth is believed to have been formed ~ 4.5 billion years ago
and the earliest forms of life originated ~ 3.5 billion years ago. • The division of time units in the geological time scale is usually
based on the occurrence of significant geological events (e.g. mass
• The first major boundary is defined by what was believed at the time extinctions).
to be the first appearance of life on earth. The span of time before life • As such, the geological time categories DO NOT usually consist of
appeared was termed the Precambrian Era. a uniform length of time.
• To describe the geology and history of life on Earth, scientists have
developed the geological time scale.
The geological time scale measures time on a scale involving four main  Refer: Table 2.1: The Geological time scale
units:Chronologically,
1. An epoch is the smallest unit and encompasses a period of millions
of years.
2. epochs are clumped together into larger units called periods.
3. Periods are combined to make subdivisions called Eras.
4. An eon is the largest period of geological time.
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The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques … The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating Techniques …
Age Dating Techniques Age Dating Techniques…
There are two techniques of knowing the age of rocks: Relative and B. Absolute Dating or Radiometric Techniques
absolute age dating. The regular rates of decay for unstable, radioactive elements were
A. Relative Dating found to constitute virtual “clocks” within the earth’s rocks.
Relative dating uses geological evidence to assign comparative ages • All elements contain protons and neutrons, located in the atomic
of fossils. Hence, we can use two ways to know the relative age of a nucleus, and electrons that orbit around the nucleus
rock:
• In each element, the number of protons is constant while the
• One way is to look at any fossils the rock may contain. If any of number of neutrons and electrons can vary.
the fossils are unique to one of the geologic time periods, then the • Atoms of the same element but with different number of neutrons
rock was formed during that particular time period. are called isotopes of that element.
• The second way is to use the "What is on top of the older • Most isotopes found on Earth are generally stable and do not
rocks?" When you find layers of rocks in a cliff or hillside, change. However some isotopes, like 14C, have an unstable
younger rocks are on top of older rocks. nucleus and are radioactive.

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Absolute Dating or Radiometric Techniques… Types Absolute Dating or Radiometric Technique

 This means that occasionally the unstable isotope will change its Two major types : Carbon – 14 and Potassium-Argon Technique
number of protons, neutrons, or both.
A. Carbon-14 Technique: Upon the organism`s death, carbon-14
 This change is called radioactive decay. Ex. Figure a: 14C→14N begins to disintegrate at a known rate, and no further replacement
Every radioactive of carbon from atmospheric carbon dioxide can take place.
element has its own half- • Carbon-14 has half-life of 5730 years.
life. B. Potassium-Argon Technique: The decay is widely used for dating
 At the end of the period rocks. Geologists are able to date entire rock samples in this way,
constituting one half-life, because potassium-40 is abundant in micas, feldspars, and
half of the original hornblendes.
quantity of radioactive • Leakage of argon is a problem if the rock has been exposed to
element has decayed; after temperatures above 125° C (257° F), because the age of the rock
another half-life, half of will then reflect the last episode of heating rather than the time of
what was left is halved original rock formation.
again, leaving one- fourth
of the original, and so on.
Ex. Figure b 36 37
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2.4.1. The Precambrian Era Geologic Processes (4.5 billion - 600

2.4. Geological Processes and the Resulting Landforms of Ethiopia million years ago)- Covers 5/6th of the Earth’s history.
and the Horn  Due to its remoteness in time and the absence of well-preserved

Activity fossils, our knowledge of the events is limited.

• The major geologic event of the Precambrian Era was Orogenesis. As
1. Distinguish between endogenic and exogenic processes. a result the land was: subjected to intense folding, accompanied by
intrusive igneous activity and resulting in the formation of huge
2. What are the major geological processes and the resulting
mountain ranges.
landforms of Ethiopia and the Horn in each Era?
• In between the orogenic periods and after the last orogenesis, there
were long periods of denudation, which finally reduced these
mountains to near-level (peneplained) rock surfaces.
• This “levelled” surface was later (in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic
Eras) covered by younger rock formations
• Since these same processes have allowed mineralization and crystal
formation, the rocks are also collectively described as crystalline rocks.
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The Precambrian Era Geologic Processes … 2.4.2. The Paleozoic Era Geologic Processes (600 million - 225 million
years ago) lasted for about 375 million years.
 The Precambrian rocks are overlaid by recent rock formations.  The major geological process of this Era was denudation
However, as surface rocks covering 25% of the land mass of the
 Undulating plain with some residual features (inselbergs) here
country; they are found exposed in the following areas:
and there was formed.
 The sediments were transported southward and eastward
a) A. In the northern part: parts of northern and central Tigray, continentally
b) In the western Part: Gambella, Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel and  Because of the limited deposition within Ethiopia, rocks belonging
to this Era are rare in the country.
Asossa), Western Gojjam, Western Wellega, Illuababora, and Abay
Gorge.

c) In the southern Part: Guji, southern Omo, and parts of southern Bale
and Borena.

d) In the eastern part: Eastern Hararghe.

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2.4.3. The Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes (225-70 million years The Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes…
ago) - lasted for about 155 million years. • These are known as the Adigrat or lower sandstone (Somalia and
• Era of alternate slows sinking and rising (epeirogenesis) of the sotheasten) , Hintalo limestone (northwest) layers
landmass. This process affected the whole present-day Horn of Africa • They are named after place of first identification names in Tigray
and Arabian landmass.  Slow rise of the land and consequently the regression of the sea began
• As the land sank slowly the sea invaded it starting from Somalia and  It continued throughout the Cretaceous period
Ogaden and slowly spreading NW, from late Triassic- Jurassic period.
 With the retreat of the sea, another process of deposition of clay, silt,
• As the shallow sea spread towards the land, sands were deposited sand conglomerate occurred.
over the peneplained Precambrian rock surface.
 Gypsum, shale and at last sands were laid over the Hintalo limestone.
• As the depth of the sea increased, mud (shale), gypsum and later lime
were deposited.  The uppermost layer is known as the Upper sandstone
• With the flourishing of marine life and decaying and precipitating of  The age and thickness of the Sandstone layers vary in a Southeast -
their remains, as the sea stayed long, Mesozoic rocks are considered Northwest direction.
to have the greatest potential for oil and gas deposits. • As transitional formations, gypsum and shale were inter- bedded
• Through time, compression by the overlying rocks and by cementing above and below the Hintalo limestone.
minerals, the sands and lime were compacted to form sandstone and • The Mesozoic sedimentary rocks cover 25% of the land mass of the
limestone layers respectively. 42 country. 43

2.4.4. The Cenozoic Era Geologic Processes (70million years ago -

Present)
Cenozoic era…
Reversed tilting and
• The Cenozoic Era is the most recent of the geologic Eras. volcanic activity

• The present-day landmass of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa is the The major faulting movement
- Red sea rifted in late Cenozioc
result of geologic activities of this Era.
slow rise Huge quantity of lava
came out
 The land was subjected to the following geologic activities:

A. Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring of

huge quantity of lava

B. Formation of the Rift Valley and

C. Volcanism and deposition

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Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring of huge

A. Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and quantity of lava…
outpouring of huge quantity of lava  Huge quantity of lava came out through these fractures
 The uplifting of the whole of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass is a  Which widely and extensively and covered most of Mesozoic
sedimentary layer to form the Ethiopian plateau surface and also the
continuation of the slow rise that began in the Upper Jurassic and
floor of present-day Rift Valley.
Cretaceous periods.  At that time the Rift Valley was not yet formed.
 The lava was so immense, it formed a thick layer of volcanic rocks
 This continued to the Paleocene and Oligocene epoch of the Tertiary
on the plateau Up to > 1,000masl in the north Central Highlands
period.  Where the lava comes out through vents, huge volcanic rocks were
piled up to form many and huge Volcanic Mountains
 Where the uplifting was of greater magnitude, the land was pushed
 This volcanic material is known as Trappean lava or Trap Series lava.
up to a maximum height of 2,000 masl.
 Where it is not dissected by erosion, the Ethiopian plateau had flat and
 This occurred during the Miocene epoch. The greatest uplift was in nearly horizontal surface.
 This is peneplaned Precambrian surfaces, the smothering effect of the
central Ethiopia
Mesozoic deposition, and the spreading of the Trap series lava over
 This immense tectonic force also fractured the crust at many places.
46
the Mesozoic sediments. 47

B. Formation of the Rift Valley Formation of the Rift Valley …

 The formation of the Rift Valley is said to be related with the theory  Rifting and faulting, however, continued all the time throughout the
of plate tectonics. Pliocene and even the Pleistocene Epochs.
According to the theory, the Rift Valley may be lying on the Earth’s  The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden were connected as a result of the
crust below which lateral movement of the crust in opposite directions rifting and faulting of the land bridge that separated them.
producing tensional forces that caused parallel fractures or faults on the  At the same period (Pliocene),
sides of the up-arched swell. the Afar depression (including
 As the tension widened the fractures, the central part of the landmass the Gulf of Zula) was down-
collapsed to form an extensive structural depression known as the Rift faulted allowing the Red Sea
Valley water to penetrate far inside.

 The major faulting movement probably began in the late Oligocene

and Miocene Epochs of the Cenozoic Era.
 This rifted the Red Sea trough, which began to be flooded from the48 N 49
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Formation of the Rift Valley … The Spatial Extent of the Rift Valley…
 Reversed tilting and  The Ethiopian Rift Valley is part of the Great East African Rift system
volcanic activity, later  It extends from Palestine-Jordan in the north to Malawi-Mozambique
(Pleistocene) blocked in the south, for a distance of about 7,200 km.
the connection and  Of these, 5,600 km is in Africa, and 1,700 km in Eritrea & Ethiopia.
isolated the extension of  On land, the widest part of the Rift Valley is the Afar Triangle (200-
the sea, allowing much 300 km).
of the water to
 The Rift Valley region of Ethiopian is geologically the most unstable
evaporate.
part of the country.
 As a result, thick saline
materials accumulated. The formation of the Rift Valley has the following structural
 During the same period, (physiographic) effects:
the area between the  It divides the Ethiopian Plateau into two.
Danakil Depression and  It separates the Arabian landmass from African landmass.
the Red Sea was  It causes the formation of the Dead Sea, Red Sea and the Gulf of
uplifted to form the Aden troughs.
Afar Block Mountains.
 It creates basins and fault depressions on which the Rift Valley 51
lakes are formed.
50

C. Volcanism and deposition Volcanism and deposition …

 They are recent volcanic activities that took place after the formation  The basic volcanic features of the Aden series include the following:
of the Rift Valley.  Numerous and freshly preserved volcanic cones, many of
 This occurred in the Pliocene-Pleistocene Epochs. which have explosive craters. Some of these are active Dubi,
 It occurred in the form of renewed rifting/faulting and more Erta Ale, Afrera etc. Of these, Erta Ale is the most active volcano
volcanism. in Ethiopia.
 This activity was generally limited to the floor of the Rift Valley and  Volcanic hills and mountains, some of which are semi-dormant
the region south of Lake Tana. where the lava covers an area of (Fantale, Boseti-Gouda near Adama, Aletu north of Lake Ziway,
more than 3,000km2. Chebbi north of Lake Hawassa etc.).
 Aden volcanics and recent faulting are more extensively developed  Extensive lava fields and lava sheets some of which are very
in the Afar region. recent.
 The area is shattered by numerous faults and subjected to extensive  Lava ridges.
scoriaceous basalt eruptions.  Thermal springs, fumaroles
 The latter phenomenon is also widely manifested in the main
Ethiopian Rift, especially in its northern section.
 Some of the eruptions have occurred in the last few hundred years. 52 53
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Volcanism and deposition … Volcanism and deposition …

Quaternary Deposition  After the “Pluvial Rains”, the Earth's climate became
warmer and drier.
 During the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic Era, the Earth  Thus, it increased the rate of evaporation that diminished
experienced a marked climatic change the sizes of the lakes.
 Today, there are lacustrine deposits of continental origin
 This was the time of the last:- around many of the Ethiopian lakes, river valleys and
 ‟Ice Age” in the middle and high latitude areas and
lowlands.
 According to the place and manner of deposition and
 “Pluvial Rains” in Africa. depositing agents these deposits are divided as follow.
A. Lacustrine deposits: Deposits on former lakebeds, and swampy depressions.
 The heavy Pluvial Rains eroded the Ethiopian plateau and B. Fluvial deposits: Deposits on the banks of rivers, flood plains both in plateau,
foothills etc.
deposited in the Rift Valley lakes. C. Glacio-fluvial deposits and erosional features: These are occurred on high
mountains, such as Bale and Kaka Mountains.
D. Aeolian deposits: Are windblown deposits.
E. Coastal and marine deposits: Deposits on sea invaded and sea-covered
places.
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2.5. Rock and Mineral Resources of Ethiopia 2.5.1. Brief Facts and Current State of Main Minerals in Ethiopia …
• The occurrence of metallic minerals in Ethiopia is associated with the Gemstones -mainly in Amhara and Oromia Regional States.
Precambrian rocks. Potash: The potash reserve in the Danakil (Dallol Depression) of the
2.5.1. Brief Facts and Current State of Main Minerals in Ethiopia Afar region is believed to be significant.
Gypsum and Anhydrite are found in:-
• Geological surveys proved that Ethiopia has abundant mineral
 Red sea coastal areas, Danakil depression,Ogaden, Gojjam, Tigray
resources.
and Hararghe.
Gold: has been mined in Ethiopia for quite long time, mainly from Clay: Ethiopia is endowed with industrial clay material. Alluvial clay
Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel) and Adola. Mechanised alluvial working deposits for bricks and tile, pottery and pipe industry occur in Adola,
is confined to the state- operated gold field of Adola. Abay gorge, and the Rift Valley lakes region.
Platinum: The Yubdo area in Wellega, is the only active Ethiopian
Platinum mine. Marble: Crystalline limestone is widespread in the basement rocks of
Tantalum: Significant deposit of tantalum is found in southern Ethiopia. Marble has been quarried in such localities as west of Mekelle
Ethiopia. It occurs in Adola area where Kenticha Tantalum mine with and south of Adwa in Tigray.
resources of more than 17,000 metric tons of world class ore reserve is Construction stones: Basalt, granite, limestone and sandstone are
found. important building stones. The earlier cement works at Dire Dawa and
• Extensive lignite deposits in Ethiopia are found in Nejo (wellega).56 the recent ones at Muger Valley, Abay gorge (Dejen), Tigray
(Messebo)are using similar raw materials from these rock formations.
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Cont.….
2.5.2. Mineral Potential Sites of Ethiopia
• According to the Ethiopian geological survey, the geologic
formations that host most mineral potentials of Ethiopia includes
three major greenstone belts and other formations. These are:
1. The Western and South-western-greenstone belt: They contain
various minerals: primary gold occurrences;Yubdo Platinum,
Benshagul-Gumuz Marble, Akobo and Asosa placer gold deposits
and etc.
2. The Southern greenstone belt: It is known as the Adola belt,
which comprises the primary gold deposits and occurrences of
Lega-dembi, Sakaro, Wellega, Moyale and Ababa River; and the
Adola nickel deposit and other industrial minerals.
3. The Northern greenstone belt (Tigray): This belt comprises of
the primary gold occurrences of Terakemti, and Adi-Zeresenay. 58