Mettu University

College of Engineering & Technology

Department of Information Technology (IT)
Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics Devices

Target Group : 2nd year

semester: I

Program: Regular
 Chapter -2
Introduction to Circuit Elements (R, L, C)
 Contents of the chapter:
• Introduction
• Active and passive elements
• Electrical sources:
-Independent sources
-Dependent sources
• Circuit elements:
- Resistors
- Capacitors
- inductors
 Introduction
• An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the
elements.

• Electrical circuit analysis is the process of determining:

 The voltages across the elements
 The currents through the elements of the circuit
 The power absorbed/consumed by the elements & the power
delivered by the source
• Basically, there are two types of elements found in electric circuits:
- Active elements
- Passive elements and
 Cont’d...
• An active element is capable of generating energy i.e
they have their own power supply.
• They consist of an elements like:
- Battery (electrical sources)
- Operational amplifiers (Op-amps)
- Transistors (such as BJT, FET, MOSFET, etc)
• They inject/supply power to the circuit
• controls the current flow/ voltage drop within the circuit-
controllability
• normally non-linear - Linearity
 Cont’d...

• They are energy donors- energy behavior

• They can not store energy – energy storage

• They require an external source to their operation –

operational requirement

• They can amplify the signal because they have gain more
than unity(1) - amplification
 Cont’d...
• Passive elements are incapable of generating energy
because they haven’t their own power supply.
• Passive elements consist of elements such as:

- Resistors – energy absorber

- capacitors energy storage elements
- inductors etc.
• They act as loads or power consumption/dissipation

• They have the capability to store energy drawn from an

active elements and release it latter for purely resistive
circuits
 Cont’d...
• They store energy – energy storage

• Energy acceptors – energy behavior

• mostly fall under linear circuits - Linearity

• Can not amplify the signals because they have gain less than
unity(one) – amplification

• Incapable of controlling current flow and voltage drops in the

circuits – controllability

• They do not require an external source to their operation –

operational requirement
 Cont’d...
• The most important active elements are voltage or current
sources that generally deliver electric power to the circuit
connected to them.
• There are two kinds of electrical sources:
- Independent sources
- Dependent sources.

• An ideal independent source is an active element that

provides a specified voltage or current that is completely
independent of other circuit elements.
 Cont’d...
• An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active
element in which the source quantity is controlled by
another voltage or current (or circuit elements)

i) An ideal independent voltage source is an active element

that provides a specified voltage completely independent
of the current necessary to maintain its terminal voltage.

Used for constant or time-varying voltage Used for constant voltage (dc).
 Cont’d...
ii) An ideal independent current source is an active element
that provides a specified current completely independent of
the voltage across the source.
i.e the current source delivers to the circuit whatever
voltage is necessary to maintain the designated current.

Independent current source.

 Cont’d...
iii) Dependent voltage source generates a voltage that is
determined /controlled by a voltage or current of some
other elements in the circuit.

Dependent voltage source

• Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-

shaped symbols
 Cont’d...
iv) Dependent current source generates a current that is
determined /controlled by a voltage or current of some
other elements in the circuit.

Dependent current source

 Cont’d....
• Basically, there are four possible types of dependent
sources, namely:
- A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
- A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
- A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
- A current-controlled current source (CCCS)
 Electrical Resistance (R)
• Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of
resisting /opposing the flow of electric charge.
• Resistance : the property of the materials that has the
ability to oppose the flow of electric charge.

• Resistor: a device or an electrical component that resists

the flow electric charge through the electrical circuits.

• In a conductor, the charge carriers are the free electrons

which are moved due to the voltage of an externally
applied source
 Cont’d...
• As these electrons move through the material, there is a
collision between electrons and between electrons and
other atomic particles within the conductor due to the
opposition of current flow.
• Finally, the moving electrons give up some of their energy
in the form of heat/temperature.

• These collisions represent an opposition to charge

movement in a conductor that is called resistance.
• The greater the opposition (i.e. the greater the resistance),
the smaller will be the current for a given applied voltage.
 Cont’d...
• The resistance of a material is dependent upon several
factors:
Type of material
Length of the conductor
Cross-sectional area
Temperature

Conductor with a circular cross-section.

Basic resistive circuit
 Cont’d...
• Resistance can be represented in mathematical form:

( (Ω)
Where,
𝜌 = resistivity, in ohm-meters (Ω -m)
l = length of conductor in meters (m)
A = cross-sectional area, in square meters (m2).
• The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to
the type of material and the length of the conductor and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the
conductor
 Cont’d...
Resistivities of some common materials.
 Example

 Calculate the resistance of 10m length of a wire having a

uniform cross-sectional area of 0.1mm2 and a resistivity
of 50 x 10 -8Ω-m. Answer : (R = 50Ω)
 If the wire is drawn out to three times its original length,
by how many times/factor would the resistance to be
increased?
Answer: Three times (i.e.R = 150Ω)
 Temperature effects on the resistance of conductors
• The resistance of a conductor will not be constant at all
temperatures .
i.e. temperature has a significant effect on the resistance of
materials:
- Conductors
- Semiconductors and
-Insulators.

• As temperature increases, more electrons will escape

their orbits, causing additional collisions within the conductor.
 Cont’d...
• For good conductors, an increase in temperature will
result in an increase in the resistance level because
conductors have a positive temperature coefficient.

• For semiconductor and insulator materials, an increase

in temperature will result in a decrease in the resistance
level because semiconductors and insulators both have
negative temperature coefficients.

• The rate at which the resistance of a material changes

with a variation in temperature is called the temperature
coefficient of the material(𝛼)
 Cont’d...
• For most conducting materials, the increase in the number
of collisions translates into a relatively linear increase in
resistance.

Temperature effects on the resistance of a conductor.

 Cont’d...
• The relation between resistance of the materials and
temperature coefficient is shown as follows:

a ).For conductors b). For semi-conductors & insulators

 Cont’d...
• The resistance, R2 of a conductor at a temperature, T2 is
determined using the temperature coefficient (α) of the
material as follows:
R2 = R1[1+ 𝜶(T2 – T1)]

Connection of Resistors
• Ohm's Law: states that the current in an electric circuit is
directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the circuit.

• Three forms of Ohm's Law equations are: I = V/R, V = IR

and R =V/I
 Cont’d...
• Depending on the connection of devices, basically there
are three types of circuits:
- Series connection and voltage divider rule (VDR)
- Parallel connection and current divider rule (CDR)
- Series-Parallel connection – both VDR & CDR

i). Series connection: Two or more elements/resistors are

said to be connected in series if they are connected at a
single point and if there are no other current-carrying
connections at that point (i.e. .no division of current).
 Cont’d....

Mathematically,
i = i1 = i2 …………................= iN

Vs = VR1 + VR2 + …..….............+VRN

• The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected

in series is the sum of the individual resistances.
 Cont’d...
• The power delivered to each resistor can then be determined
using any one of three equations:

The power delivered by the source is:

 Cont’d...
• Since energy must be conserved, the power delivered by
the voltage source is equal to the total power dissipated
by all the resistors.

• General properties of series resistors:

Same current flows throughout the circuit
Equivalent resistance is additive
The total/source voltage is the sum of the individual voltage
drops across each resistor
 powers are additive.
 Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)
• It is used to obtain the voltage drops across each resistor
when the resistors are connected in series.

𝑅𝑋
General formula: VX = V ( )
𝑅𝑇
 Cont’d...
• In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1,R2, . . . , RN) in
series with the source voltage V, the nth resistor (Rn) will have a
voltage drop of:

• For series connection of resistors , Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL) is

applicable.
• KVL states that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed loop is
zero. In other words the sum the supply voltage in a closed loop is
always equal to the sum of the voltage drops.
 Cont’d...
Symbolically,

Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

 Cont’d...
OR
• The summation of voltage rises /voltage source is equal
to the summation of voltage drops around a closed
loop.
 ii) Parallel connection & current divider rule
• Parallel connection: two elements or resistors are said
to be in a parallel connection when they have exactly
two nodes in common( i.e. there is a division of current)

• Mathematically,
1 1 1 1
   ....... 
RT R1 R2 RN
 Cont’d...
V = V1 = V2 = ........................= Vn
I = I1 + I2 + .................................+In
• The power delivered to each resistor can then be determined using
any one of three equations:

2 𝑉2
P1 = VI1 = 𝐼1 R1 =
𝑅1
𝑉2
P2 = VI2 = 𝐼22 R2 =
𝑅2
⋮
𝑉𝑛2
Pn = VIn = 𝐼𝑛2 Rn =
𝑅𝑛
 Cont’d...
• The power delivered by the source is:

• The power delivered by the voltage source is

equal to the total power dissipated by all the
resistors.
 Cont’d...
• General properties of parallel resistors:
Same voltage drops across the whole circuit
 Conductance are additive
The total current is the sum of the individual
currents through out the circuit
powers are additive
 Cont’d...
• Current divider rule: used to determine the current flows
through each resistor when the resistors are connected in
parallel.

𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
General formula, IX = IT ( ) , I2 = IT ( ), In = IT ( )
𝑅𝑋 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛

• The current divider rule (CDR) is used to determine how

current entering a node is split between the various parallel
resistors connected to the node.
 Cont’d...
• For parallel connection of circuits, Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) is
applicable.
• KCL: states that the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving the node. In other words, the
algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any junction is
zero.

I=O
 Cont’d
iii). Series – parallel connection
• The circuit contains both series and parallel combination
of resistors.
• The equivalent resistance is determined by simplifying
the elements/resistors from the output terminal to the
input terminal/source

• VDR & CDR can be applied to find the output voltage or

output current.
 Cont’d...
• Write an expression for the total resistance, RT.

Answer : Req = R1 + R2//[(R3//R5) +(R4//R6)]

 Examples:
1. For the circuit below calculate equivalent (total) resistance as seen
from the terminals of the source and current flow across each element
If R1= 6KΩ , R2= 12KΩ, R3 = 4KΩ, R4 = 8KΩ, R5 = 12KΩ

Solution :
In calculating the required parameters always we have to start from
the outer terminal to the source.
 Cont’d…
• Thus, R3 + R4 = 4K Ω + 8k Ω = 12kΩ................Ra

R2 //Ra = 12k Ω //12k Ω = 6k..................Rb

Rb + R1 = 6k Ω + 6k Ω = 12k Ω................Rc

Rc //R5 = 12k Ω //12k Ω = 6k Ω = Rd = Req

• Using ohms law, IT = Vs/RT = 24V/6k Ω = 4mA = IT = Is

To find the currents through each resistor, Use CDR.

Is (RT )
I1 =
Rx
4 mA ×6 KΩ
I1 =
12KΩ
I1 = 2mA......curent across R5 and also across Rc

• Again I1 is further sub divided in to I6 and I2. To find current across I6 and I2
apply CDR finaly you will got 1mA each.
 Examples
2. Refer to the circuit given below:

i) Calculate the current flowing through each resistor

ii) Verify that the power delivered by the source is equal to the
power dissipated by all the resistors
iii) Verify KCL law at node “a”
 Cont’d...
3. Consider the circuit given below:

i). Calculate the voltage drops across each resistors

ii). Obtain the power dissipated by all the resistors
iii). Verify KVL for the circuit
 Cont’d...
4. For the network given below:

i).Obtain Req and the total current(I)

ii).Compare the power delivered by the source with the power
dissipated by each resistor
 Capacitor and Capacitance
• A capacitor is a passive device/ element which is designed
to store energy in its electric field.

• Unlike resistors, which dissipate energy, capacitors and

inductors do not dissipate but store energy, which can be
retrieved /released at a later time.

• For this reason, capacitors and inductors are called energy

storage elements.
 Cont’d...
• A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated
by an insulator (or dielectric materials such as air......).

fig: A typical capacitor

 Cont’d....
• A di- electric is the electrically insulating materials
between the metallic plates of a capacitor that increases
the capacitance of the capacitor( so a greater charge can
be stored at a given voltage)
• The main advantage of a di-electric is to stop/prevent the
contact between the two charged plates of a capacitor.

• A di-electric in a capacitor is often a solid material with

high permittivity (permittivity is a measure of how an
electric field affects and is affected by a di-electric
medium and it relates to a material’s ability to transmit
( or permit) an electric field)
 Cont’d...
• In many practical applications, the plates may be Copper,
aluminum foil while the dielectric may be air, ceramic,
paper, or mica.

• Capacitors are used extensively in:

 Electronics
 Communications
 Computers, and
 Power systems.
• They are used in the tuning circuits of radio receivers and
as dynamic memory elements in computer systems.
 Cont’d...
• When a voltage source V is connected to the capacitor, the source
deposits a positive charge “+q” on one plate and a negative “– q
“charge on the other plate.

• The capacitor is used to store the electric charge. The amount of

charge stored, q, is directly proportional to the applied voltage “v”
so that Q = CV
 Cont’d...
Where, C , is the constant of proportionality, known as
the capacitance of the capacitor.
V, is the applied voltage
Q, is the stored electric charge
• Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on one plate of a
capacitor to the voltage difference between the two
plates, measured in farads (F).
OR
• Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store
charge on its plates or its storage capacity in electric field
 Cont’d...
• The capacitance of the capacitor does not only depends
on the stored electric charge and the applied voltage, it
also depends on the physical dimensions of the capacitor
as follows: 𝐴
OR C = 𝜀𝑜 𝜖𝑟
𝑑
where ,
A, is the surface area of plate
d, is the distance between the plates
𝜀𝑟 , is relative permittivity or di-electric constant
𝜖, is the permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates.
𝜀𝑜 , is permittivity of free space or vacuum , 𝜀𝑜 = 8.854 x 10−12 F/m
 Cont’d...
• The three factors that determine the value of the capacitance:
 The surface area of the plates: the larger the area, the
greater the capacitance.
 The spacing between the plates: the smaller the spacing,
the greater the capacitance.
 The permittivity of the material: the higher the permittivity,
the greater the capacitance.
 Current in capacitor
• We know that,

Voltage in capacitor:
 Cont’d...
• Integrating both sides:
1 𝑡
𝑉𝑐 (t) = 𝑉𝑐 (𝑡𝑜 ) + 𝑖 (𝑡)dt
𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝑐
Where, to is the initial time at t = 0

Power of the capacitors:

• The instantaneous power is given by:
 Energy of capacitor
• The energy stored in the capacitor is:
t
Wc (t) = to
p(t)dt

𝑡
= V (t) iC(t)dt
𝑡𝑜 C

𝑡 𝑑
= 𝐶
𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑡
VC(t) {Vc(t)}dt

𝑡
= C 𝑉
𝑡𝑜 𝑐 𝑡 𝑑 VC(t)

1
𝑊𝑐 (t) = C 𝑉𝑐 2 (t) (joule)
2
 Cont’d...
• The energy can be also be expressed in terms of other
elements:
1
𝑊𝑐 (t) = 𝑄𝑐 2 (t)
2𝐶

OR
1
𝑊𝑐 (t) = VC(t)QC(t) (Joule)
2
 cont’d…
Generally the following are key characteristics of capacitors:

Example: The following voltage is imposed across the terminals of a 0.5𝛍𝐅 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐨𝐫

0 ,t≤0
VC(t) = 4t , 0 ≤t ≤1
4𝑒 −(𝑡−1) , 1 ≤t < ∞
Find: i) iC(t) ii) pC(t) iii) wC(t)
 cont’d…
Solution:
 Inductance and Inductors
• An inductor is a passive device/ element that is designed
to store energy in its magnetic field.

• Inductors find numerous applications in:

- Electronic
- power systems
- power supplies, transformers, radios
- TVs, radars, and electric motors etc.
• Any conductor of electric current has an inductive
properties and may be regarded as an inductor, i.e. an
inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.
 Cont’d...
• In order to enhance the inductive effect, a practical
inductor is usually formed into a cylindrical coil with many
turns of conducting wire.

fig: a typical form of an inductor

 Cont’d....
• If the current is allowed to pass through an inductor coil, it produces
a magnetic field (φ) i.e. If a conductor is moved through a magnetic
field so that it cuts magnetic lines of flux, a voltage will be induced
across the conductor, as shown in Figure below (Faraday’s law of
Electromagnetic Induction)

φ (t) = LiL(t)
Where, L is the inductance
measured in Henry [H]

Induced voltage when a conductor wire passes through a magnetic flux

 Cont’d…
• Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits
opposition to the change of current flowing through it,
measured in henrys (H).

• As the inductor current increases or decreases, the

magnetic field spreads or collapses , so that the change in
magnetic field induces a voltage across the inductor.
So that the voltage across the inductor is:

𝑑ɸ(t) 𝑑
𝑉𝐿 (t) = = L iL(t) (v)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Cont’d....
• If the flux linking the coil ceases to change, such as when
the coil simply sits still in a magnetic field of fixed
strength, dϕ/dt = 0, and the induced voltage across the
inductor becomes:
𝑑ɸ(t)
e = 𝑉𝐿 (t) = = L (0)iL(t) = 0
𝑑𝑡
 Cont’d...
Current in inductors:

Integrating both sides:

1 𝑡
𝐼𝐿 (t) = 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡𝑜 ) + 𝑉 (𝑡)dt (A)
𝐿 𝑡𝑜 𝐿
 Cont’d...
• Power in inductors:

1 𝑡
𝑝𝐿 (t) = 𝑉𝐿 (t) [𝑖𝐿 (𝑡𝑜 ) + 𝑡
𝑉𝐿 (𝑡)]dt
𝐿 𝑜
 Cont’d...
• Energy in inductors:
t
WL (t) = to
p(t)dt

𝑡
= 𝑉 (𝑡) 𝑖𝐿 (t)dt
𝑡𝑜 𝐿

t d
= L i (t) {iL(t)}
to dt L

𝑡 𝑑
WL (t) = L i
𝑡𝑜 L
(𝑡) i (t) dt
𝑑𝑡 L

1
𝑊𝐿 (t) = L iL(t)2
2
 Cont’d…

Example:
 Cont’d…
So,

b.

c. d.
 Cont’d...
• The inductance of an inductor depends on its physical
dimension and construction.

• Formulas for calculating the inductance of inductors

of different shapes are derived from electromagnetic
theory and can be found in standard form:

N = number of turns of the coil

A = cross- sectional area of the coil
𝜇 = permeability of the core
l = length of the coil
 Cont’d...
• Generally, the inductance of the inductor can be
increased by:
 Increasing the number of turns of coil

 Using material with higher permeability as the core

 Increasing the cross-sectional area

 Reducing the length of the coil.

Summary of results