King Lear
Background Information
King Lear was first printed in 1608. This initial printing is now referred to as the First Quarto.
Another Quarto version was printed in 1619, and King Lear appeared again in a 1623 Folio
edition. The First Quarto contains 300 lines not found in the Folio, and the Folio contains 100
lines not found in the First Quarto. Because many differences exist between the Quarto and Folio
editions, some recent anthologies of Shakespeare's works contain play text from both editions,
and may also include a conflated edition derived from a combination of both the First Quarto and
Folio versions.
Although the text was not printed until 1608, the play was performed in December 1606. The
exact date of composition is not known, so scholars often try to base the point in time on
references in the play itself. Because of this uncertainty and the textual references, the
composition of King Lear may have taken place anywhere from 1604 to 1606.
The story of King Lear and his daughters was a familiar tale in Elizabethan England, where it
was generally believed to be based on historical fact, having been taken from ancient British
history. A legal case of the times also may be due credit for contributing to the drama. In an act
that generated extensive publicity, two daughters attempted to have their father declared insane
so that they might seize his estate. The younger daughter, Cordell, objected.
This similarity of name and plot might have sparked some interest in resurrecting a familiar plot.
However, accounts of King Lear surface in several texts; so, Shakespeare may have turned to
other sources as well in exploring this ancient story.
Lear's story appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, published about
1135. This text includes insights into the kings of the ancient, pre-Christian Britain. Years later,
Lear's story is repeated in Raphael Holinshed's 1577 book, Chronicles of England, which
includes an ending in which Cordelia and Lear both survive her sisters' treachery. Cordelia
succeeds her father to the throne, upon his death; but she is later imprisoned and commits
suicide. The John Higgens 1574 edition of Mirror for Magistrates introduces the name of Albany
and includes a story of Cordelia, in which she commits suicide — something that does not occur
in the older play. The Lear story is also retold in Edmund Spenser's 1590 epic poem, The Faerie
Queene, where Cordelia commits suicide by hanging. The Gloucester plot may have been taken
from Sir Philip Sidney's 1590 poem, Arcadia, in which an old prince is blinded by his
illegitimate son, but is ultimately saved by his legitimate son. Much of the events that occur to
Gloucester are derived from this source.
The True Chronicle of King Leir is first entered into the Stationers's register in 1594, although
there is no record of its publication until the 1605 edition appears. This source, while containing
the basic Lear story, is grounded in Christianity, something not contained in the story of the
ancient Leir or in Shakespeare's Lear. Many scholars do find ample evidence of Christian
ideology in King Lear, but no overt emphasis on Christianity, as there is in Shakespeare's
principle source. The old play has a happy ending, where evil is punished and good is rewarded,
thus reinforcing the Christian belief in divine justice. Instead of proposing such easy answers,
Shakespeare leaves his audience to ponder the role of God and divine justice. As he did so often
in borrowing from sources, Shakespeare wove threads of historical accounts and original
writings to create the fabric of his own King Lear.
Historical Context
By the time Shakespeare was writing King Lear, the English had survived years of civil war and
political and religious upheaval. Considerable turmoil followed the death of Henry VIII, and
under his oldest daughter's rule (Mary I), the country experienced both civil and religious chaos,
with the conflict between Catholicism and the Church of England resulting in much bloodshed.
After Mary's death, Elizabeth I assumed the throne, leading to a period of extended peace. In
spite of their contentment with Elizabeth's rule, the populace worried significantly about
England's future because Elizabeth was unmarried, and she refused to select a possible heir. No
citizen wanted a repeat of the events that marked the earlier transfer of power. Thus, the lack of
an heir created fears about a possible successor to her throne, which were finally resolved in
1603 when Elizabeth appointed James IV of Scotland to be her heir, and eventually, the new king
of England.
The English understood that a strong country needed an effective leader to protect it from
potential invasion. Elizabeth's powerful leadership had saved England when the Spanish
attempted an invasion in 1588, and much of the credit for her success was attributed to her earlier
efforts to unite England and to end the dissention that was destroying the country. No ruler
would have deliberately chosen to divide a kingdom, not after having witnessed the conflicts that
had marked England's recent history. The division of a country would have weakened it, leading
to squabbles between petty lords and the absence of an effective central government, and thus,
the absence of an effective defense. After this long period of uncertainty, Shakespeare's
Elizabethan audience would have been horrified at Lear's choice to divide his kingdom and so,
create disunity.
Character List
King Lear King of Britain. Lear is the protagonist whose willingness to believe empty flattery
leads to the deaths of many people.
Goneril Lear's eldest daughter who, after professing her deep love for her father, betrays him and
plots his murder.
Regan Lear's second daughter. Regan joins forces with Goneril to destroy their father. Regan
initially appears less harsh than her elder sister, but in the end, she proves to be as blood-thirsty
as Goneril.
Cordelia Lear's youngest daughter. Cordelia genuinely loves her father, but her refusal to flatter
him leads to her tragic death.
Fool Loyal member of the king's court. The Fool assumes the role of protector to Lear when
Cordelia is banished.
Earl of Gloucester Lear's cohort and loyal friend. Gloucester is a foolish old man whose
inability to see the truth in his youngest son's words parallels Lear's own difficulties with Goneril
and Regan.
Earl of Kent / Caius Lear's loyal friend and supporter. Although banished, Kent disguises
himself as Caius in an effort to stay close to his king.
Edgar / Poor Tom Gloucester's older son. Edgar is Gloucester's only legitimate heir, but he must
flee and hide from his father, disguised as Poor Tom, when he comes under suspicion.
Edmund Gloucester's younger, illegitimate, son. He is an opportunist whose ambitions lead him
to form a union with Goneril and Regan.
Duke of Albany Goneril's husband. Albany grows in stature during the play and ultimately finds
the strength to resist his wife's efforts to have Lear killed.
Duke of Cornwall Regan's brutal husband. Cornwall is vicious and savage as he tries to
eliminate Lear and Gloucester.
Oswald Goneril's steward. Oswald is a willing accomplice to Goneril's plotting and proves a foil
to Kent's devotion to Lear.
King of France Marries Cordelia. France is honorable and willing to support Cordelia's efforts
to rescue her father.
Duke of Burgundy Suitor for Cordelia. Burgundy rejects Cordelia when he discovers that she
will bring him no dowry.
Curan Gloucester's servant.
Old Man Tenant of Gloucester.
Servants to Cornwall Cornwall's retainers, who attack him in defense of Gloucester.
Doctor Attendant to Cordelia.
Summary
King Lear opens with a conversation between the earls of Kent and Gloucester, in which the
audience learns that Gloucester has two sons: Edgar, who is his legitimate heir, and Edmund, his
younger illegitimate son. This information will provide the secondary or subplot. Next, King
Lear enters to state that he intends to remove himself from life's duties and concerns. Pointing at
a map, Lear tells those in attendance that he has divided his kingdom into three shares, to be
parceled out to his three daughters, as determined by their protestations of love. The two elder
daughters, Goneril and Regan, exaggerate their love by telling their father that their affection for
him exceeds all reasonable expectations. The youngest daughter, Cordelia, tells Lear that she
loves him, but only as a daughter should love a father. Lear, angry and disappointed at what he
deems a lack of devotion on Cordelia's part, divides his kingdom equally between Goneril and
Regan, and banishes Cordelia. Later, France agrees to marry the now dowerless and banished
Cordelia. When Kent attempts to defend Cordelia, Lear banishes him as well. Meanwhile,
Goneril and Regan decide that if Lear becomes too much of a nuisance, they will have to decide
what disciplinary actions to take.
In the developing subplot, Edmund complains of his unhappiness at being an illegitimate — and
thus, disinherited — son. As part of his plot to claim what is not his, Edmund gives a false letter
to his father, Gloucester, declaring that Edgar is proposing that they kill their father and split the
wealth between them. The cunning Edmund easily convinces his father that Edgar cannot be
trusted.
Within a short time, Lear moves to Goneril's palace. Goneril tells Lear that he needs a smaller
troop, more decorous in behavior and better suited to the king's rank and age. The king is very
angry and says he will pack up his people and move to Regan's palace. Lear's anger continues to
build, and he calls upon nature to curse Goneril's womb. In response, Goneril turns out 50 of
Lear's retinue.
As the subplot develops, Edmund wounds himself slightly, pretending that Edgar has attacked
him. Certain that Edgar will also try to kill him, Gloucester promises to find the means to make
Edmund his heir. After his escape into the woods, Edgar decides that he will disguise himself as
a Bedlam beggar, who will be known as Poor Tom. Meanwhile, Cornwall orders an impassioned
Kent placed in the stocks. Lear arrives and quickly realizes that Regan has joined Goneril in
seeking to reduce Lear's authority. Lear reminds his daughters that he gave them all that they
now enjoy, but they are unmoved. An angry Lear calls for his horse, and rides into the storm with
his Fool for protection. Exposed to the storm, the Fool attempts to reason with his king, but Lear
will have no part of submission, especially before his daughters. Soon the king and Fool are
joined by Edgar disguised as Poor Tom.
Gloucester tells Edmund of the plot to save the king, unaware that he is divulging the plans to a
traitor. Edmund immediately resolves to tell Cornwall of the plan. Edmund soon receives his
reward: Gloucester's title and lands. The captured Gloucester is tortured by Regan, who
fiendishly plucks at his beard, and Cornwall, who gouges out Gloucester's eyes, but not before
one of Cornwall's servants draws a sword and stabs Cornwall, who soon dies of his wounds.
Later, Edgar is both shocked and dismayed when a blinded Gloucester is led in by one of his
tenants. The disguised Edgar agrees to take Gloucester to the cliff he seeks, where he dupes
Gloucester into thinking that he is at the edge of a precipice. After Gloucester jumps and loses
consciousness, Edgar easily convinces his father that he has somehow survived a fall from the
cliffs. Oswald arrives and attempts to kill Gloucester but is, instead, slain by Edgar. As he lays
dying, Oswald gives Edgar a letter from Goneril instructing Edmund to murder Albany so that
she will be free to wed Edmund.
Goneril and Edmund soon learn that Albany is a changed man, one who is pleased to learn of the
proposed invasion by France and displeased when he learns that Gloucester has been replaced by
his younger son, Edmund. Meanwhile, Cordelia learns of her father's deteriorated mental
condition and returns to England with an army to defend her father. Within a short time, Cordelia
and her father reunite.
In spite of Albany's intent to save Lear and Cordelia's lives, Edmund resolves that they will die.
Edmund orders that Lear and Cordelia be imprisoned. Albany, Goneril, and Regan join Edmund,
and a confrontation erupts between all four characters. Edmund's treachery is revealed, and he is
wounded in a fight with Edgar, whom Edmund does not recognize as his brother. Soon, Regan
dies, poisoned by Goneril, who then kills herself. Since he is now dying, Edmund admits that the
charges against him are truthful, and he seeks to know the identity of his killer. Edgar confesses
his lineage as brother and shares the news that their father, Gloucester, has died.
Edmund, who says he wants some good to come from so much death, reveals his and Goneril's
plan to have both Lear and Cordelia murdered and to have Cordelia's death appear a suicide.
Efforts to rescind these orders are too late, and soon Lear enters with a dead Cordelia in his arms.
Unable to accept Cordelia's death, the king also dies, his body covering that of his youngest
daughter. Albany informs Kent and Edgar that they must now rule the kingdom together, but
Kent replies that he will soon leave the world to join his master. Edgar is left to speak of the sad
weight of these events, which everyone must now endure.
Short Questions
Question: What causes King Lear to divide his kingdom among his daughters?
Answer: King Lear decides to divide his kingdom among his daughters as he plans to retire from
ruling and wishes to prevent future conflict over succession. He asks his daughters to declare
their love for him to determine how much of the kingdom each will receive. Lear says, "Know
that we have divided / In three our kingdom; and 'tis our fast intent / To shake all cares and
business from our age, / Conferring them on younger strengths" (Act 1, Scene 1).
Question: How do Goneril and Regan respond to King Lear's request for declarations of love?
Answer: Goneril and Regan flatter Lear with insincere declarations of love, each trying to outdo
the other with their exaggerated praise to gain the largest portion of the kingdom. Goneril says,
"Sir, I love you more than word can wield the matter; / Dearer than eyesight, space, and liberty"
(Act 1, Scene 1). Regan adds, "I am made of that self-mettle as my sister, / And prize me at her
worth. In my true heart / I find she names my very deed of love; / Only she comes too short" (Act
1, Scene 1).
Question: How does Cordelia react to Lear's demand for a declaration of love, and what is the
consequence?
Answer: Cordelia responds with honesty, stating that she loves him according to her duty as a
daughter, "no more, no less." Lear, angered by what he perceives as a lack of affection, disowns
her and divides her share between Goneril and Regan. Cordelia says, "Unhappy that I am, I
cannot heave / My heart into my mouth. I love your majesty / According to my bond; no more
nor less" (Act 1, Scene 1).
Question: What role does the Fool play in the play "King Lear"?
Answer: The Fool serves as Lear's conscience and commentator on events, often speaking truths
disguised as jokes and riddles. He provides wisdom and insight, highlighting Lear's folly and
mistakes. The Fool says, "I am better than thou art now; I am a Fool, thou art nothing" (Act 1,
Scene 4).
Question: Describe the subplot involving Gloucester and his sons.
Answer: The subplot mirrors the main plot, involving Gloucester's betrayal by his illegitimate
son, Edmund, who deceives him into believing that his legitimate son, Edgar, seeks to kill him.
Gloucester's misplaced trust leads to his suffering and eventual realization of the truth. Edmund
says, "If this letter speed, / And my invention thrive, Edmund the base / Shall top the legitimate. I
grow; I prosper. / Now, gods, stand up for bastards!" (Act 1, Scene 2).
Question: How does the theme of blindness manifest in the play?
Answer: The theme of blindness is both literal and metaphorical. Lear and Gloucester are blind
to the true nature of their children, trusting the deceitful ones and rejecting the loyal ones.
Gloucester's physical blindness, inflicted by Regan and Cornwall, symbolizes his previous
inability to see the truth. Gloucester says, "I stumbled when I saw" (Act 4, Scene 1).
Question: What is the significance of the storm in "King Lear"?
Answer: The storm symbolizes the chaos in Lear's mind and the tumultuous state of the
kingdom. It represents Lear's growing madness and serves as a backdrop to his realization of his
human frailty and the consequences of his actions. Lear cries out, "Blow, winds, and crack your
cheeks! rage! blow! / You cataracts and hurricanoes, spout / Till you have drench'd our steeples,
drown'd the cocks!" (Act 3, Scene 2).
Question: How does "King Lear" address the theme of power and authority?
Answer: The play explores the consequences of relinquishing power, the corrupting influence of
authority, and the struggles for power among the characters. Lear's abdication leads to a power
vacuum and subsequent conflict, highlighting the instability that follows the misuse of power.
Lear laments, "How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is / To have a thankless child!" (Act 1, Scene
4).
Question: What role does justice play in the conclusion of "King Lear"?
Answer: The play concludes with a sense of tragic justice, where the wicked characters meet
their end, but at great cost. The deaths of Lear, Cordelia, and other virtuous characters suggest a
bleak view of justice, where retribution comes too late to restore order or prevent suffering.
Edgar reflects, "The gods are just, and of our pleasant vices / Make instruments to plague us"
(Act 5, Scene 3).
Question: How does "King Lear" fit into the genre of tragedy?
Answer: "King Lear" fits the genre of tragedy through its exploration of human suffering, fatal
flaws, and the downfall of a great character. Lear's hubris and poor judgment lead to his and
others' destruction, evoking pity and fear as prescribed by classical definitions of tragedy. Lear's
final words are, "And my poor fool is hang'd! No, no, no life! / Why should a dog, a horse, a rat,
have life, / And thou no breath at all? Thou'lt come no more, / Never, never, never, never,
never!" (Act 5, Scene 3).
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