1.
Montreal Protocol (1987)
The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty aimed at protecting the ozone layer by phasing out the
production and consumption of substances that deplete it. These substances, primarily
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons, were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and
aerosol propellants.
● Purpose: To reduce the use of ozone-depleting chemicals and allow the ozone layer to recover,
preventing harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching Earth.
● Impact: The protocol is considered one of the most successful environmental agreements. It has
led to significant reductions in the production and use of ozone-depleting substances, contributing to the
recovery of the ozone layer.
● Global Cooperation: The Montreal Protocol has been ratified by nearly every country, making it
one of the most universally accepted international environmental agreements.
2. Kyoto Protocol (1997)
The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that commits industrialized nations to reduce their
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, based on the premise that (1) human-made emissions of greenhouse
gases are causing global warming, and (2) industrialized nations are primarily responsible for the high
levels of GHGs in the atmosphere.
● Purpose: To reduce emissions of greenhouse gases to mitigate global climate change.
● Mechanisms: The Kyoto Protocol set binding emission reduction targets for industrialized
countries and allowed them to use market-based mechanisms like carbon trading, emissions trading, and
the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to meet their targets.
● Significance: While it was an important step in addressing climate change, the protocol's impact
was limited due to the lack of participation from some major emitters, such as the United States, and the
absence of legally binding targets for developing countries like China and India.
● Implementation: The protocol entered into force in 2005 and lasted until 2020, when it was
succeeded by the Paris Agreement (2015).
3. Global Environment Facility (GEF)
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is an international financial institution that provides funding to
developing countries for projects aimed at addressing global environmental issues.
● Purpose: To support projects that tackle global environmental problems such as biodiversity loss,
climate change, deforestation, and land degradation, with a particular focus on developing countries and
countries with economies in transition.
● Functions: The GEF works as a financial mechanism for several international environmental
conventions, including the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD).
● Funding: It is jointly funded by over 30 donor countries, and it provides grants, loans, and
technical assistance to projects that address environmental degradation and promote sustainable
development.
4. Earth Summit (1992)
The Earth Summit, formally known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), was a major international conference held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992.
The summit brought together world leaders, NGOs, scientists, and other stakeholders to discuss and
promote sustainable development.
● Purpose: To address urgent environmental and developmental issues at a global scale, aiming to
integrate environmental protection and economic development for sustainable growth.
● Key Outcomes:
○ Agenda 21: A comprehensive action plan for sustainable development in the 21st century,
covering issues like poverty, health, biodiversity, and climate change.
○ Rio Declaration: A set of 27 principles that outline the rights and responsibilities of nations in
promoting environmental protection and sustainable development.
○ The Statement of Principles on Forests: A non-legally binding agreement to conserve and
sustainably manage the world’s forests.
○ Establishment of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): A key
foundation for future climate agreements, such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
The Earth Summit was groundbreaking in bringing together multiple sectors—government, business,
and civil society—to collaboratively address global environmental and development challenges. It helped
raise awareness about sustainable development, marking a turning point in the international
environmental movement.
Summary of Key Differences:
● Montreal Protocol (1987): Focuses on protecting the ozone layer by phasing out ozone-depleting
substances.
● Kyoto Protocol (1997): Focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat global climate
change, with binding targets for developed countries.
● Global Environment Facility (GEF): Provides financial assistance to developing countries for
projects addressing global environmental issues.
● Earth Summit (1992): A global conference that set the stage for sustainable development
policies and agreements like the UNFCCC, Agenda 21, and the Rio Declaration.
Each of these initiatives plays an important role in international environmental governance and efforts to
address both global and local environmental challenges.
