Republic of the Philippines

Commission on Higher Education

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar

COLLGE OF EDUCATION
Secondary Teacher Education Department
AY.: 2023-2024

A Term Paper in Major 12: Earth Science

“Earthquakes”

Prepared by:
RICA MAE TIZON
ALLONA MANINGGO
BSED – SCIENCE 3

Submitted to:
REYMART M. BONTIA
COURSE PROFESSOR
 MAJOR 12: EARTH SCIENCE

Overview

The Philippines is located along the Pacific Ring of Fire, which is an

area in the Pacific Ocean known for its frequent seismic and volcanic
activity. Living along the Ring of Fire means that people in the Philippines
must be prepared for the occurrence such as earthquakes. To locate the
Philippines on the globe, there are two methods that can be used. One is
by determining its latitude and longitude, which are the coordinates that
specify its position on the Earth’s surface. The other method is by
identifying the landmasses and bodies of water in the surrounding area,
which can give an indication of its location in relation to other
geographical features.

An earthquake is a natural event that occurs when there is a sudden

release of energy in the Earth’s crust. This release of energy can cause
the ground to shake and tremble, sometimes resulting in significant
damage and loss of life.

In this module, you will learn about how earthquakes originate and
the instruments and methods used to measure their magnitude and
intensity. Strong earthquakes have resulted in numerous deaths
worldwide, even before the recording of these events began. These forces
of nature are unpredictable and can occur at any time and place.
Seismologists are still working to improve the accuracy of detecting
seismic tremors.

While it’s not possible to prevent earthquakes from happening, there

are measures that people can take to minimize the loss of life and damage
to property. The first step is to have a clear understanding of how
earthquakes occur and to be prepared for their potential effects.
 EARTHQUAKES
An earthquake is a sudden shaking or trembling of the
ground caused by the movement of rocks deep within the Earth’s crust. It
occurs when there is a release of energy in the Earth’s lithosphere, which
causes seismic waves to propagate through the Earth.

Earthquakes are primarily

caused by the movement of
tectonic plates, which are large
sections of the Earth’s crust that
float on the semi-fluid layer
underneath. When these plates
interact, they can slide past each
other, collide, or separate, leading
to stress buildup along their boundaries. When the stress exceeds the
strength of the rocks, it is released in the form of an earthquake. The
surface where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The point within
the Earth’s crust where the seismic energy is first released is called the
hypocenter or focus of the earthquake. This is usually located several
kilometers below the Earth’s surface. The point directly above the
hypocenter on the Earth’s surface is called the epicenter.

Sometimes an earthquake has foreshocks. These are smaller

earthquakes that happen in the same place as the larger earthquake that
follows. Scientists are unable to identify an earthquake as a foreshock
until the larger earthquake occurs. The mainshock refers to the largest
earthquake, which is always followed by aftershocks. Aftershocks are
smaller earthquakes that happen in the same area as the mainshock. The
duration of aftershocks can vary, ranging from weeks to months or even
years, depending on the size of the mainshock.
WHAT CAUSES EARTHQUAKES?

Despite its seemingly solid

appearance, the Earth is a highly
dynamic and active planet just beneath
its surface. It is composed of four
primary layers: a rigid outer crust, a
hot and mostly solid mantle, a liquid
outer core, and a solid inner core. The
Earth’s surface is made up of a thin layer called the crust and the upper
part of the mantle called the lithosphere. However, this layer is not a
single, continuous piece; it is fragmented into multiple puzzle-like pieces
that cover the Earth’s surface. Furthermore, these pieces are constantly in
motion, slowly sliding past and colliding with each other. We call these
puzzle pieces tectonic plates, and the edges of the plates are called the
plate boundaries.

The Earth's plate boundaries are comprised of numerous faults, and

the majority of earthquakes worldwide take place along these faults.
Because the plate edges are uneven, they become stuck while the rest of
the plate continues to move. Eventually, when the plate has moved a
significant distance, the edges become unstuck along one of the faults,
causing an earthquake. Earthquakes originate from the movement of
tectonic plates, which are large pieces of the Earth’s lithosphere that float
on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath. There are three main types of
plate boundaries where
earthquakes commonly occur:

1. Convergent Boundaries
These are regions where two
plates collide or converge. When a
dense oceanic plate collides with
a less dense continental plate, the
oceanic plate subducts or sinks beneath the continental plate. The
subduction zone is a common site for earthquakes as friction and stress
build up between the plates. As the stress overcomes the strength of the
rocks, it is released in the form of an earthquake.
2. Divergent Boundaries
These are regions where two
plates move apart or diverge. This
movement creates a gap or rift
between the plates and allows
magma from the mantle to rise,
creating new crust. Earthquakes at
divergent boundaries occur as the
plates move and adjust to the changing shape of the rift. The rocks
fracture and slide along faults, generating seismic activity.

3. Transform Fault Boundaries

These are regions where two plates slide horizontally past each other. The
stress and friction along transform boundaries can lead to the
accumulation of strain. Eventually, the strain is released in the form of
sudden movements and earthquakes. One well-known example of a
transform boundary is the San Andreas Fault in California.
The release of energy during an
earthquake occurs along a fault line,
which is a fracture or crack in the
Earth’s crust. Faults can be divided
into two main types: Strike-slip
faults is when the rocks on either
side of the fault slide horizontally past
each other. This leads to earthquakes
with predominantly horizontal motion, such as the ones observed along
transform boundaries. On the other hand, dip-slip faults is when the
rocks on either side of the fault move vertically relative to each other.
There are two types of dip-slip faults: normal faults and reverse faults. In a
normal fault, the hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall,
whereas in a reverse fault, the hanging wall moves upward. Subduction
zones are often associated with reverse faults.

WHY DOES THE EARTH SHAKE WHEN THERE IS AN EARTHQUAKE?

While the boundaries of faults are locked together, the surrounding
rock mass continues to move. This movement builds up a significant
amount of energy that would typically cause the blocks to slide past each
other. However, due to the friction along the rough edges of the fault, this
energy is stored instead. When the force exerted by the moving blocks
eventually surpasses the frictional resistance, the fault “unsticks” and
releases all of the stored energy. This energy then propagates outward
from the fault in all directions as seismic waves, similar to ripples on a
pond. As these seismic waves traverse through the Earth, they cause the
ground to shake, and when they reach the Earth’s surface, they shake
everything on it, such as buildings and people.
Earthquakes are
recorded and detected using
a network of instruments
called seismographs.
Seismographs are sensitive
instruments that measure
the ground motion caused
by seismic waves generated
by earthquakes. The digital
recording is called a seismogram. Scientists can measure these seismic
waves on instruments called seismometer. Scientists can measure these
seismic waves on instruments called seismometer. A seismometer detects
seismic waves below the instrument and records them as a series of zig-
zags. The seismograph consists of a solid base that is securely placed in
the ground, as well as a weight suspended freely. During an earthquake,
both the base and the seismograph shake, but the hanging weight
remains still. Instead, the spring or string it is suspended from absorbs all
the movement. Moreover, the recording is based on the difference in
position between the shaking part of the seismograph and the part that
remains motionless. They use the seismogram recordings made on the
seismographs at the surface of the earth to determine how large the
earthquake was.
When an earthquake occurs, it releases seismic waves that
propagate through the Earth. There are two main types of seismic
waves:
1. Primary (P) Waves: These are
the fastest seismic waves and
are compressional waves that
move through solids, liquids,
and gases. P-waves cause
particles of the material to move in the same direction as the wave
propagation.
2. Secondary (S) Waves: These
are slower seismic waves that
are shear waves. They can only
travel through solids and cause
particles to move perpendicular
to the wave direction.
In addition to P-waves and S-waves, there are surface waves that travel
along the Earth’s surface. These waves cause the most damage during an
earthquake, as they have larger amplitudes and longer wavelengths.

HOW IS EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE MEASURED?

The size of the earthquake is called its magnitude. There is one
magnitude for each earthquake. Scientists also talk about the intensity of
shaking from an earthquake, and this varies depending on where you are
during the earthquake. There are a number of ways to measure the
magnitude of an earthquake. Most scales are based on the amplitude of
seismic waves recorded on seismometers.
  The Richter Scale
The first widely-used method, the Richter scale, was developed by Charles
F. Richter in 1934. It used a formula based on the amplitude of the largest
wave recorded on a specific type of seismometer and the distance
between the earthquake and the seismometer. That scale was specific to
California earthquakes and crust; other scales, based on wave amplitudes
and total earthquake duration, were developed for use in other situations
and they were designed to be consistent with Richter’s scale.
 Moment Magnitude Scale
Today, earthquake magnitude
measurement is based on the Moment
Magnitude Scale (MMS). MMS measures
the movement of rock along the fault. It
accurately measures larger earthquakes,
which can last for minutes, affect a much
larger area, and cause more damage. The
Moment Magnitude can measure the local
Richter magnitude (ML), body wave
magnitude (Mb), surface wave magnitude
(Ms). The table from the right describes
the magnitudes of earthquakes.

 The Mercalli Scale

Another way to measure the strength of an earthquake is to use the
observations of the people who experienced the earthquake, and the
amount of damage that occurred, to estimate its intensity. The Mercalli
scale was designed to do just that The original scale was invented by
Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902 and was modified by Harry Wood and Frank
Neumann in 1931 to become what is now known as the Modified Mercalli
Intensity Scale. To help distinguish it from magnitude scales, the MMI
scale uses roman numerals. Although the Mercalli scale does not use
scientific equipment to measure seismic waves, it has been very useful for
understanding the damage caused by large earthquakes.
 The effect of an earthquake on the Earth’s surface is called the
intensity. The intensity scale consists of a series of certain key responses
such as people awakening, movement of furniture, damage to chimneys,
and finally – total destruction. Although numerous intensity scales have
been developed over the last several hundred years to evaluate the
effects of earthquakes, the one currently used in the United States is the
Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale. It was developed in 1931 by the
American seismologists Harry Wood and Frank Neumann. This scale,
composed of increasing levels of intensity that range from imperceptible
shaking to catastrophic destruction, is designated by Roman numerals. It
does not have a mathematical basis; instead it is an arbitrary ranking
based on observed effects.
The Modified Mercalli Intensity value assigned to a specific site after
an earthquake has a more meaningful measure of severity to the
nonscientist than the magnitude because intensity refers to the effects
actually experienced at that place.
In addition, the lower numbers of the intensity scale generally deal
with the manner in which the earthquake is felt by people. The higher
numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage. Structural
engineers usually contribute information for assigning intensity values
below.
Sources/Usage: Public Domain.
Abbreviated description of the levels of Modified Mercalli intensity. (Public domain.)

Earthquakes vary in size and intensity. Scientists cannot predict

earthquakes with precision. While they have made significant
advancements in studying earthquakes and understanding their causes, it
is still challenging to predict exactly when and where an earthquake will
occur. Earthquakes result from the release of accumulated stress along
fault lines in the Earth’s crust, and this stress buildup is not easily
predictable. However, scientists can estimate the likelihood of earthquake
occurrence in specific regions based on historical data and ongoing
monitoring of seismic activity. They can also identify areas with a higher
risk of earthquakes, such as along major fault lines.
While tectonic activity is the primary cause of earthquakes, other
factors such as volcanic activity, landslides, and human-induced
seismicity (caused by activities like mining or reservoir-induced
seismicity) can also trigger earthquakes. However, the majority of
earthquakes are associated with tectonic plate movement. Earthquakes
can cause various types of damage, including collapsing buildings,
landslides, tsunamis, and the disruption of infrastructure and services.
They can also result in loss of life and injury.
In conclusion, efforts are made to study and monitor earthquakes to
understand their occurrence, behavior, and potential impact. This
knowledge helps scientists and engineers develop strategies to mitigate
the risks associated with earthquakes and improve the resilience of
communities in earthquake-prone areas.

Summary

 An earthquake is a sudden and violent shaking of the ground, often

caused by movement of the Earth’s tectonic plates.
 Earthquakes is a result of the release of energy in the Earth’s crust,
creating seismic waves.
 The Earth is primarily composed of four layers: Crust, Mantle, Core
(Inner and Outer Core).
  There are three types of plate boundaries: Convergent, Divergent
and Transform Fault Boundaries.
 Seismograph are instruments used to record the motion of the
ground during an earthquake.
 Earthquakes can vary in intensity, ranging from minor tremors that
may go unnoticed to major events that can cause widespread
destruction and loss of life.
 There are three methods used to measure the magnitude and
intensity of an earthquake: The Richter Scale, Moment Magnitude
Scale and the Mercalli Scale.

References

https://www.usgs.gov/programs/earthquake-hazards/science-earthquakes

https://www.usgs.gov/programs/earthquake-hazards/modified-mercalli-
intensity-scale?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects

Wood, H. O., and Neumann, Frank (1931). Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
of 1931: Seismological Society of America Bulletin, v. 21, no. 4, p. 277-
283.