Experiment Number-1

Design of Active Filters

Aim: To design and obtain the frequency response of second order Low Pass Filter (LPF)

APPARATUS:
S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 Resistor 33KΩ,27 kΩ,10 kΩ 2 ,1,1

2 Potentiometer 20k 1
3 Capacitor 0.0047 µF 2
4 I.C. 741 OP-AMP 1
Function Generator 1MHz 1
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and
Probes
THEORY:
A LPF allows frequencies from 0 to higher cut of frequency, fH. At fH, the gain is 0.707 Amax, and
after fH gain decreases at a constant rate with an increase in frequency. The gain decreases 20dB
each time the frequency is increased by 10. Hence the rate at which the gain rolls off after fH is
20dB/decade or 6 dB/ octave, where octave signifies a two fold increase in frequency. The
frequency f= fH is called the cut off frequency because the gain of the filter at this frequency is
down by 3 dB from 0 Hz. Other equivalent terms for cut-off frequency are - 3dB frequency, break
frequency, or corner frequency. The cutoff frequency is given as
1
fH =
2𝜋√𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶2 𝐶3

For the sake of simplicity let us take R2 = R3 = R, C2 = C3 = C then

1
fH =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Circuit Diagram:

Design:
1. Let the cutoff frequency fH = 1 kHz.
2. Let us take a capacitor of value 0.0047 µF.

So the value of R can be calculated as

1 1
R= = = 33.86 kΩ
2𝜋𝐶𝑓𝐻 2𝜋∗47∗10−10 ∗1∗103

Now RF = 0.586 R1

Let R1 = 27 kΩ so RF = 15.82 kΩ.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Apply sinusoidal wave of constant amplitude at the input such that op-amp does not go
into saturation.
3. Vary the input frequency and note down the output amplitude at each step as shown in
Table.
Observation Table:

Input frequency, Gain magnitude, │vo/vi│ Magnitude (dB) = 20log│vo/vi│

f (Hz)

RESULT: The frequency response is drawn and is found similar to that of theoretical one.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define a filter. How are filters classifieds?
2. What is a pass band and a stop band for a filter?
3. What are the advantages of active over passive ones?
4. What is the Butterworth response?
5. List the most commonly used filters.
 Experiment Number –2

Design of Active Filters

Aim: To design and obtain the frequency response of second order High Pass Filter (HPF)

APPARATUS:
S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 Resistor 10KΩ 4
2 Potentiometer 20k,50k 1
3 Function Generator 1MHz 1
4 I.C. 741 OP-AMP 1
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and Probes

THEORY:
The high pass filter can be obtained from the low pass by simply interchanging the frequency
determining resistors and capacitors. The frequency at which the magnitude of the gain is 0.707
times the maximum value of gain is called lower cut off frequency. Obviously, all frequencies
higher than fL are pass band frequencies with the highest frequency determined by the closed
loop band width of the op-amp.

Circuit Diagram:
Design:
3. Let the cutoff frequency fL = 1 kHz.
4. Let us take a capacitor of value 0.0047 µF.

So the value of R can be calculated as

1 1
R= = = 33.86 kΩ
2𝜋𝐶𝑓𝐿 2𝜋∗47∗10−10 ∗1∗103

Now RF = 0.586 R1

Let R1 = 27 kΩ so RF = 15.82 kΩ.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagrams shown in figure.
2. Apply sinusoidal wave of constant amplitude at the input such that op-amp does not go
into saturation.
3. Vary the input frequency and note down the output amplitude at each step as shown in
Table.

Observation Table:

Input frequency, Gain magnitude, │vo/vi│ Magnitude (dB) = 20log│vo/vi│

f (Hz)

RESULT: The frequency response is drawn and is found similar to that of theoretical one.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
6. Define a filter. How are filters classifieds?
7. What is a pass band and a stop band for a filter?
8. What are the advantages of active over passive ones?
9. What is the Butterworth response?
10. List the most commonly used filters.
 Experiment Number- 3

Design of Log and Antilog Amplifier

AIM: To construct and study the behavior of logarithmic and antilogarithmic amplifier.

APPARATUS:
S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 Op-Amp 741 IC 1
2 Resistor 100 KΩ , 10 KΩ 2
3 NPN transistor BC 548 1
4 Function Generator 1MHz 1
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board, Dc power 1
supply
7 Connecting Wires and
Probes
THEORY:
The log and antilog amplifiers are the non linear application mode circuits. The grounded base
NPN transistor behaves like a diode. Because the inverting terminal is on virtual ground the
collector-base potential is zero and thereby it is behaving like a diode. So
𝑞𝑉𝐸
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝑆 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 − 1)

Since IC = IE for a grounded base transistor,

𝑞𝑉𝐸
IC = IS (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 - 1)

Where

IS = emitter saturation current ≈ 10-13 A

k = Boltzmann’s Constant

T = absolute temperature (in oK)

𝑞𝑉𝐸
𝐼
Therefore, 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = 𝐼𝐶 + 1
𝑆

𝐼
≈ 𝐼𝐶
𝑆

Taking natural log on both sides, we get

𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝑐
VE = ln ( ), also VE = - V0
𝑞 𝐼𝑠
 𝑘𝑇 𝑉𝑖
V0 = - ln ( )
𝑞 𝐼𝑠 𝑅1

Similarly for antilog amplifier

V0 = -RF IS 𝑒 (𝑉𝑖𝑛 ⁄𝑉𝑇 )

Circuit Diagram: (Log Amplifier)

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Set the input voltage to 1V.

3. See the voltage across the output terminal. Note the negative sign.

4. Increase the input voltage in the step of 1V up to 20V.

5. Plot the characteristics of input voltage and output voltage.

Antilog:
Procedure:
1. Set the input voltage to 100mV.

2. See the voltage across the Resistor. Note the negative sign.

3. Increase the input voltage in the step of 50mV up to 500mV.

4. Plot the characteristics of input voltage and output voltage.

5. Reverse the polarity of the diode and see the effect for positive input

voltage.

Observation Table:
Input Voltage Output Voltage

Result & Discussion: Graph is drawn and verified.

 Experiment Number-4
Design of Voltage Comparator and Zero Crossing Detector
Aim: To design a Voltage comparator and Zero Crossing Detector.

Apparatus:
S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 Resistor 10KΩ 1
2 Resistor 1KΩ 2
3 Function Generator 1MHz 1
4 I.C. 741 OP-AMP 1
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and Probes

THEORY:

Comparator:
A comparator circuit is one which compares a voltage signal at one input with a known reference
signal at the other input. It works in open loop mode. There are basically two types of
comparator namely inverting and non-inverting comparators. The output will be either +Vsat or –
Vsat depending upon the amplitude of the signal at the input terminal. If the amplitude of the non-
inverting terminal signal is greater than the inverting terminal signal then the output will be
+Vsat and vice-versa.

Zero Crossing Detector:

The zero crossing detector is a special case basic comparator circuit. If we set reference voltage
zero then a comparator behaves like a zero crossing detector.

Design: Not required

PROCEDURE:
Comparator:

1. Connect the IC on the base and connect power supply on respective terminals.
2. Connect input signal through a resistor in series to inverting terminal and reference signal
through a resistor to non inverting terminal.
3. Connect the load resistor to the output terminal and also the probe of CRO to the output terminal.
Observation Table: Not required

Zero Crossing Detector:

In comparator circuit set the reference voltage to ground and keep everything same.

Observation Table: Not Required

Result: The waveforms are verified and it satisfied the stated conditions.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is a comparator?
2. List the important characteristics of a comparator.
3. What is a zero crossing detector?
4. List some applications of a comparator.
5. What is the basic difference between a basic comparator and a Schmitt trigger?
 Experiment Number-5
Design of Wien Bridge Oscillator using Operational Amplifier.
Aim: To design a Wien-bridge oscillator using operational amplifier having resonant frequency
965 Hz.

Apparatus:
S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 Resistor 10KΩ 1
2 Resistor 3.3 KΩ 1
3 Function Generator 1MHz 1
4 I.C. 741 OP-AMP 1
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and Probes
8 Potentiometer 50 kΩ 1

Theory/Design:
Suppose we have to design oscillator of resonant frequency 965 Hz.

We know that the resonant frequency f0 is given by

1 0.159
f0 = =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶

Let C = 0.05 µF therefore R will can be calculated as

0.159
R = (965)0.05∗10−6 = 3.3 kΩ

Let Rs = 10 kΩ

Rf = 2Rs

Therefore Rf = 20 kΩ
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
Connect the circuit as shown in figure and observe the output at pin number 6. Trace it on CRO
screen.

Observation:
Trace the waveform and measure the frequency.

Result: Sinusoidal waveform was traced on pin 6 and verified with stated condition.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define an oscillator.
2. What are the two requirements for oscillation?
3. How are oscillators classifieds?
4. What is frequency stability? Explain its significance.
 Experiment Number-6

Design of Monostable Multivibrator Circuit using 555

Timer:
AIM: To construct and study the operation of a monostable multivibrator using 555 IC timer.

APPARATUS:
S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 555 IC Timer 1
2 Resistor 10 KΩ 1
3 Capacitors 10nF, 0.1μF, 0.01μF 1
4 Function Generator 1MHz 1
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and
Probes
THEORY:
It has one stable and one quasi stable state. The circuit is useful for generating single output
pulse of time duration in response to a triggering signal. The width of the output pulse depends
only on external components connected to the op-amp. The diode gives a negative triggering
pulse. When the output is +Vsat, a diode clamps the capacitor voltage to 0.7V then, a negative
going triggering impulse magnitude Vi passing through RC and the negative triggering pulse is
applied to the positive terminal. Let us assume that the circuit is instable state. The output V0i is
at +Vsat. The diode D1 conducts and Vc the voltage across the capacitor ‘C’ gets clamped to
0.7V,the voltage at the positive input terminal through R1R2 potentiometer divider is +ßVsat.
Now, if a negative trigger of magnitude Vi is applied to the positive terminal so that the effective
signal is less than 0.7V.the output of the Op-Amp will switch from +Vsat to –Vsat. The diode will
now get reverse biased and the capacitor starts charging exponentially to –Vsat. When the
capacitor charge Vc becomes slightly more negative than –ßVsat, the output of the op-amp
switches back to +Vsat. The capacitor ‘C’ now starts charging to +Vsat through R until Vc is 0.7V.

V0 = Vf + (Vi-Vf) 𝑒 𝑡/𝑅𝐶 , ß = R2/(R1+R2)

If Vsat >> Vp and R1=R2 and ß = 0.5,

Then, T = 0.69RC
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply Negative triggering pulses at pin 2 of frequency 1 KHz as shown in Fig.
3. Observe the output waveform and capacitor voltage as shown in Figure and measure the
pulse duration.
4. Theoretically calculate the pulse duration as Thigh =1.1 RC
5. Compare it with experimental values.

Observation: Trace the time period of the output wave form and compare it with the given one.

Result & Discussion: The waveform is observed and verified with stated condition.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Why is a monostable multivibrator called so?
Ans: The monostable circuit has only one stable state (output low) hence the name monostable.
2. What is the purpose of monostable multivibrator?
Ans: A monostable device, on the other hand, is only able to hold in one particular state
indefinitely. Its other state can only be held momentarily when triggered by an external input.
3. Give one examples of multivibrator.
Ans: The flip-flop is a free running multivibrator.
4. What is the principle of monostable multivibrator?
Ans: All monostable multivibrators are timed devices. That is, their unstable output state will hold
only for a certain minimum amount of time before returning to its stable state.
5. How does a monostable multivibrator work in terms of the astable multivibrator?
Ans: Like the astable multivibrator, one transistor conducts and the others cut-off when the circuit
is energized.
 Experiment Number-7

Design of Astable Multivibrator Circuit using 555 Timer:

AIM: To construct and study the operation of a monostable multivibrator using 555 IC timer.

APPARATUS:
S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 555 IC Timer 1
2 Resistor 10 KΩ 1
3 Capacitors 10nF, 0.1μF, 0.01μF 1
4 Function Generator 1MHz 1
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and
Probes
THEORY:
In the 555 Oscillator above, pin 2 and pin 6 are connected together allowing the circuit to re-
trigger itself on each and every cycle allowing it to operate as a free running oscillator. During
each cycle capacitor, C charges up through both timing resistors, R1 and R2 but discharges itself
only through resistor, R2 as the other side of R2 is connected to the discharge terminal, pin 7. Then
the capacitor charges up to 2/3Vcc (the upper comparator limit) which is determined by the
0.693(R1+R2)C combination and discharges itself down to 1/3Vcc (the lower comparator limit)
determined by the 0.693(R2.C) combination. This results in an output waveform whose voltage
level is approximately equal to Vcc - 1.5V and whose output "ON" and "OFF" time periods are
determined by the capacitor and resistors combinations. The individual times required
completing one charge and discharge cycle of the output is therefore given as:

t1 = 0.693 (R1+R2)C, t2 = 0.693 R2C, T = t1 + t2

Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Use potentiometer in case output is not proper.

Observation: Trace the output waveform and calculate the frequency from the fundamental
period of the wave.

Result & Discussion: The waveform was traced and compared with the designed theoretical
one.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is an astable multivibrator called so?
Ans: There is no stable state where the circuit can come to rest, so this circuit is known as an
astable multivibrator.
2. How does a monostable multivibrator work in terms of the astable multivibrator?
Ans: Like the astable multivibrator, one transistor conducts and the others cut-off when the
circuit is energized.
3. What is the disadvantage of an astable multivibrator?
Ans: When the astable m/v was first energized, it was impossible to predict which transistor
would initially go to cut-off because of circuit symmetry.
4. What are the different types of multivibrator circuits?
Ans: There are three types of m/v circuits: Astable, Monostable and Bistable.
 Experiment Number – 8
Aim: To construct and study the voltage to current convertor.

Apparatus:
S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 Resistor 1KΩ, 10kΩ 1

2 Potentiometer 10 kΩ 1
3 Function Generator 1MHz 1
4 IC 741 OP-AMP 1
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and
Probes

Theory: In the circuit shown in figure in which load RL is floating. Since voltage at node ‘a’ is
vi, therefore,
𝑣𝑖
iL =
𝑅1
𝑣𝑖
That is the input voltage vi is converted into an output current of . It may be seen that
𝑅1
the same current flows through the signal source and load, therefore signal source should
be capable of providing this load current.

Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure.

2. Connect a 10kΩ load resistor at the output pin number 6.
3. Connect an ammeter in series with RL to measure the load current.

Observation Table:

Input Output
Voltage Current (mA)
(Volts)

Result & Discussion: The graph between input voltage and output current is drawn and
verified in linear range.
 Experiment Number – 9
FUNCTION GENERATOR USING OP AMPS

AIM: To generate triangular and square wave forms and to determine the time period of the
waveforms.

APPARATUS:

S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 Op-Amp IC 741 2
2 Resistor 10 1
KΩ,150kΩ,1.5kΩ,1MΩ,8.2kΩ
3 Capacitors 10nF, 0.1μF, 0.01μF 1
4 Zener diodes 6.2V 2
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and
Probes

THEORY:
The function generator consists of a comparator U1 and an integrator A2.The comparator U2
compares the voltage at point P continuously with the inverting input i.e., at zero volts. When
voltage at P goes slightly below or above zero volts, the output of U1 is at the negative or positive
saturation level, respectively. To illustrate the circuit operation let us set the output of U1 at
positive saturation +Vsat (approximately +Vcc). This +Vsat is an input to the integrator U2. The
output of U2, therefore will be a negative going ramp. Thus, one end of the voltage divider R2-R3
is the positive saturation voltage +Vast of U1 and the other is the negative going ramp of U2.
When the negative going ramp attains a certain value –Vramp, point p is slightly below zero
valts; hence the output of U1 will switch from positive saturation to negative saturation –Vsat
(approximately –Vcc). This means that the output of U2 will now stop going negatively and will
begin to go positively. The output of U2 will continue to increase until it reaches +Vramp. At this
time the point P is slightly above zero volts. The sequence then repeats. The frequencies of the
square are a function of the d.c supply voltage. Desired amplitude can be obtained by using
approximate zeners at the output of U1.

THEORETICAL VALUES: Time period, T= 4R5C (R3+R4)/ (R1+R2) = 0.492 msec.

Positive peak ramp = VzR5/ (R1+R2) = 0.05 volts.

PRACTICAL VALUES:

Time periods of triangular wave=

Time periods of square wave=

Positive peak ramp=

Voltage of square wave=

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. The circuit is connected as shown in the figure.

2. The output of the comparator U1 is connected to the CRO through chennal1, to generate a square wave.

3. The output of the comparator U2 is connected to the CRO through chennal2, to generate a triangular
wave.

4. The time periods of the square wave and triangular waves are noted and they are found to be equal.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Make null adjustment before applying the input signal.

2. Maintain proper Vcc levels.

RESULT: The theoretical and practical values of time periods are found to be equal.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define function generator?

2. Write some applications of function generator?

3. What is the function of function generator?

4. Draw the block diagram of function generator?

 Experiment Number –10
4 BIT DAC USING OP AMP
AIM: To construct and study digital to analog converter circuit.

APPARATUS:
Name of the Equipment Values Quantity
S.NO.
1 Op-Amp IC 741 2
2 Resistors 1 KΩ,2kΩ,4kΩ,8kΩ,10kΩ 5 each
3 Multimeter
4 CRO 20 MHz 1
5 IC Bread Board Trainer 1
6 Connecting Wires and
Probes

Theory: A digital to analog converter is used when a binary output from a digital system
must be converted to equivalent analog voltage or current. A DAC converter uses an op-amp and
binary weighted resistors or R-2r ladder resistors.
In binary weighted resistors method are used. This can be avoided by using R-2R ladder type
DAC where only 2 values of resistors are required .The binary inputs are simulated by switches
B0-B3 and output is proportional to the binary inputs. Binary inputs can be high (+5V) or low
(0V).

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.

2. Pin2 is connected to resistor 1MΩand ground.

3. +Vcc are available at Pin7 and –Vcc is applied at Pin4.

4. Output is taken between pin6 and ground

5. Voltage at each bit (vr) is found at bits b0, b1, b2, b3.

6. Pin3 of op amp is connected to resistor 1kΩ and is given to b3 (MSB).

7. A resistor of 2kΩ is connected between pin2 and pin 6 of op amp.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Observation:
D3 D2 D1 D0 Analog Output
Theoretical Practical

RESULT: Thus digital to analog converter is constructed and studied.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by resolution of DAC?

2. What is meant by linearity of DAC?

3. What is meant by accuracy of DAC?

4. What is meant by DAC?

5. What is disadvantage of weighted resistor DAC?

6. What is the value of resistor required in weighted resistor DAC if LSB resistor value is 12KΩ
for 4 bit DAC?
7. What are the applications of DAC?