Reminder: These notes are meant to supplement, not replace the laboratory manual.
SN1 Reaction Notes
Background and Application
Substitution Nucleophilic First Order (SN1) reactions are one of the most common type
of organic substitution reactions. SN1 reactions can be used to make a wide
variety of new compounds. In this experiment, t-amyl alcohol (2-methyl-2-
butanol) will be converted by hydrochloric acid via a SN1 mechanism to 2-chloro-
2-methylbutane.
Safety Precautions
Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) is 12.1 M. It is highly corrosive and will cause
visible destruction of tissue, paper and clothing upon contact. Wear eye goggles
at all times during this experiment. Keep HCl away from skin, clothes, and eyes.
Neutralize any spilled HCl with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and wipe up
immediately.
Gas will be released when sodium bicarbonate is added to your separatory funnel. Do
not stopper funnel after the addition of sodium bicarbonate solution. Vent
separatory funnel frequently while shaking. Do not vent separatory funnel toward
another person or yourself. Liquids may spray out while venting.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons (R-Cl) tend to be toxic materials. The target organs are the
liver and kidneys. Be careful not to breathe product or get on skin. Wear gloves
during this experiment.
Silver nitrate (AgNO3) will react with and stain skin a black/brown.
1. Some terminology related to SN1 Reactions:
Synthesis: A reaction which results in the formation of a new product.
Mechanism: A step by step description of bond breaking and bond making as one
compound is transformed into another compound.
Leaving Group: This is the part of a molecule which may break away, taking the
electrons from the bond with it. The more stable the leaving group as an
independent assemblage, the more readily it will depart the molecule.
Carbocation: A carbon with only 6 shared valence shell electrons. A full positive charge
resides on the carbon (C+). Carbocations are good electrophiles.
Nucleophile: An atom or assemblage of atoms which will donate electrons to form a new
covalent bond. Strong nucleophiles are strong Lewis bases.
Electrophile: An atom which will accept electrons and form a new covalent bond.
Electrophiles have either a formal positive charge or a partial positive charge.
They have a low electron density and hence will accept electrons from a
nucleophile.
SN1 mechanism: A two-step Nucleophilic substitution mechanism which is rate
dependent only on the starting alkyl concentration. K=k[R-LG]. The first step, the
leaving group leaves forming a carbocation. This is the slow rate determining
step (RDS). In the second step, a nucleophile forms a new covalent bond with
the electrophile.
Qualitative Analysis: A test or series of test which gives indications about a materials
identity or constituents. Often these tests are carried out in wells or test tubes
and the result is a color change or precipitation.
2. This is a synthetic experiment. Today each of you will make a new compound by
reacting two starting materials together. 2-methyl-2-butanol (t-amyl alcohol or t-pentyl
alcohol) is converted to 2-chloro-2-methyl butane (t-amyl chloride or t-pentyl chloride).
3. This reaction is carried out in the presence of excess concentrated hydrochloric acid.
HCl is highly corrosive. Goggles and gloves should be worn at all times. Care should be
taken to not get acid on skin. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid (pKa = - 7i) which means
the acid completely disassociates.
4. Most chlorinated organic materials have increased toxicity to humans. The target
organs are usually the liver and kidneyii. Minimize direct contact with these materials.
5. SN1 reactions are nucleophilic substitution reactions with first order kinetics in regard
to the organic substrate. This is a three-step mechanism. First the acid protonates the
alcohol to form a good leaving group; then water (the leaving group) departs, forming a
carbocation. This is the rate determining step (RDS). The last step is a Lewis acid-base
reaction in which the nucleophile combines with the carbocation to form the product.
The entire mechanism is depicted below.
6. 2-methyl-2-butanol is soluble in water. 2-chloro-2-methylbutane is insoluble in water
(<1.0 g/100mL)iii. When 2-chloro-2-methylbutane forms it immediately separates from
the aqueous layer and creates a new organic layer. The solubility in water of these two
compounds is different because the hydroxyl group is both a hydrogen bond donor and
a hydrogen bond acceptor, whereas chlorine is neither a hydrogen bond donor nor
acceptor. The hydroxy group permits the t-amyl alcohol to be soluble in water.
7. If two or more layers exist in a separatory funnel, you can determine the identity of
the aqueous layer by adding drops of water to the funnel and observing the layer into
which the droplets merge.
8. Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is baking soda. Sodium bicarbonate solution is simply
baking soda dissolved in water. It is a weak base and will neutralize any excess acid
present. When sodium bicarbonate reacts with an acid, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3)
which spontaneously dissociates into water and carbon dioxide (CO2) which is a gas.
9. Saturated sodium chloride (NaCl) solution is simply salt water, also called brine. The
high ionic nature of the brine decreases the formation of emulsions and promotes the
separation of organic material from the water layer. Solubility of materials decrease in
brine water compared to pure water. Salt water decreases the amount of product which
is dissolved in the water and increases the amount of product isolated.
10. Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) is a dehydrating (drying) agent. It absorbs water from
materials with which it comes in contact. Sodium sulfate is often used to dry liquids. This
does not mean to remove all the liquid, but simply to remove the water (H 2O) from that
liquid.
11. The product will be analyzed by a wet qualitative test. Silver nitrate is one of the
very few water-soluble silver salts. When silver nitrate reacts with an alkyl halide, a
silver halide forms. This is very insoluble and will appear as a white cloud or a white
precipitate. When silver nitrate is reacted with 2-chloro-2-methylbutane the silver reacts
with the chloride and forms insoluble silver chloride.
R-X + Ag+ + H2O→ R-OH + AgX (ppt) + H+
Alkyl halide silver ion water alcohol silver halide
If silver nitrate is reacted with an unknown material and a white precipitate forms, then
the unknown material must have contained a halide. When Silver Nitrates contacts skin,
it becomes reduced and turn black-brown. This will not wash off. Avoid skin contact.
This qualitative test will be performed on two watch glasses using just a few
drops of sample and silver nitrate solution.
12. The product will also be analyzed via IR. Review how to analyze a sample using IR
and review the major important absorbance regions. Think about what bonds change
between the starting material and the product. What do you expect the major difference
to be in the IR?
□ –OH/N-H □ =C-H □ -C-H □ C≡C/C≡N
[3600-3200] [3100-3000] [3000-2800 cm-1] [2300-2100 cm-1]
□ C=O □ C=C □ –C-O- □ None. Not possible to
[1800-1650 [1680-1600] [1000-1300 cm-1] differentiate using IR.
13. The success of the synthesis will also be assessed by determining the percent yield
of the reaction. Percent yield is the amount of material actually formed divided by the
theoretical maximum amount of product that could form (the theoretical yield).
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 (𝑔)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 (𝑔)
This is a common calculation in second semester organic lab. Your professor will review
how to carry out these calculations. There is also a “Percent Yield” sheet posted on the
class web site and Brightspace.
14. Physical properties necessary to carry out the calculations for the synthesis of
2-chloro-2-methyl butane are below.
2-methyl-2-butanol density = 0.8096iv g/mL mol. Wt. =88.15
Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid Molarity = 12.1 M
2-chloro-2-methylbutane density = 0.866v g/mL mol. Wt=106.59
Reviewed and/or revised: November 8, 2021, S. L. Weaver
References
i Organic Chemistry, Pine, S. H., Hendrickson, J. B., Cram, D. J., Hammond, G. S., 4 th Edition, 1980,
McGraww-Hill, p 202
ii Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, Sax, M. I., 3 rd Edition, Reinhold,1968, p 551
iii iii National Institutes of Standards and Testing, [Link] April 1, 2009
iv PubChem, NIH, [Link]
(accessed March 23, 2021)
v Sigma-Aldrich [Link]
(accesed March 23, 2021)
