Unit – 2

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF DC GENERATOR

1. DC Generator is an electro mechanical energy conversion device used to convert

mechanical energy to electrical energy.
2. It works as per Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction which states that

I Law: “Whenever the conductor cuts the magnetic flux a dynamical emf is induced
in the conductor”
II Law: “The magnitude of the emf induced is directly proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkages”

3. Fleming’s right hand rule is used to obtain the direction of the current in the coil of the
DC Generator.
Simple loop dc generator:
The simple loop dc generator is assumed to have
the following parts as shown in Fig (a)
 Two permanent magnets (North pole and
South pole) as stator
 A single turn rectangular coil named as
Armature (placed on the shaft) as rotor
 Two Slip rings rotating along with the
armature coil
 Two static carbon brushes mounted on the slip rings
 External load or galvanometer
The rectangular shaped armature coil is assumed to be rotated in anticlockwise with an
angular velocity of ω rad/sec.
The working operation of the simple loop generator is explained over one complete rotation
of the coil for 3600 and is shown in the below figure at different positions of the coil.
At 0 degrees Position (1):
1. This position is also known as the “Neutral Plane”;
2. In this position the loop is parallel to the magnetic lines
of flux
3. In this position there is maximum flux passing through
the coil.
4. No EMF is induced in the coil because of no “Change in flux through the loop”.

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At 90 degrees Position (2):
1. After the loop has been rotated 90 degrees
clockwise through the magnetic field the flux
linkage through it now becomes zero.
2. But the rate of change of flux through it was
maximum,
3. This results in an induced EMF which climbs from zero to its peak value.
At 180 degrees Position (3):
1. Once again the coil is rotated 90 degrees clockwise
resulting in the completion of a 180 degrees cycle.
2. Here the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic lines
of force
3. This means that there is maximum flux density through it resulting the EMF to falls
back to zero.
At 270 degrees Position (4):
1. At 270 degrees the flux linkage through the loop is
once again zero,
2. but the rate of change of flux is maximum.
3. In this position, the EMF induced goes up to its
peak value, but this time it’s in the reverse direction.
At 360 degrees Position(5):
1. The loop is rotated through another 90 degrees such
that it has completed a rotation of 360 degrees.
2. The flux linkage through it is maximum and the
voltage decreases back to zero.

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  Hence, it is observed that the nature of the emf induced in the armature coil is
alternating quantity (i.e, positive voltage during first half cycle and negative voltage
during second half cycle)
 Thus, to convert the induced alternating ac to dc nature the Commutator (or) split
rings are used in the place of the slip rings of a simple loop generator.
ACTION OF COMMUTATOR:
 The Commutator is a mechanical rectifier used to convert
AC to DC
 Here, the split rings or Commutator segments (s1 and s2) are
placed instead of slip rings
 The split rings or commutator are made out of conducting
cylinder, which is cut into two halves or segments insulated from each other by a thin
sheet of mica.
 Brushes B1 and B2 are mounted on two Commutator segments having + and - polarities
At θ = 900position :
 Conductor AB is under South Pole and Conductor CD are under North Pole, with coil
rotating in clock wise direction.
 Using Flemings right hand rule, the current in the conductor AB is from B-A and in
conductor CD is from D-C
 Therefore the current flow is in the path of A – S1 - B1 – M – L - B2 - S2 – D – C – B -
A

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At θ = 2700position :
 Conductor AB is under North Pole and Conductor CD are under South Pole, with coil
rotating in clock wise direction.
 Using Flemings right hand rule, the current in the conductor AB is from A-B and in
conductor CD is from C-D
 Therefore the current flow is in the path of A – B – C - D- S2- B1 – M – L - B2 – S1- A

 Thus using the Commutator, the current in the load is unidirectional from M to L at all
positions i.e current in coil is alternating and current in Resistance R is unidirectional
(pulsating DC)

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CONSTRUCTION OF DC GENERATOR
A DC generator has the following parts
1. Yoke (or) Magnetic frame 2. Pole core and pole shoe
3. Field winding (or) Pole coils 4. Armature Core
5. Armature winding 6. Commutator 7. Brushes 8. Bearing

Yoke:
 Yoke or the outer frame of DC generator serves
two purposes,
1. It holds the magnetic pole cores of the
generator and acts as cover of the
generator.
2. It carries the magnetic field flux.
 Yoke is made of cast iron for small rating
generators, due to the cheaper in cost but heavier
than steel.
 Yoke is made of lighter cast steel or rolled steel for larger rating generators , where
weight of the machine is concerned.
Pole core and pole shoe

 The field magnets consist of pole cores and

pole shoes.
 The pole core is fixed to the inner periphery of
the yoke by means of bolts through the yoke
and into the pole body.
 The pole core carries the field winding and
there are two types of construction
One: Solid pole core, where it is made of
a single piece of cast iron or cast steel.
Two: Laminated pole core, where it made of numbers of thin, limitations of
annealed steel which are riveted together.
 The thickness of the lamination is in the range of 0.04" to 0.01".
 The pole shoes serve two purposes:

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 1. They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross-section,
reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path
2. They support the exciting coils (or field coils)
Field winding (or) Pole coils
 The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which
the armature rotates.
 Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the dc exciting current.
 The field coils are connected in such a way that adjacent poles have opposite polarity.
 The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic flux that passes through
the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame.
 Practical d.c. machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm.
 By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the size of field coils
Armature Core
 The armature core consists of slotted soft-iron
laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that
are stacked to form a cylindrical core as
shown in adjacent figure.
 The purpose of laminating the core is to
reduce the eddy current loss.
 Thinner the lamination, greater is the
resistance offered to the induced e.m.f.,
smaller the current and hence lesser the I²R
loss in the core.
 The laminations are slotted to accommodate and provide mechanical security to the
armature winding and to give shorter air gap for the flux to cross between the pole
face and the armature “teeth”.
Armature winding
 The slots of the armature core hold insulated
conductors that are connected in a suitable manner.
This is known as armature winding.
 This is the winding in which “working” emf is
induced. The armature conductors are connected in
series-parallel; the conductors being connected in
series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so as to increase the current.
 The armature winding of a D.C. machine is a closed-circuit winding; the conductors
being connected in a symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed
loops.
 There are two types of armature winding based on the connection to the Commutator
they are (a) Lap winding and (b) Wave winding
Commutator
 A Commutator is a mechanical rectifier
which converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into
direct voltage across the brushes
 The Commutator is made of copper
segments insulated from each other by mica
sheets and mounted on the shaft of the
machine
 The armature conductors are soldered to the

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 Commutator segments in a suitable manner to give rise to the armature winding
Brushes
 The function of the brushes in DC generator is to collect current from Commutator
segments.
 The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the Commutator.
 The brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs.

Bearing of DC Generator

 For small machine, ball bearing is used and for heavy duty DC generator, roller
bearing is used.
The bearing must always be lubricated properly for smooth operation and long life of
generator.
EMF EQUATION
Let,
E = Average emf induced in volts
Z = No. of armature conductors
N = Speed of the rotor in RPM
P = No. of the poles
A = No. of parallel paths
Φ = Flux per pole in Weber’s

As per Faradays second Law,

 The magnitude of the induced emf (e) is directly proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkages (ψ)
d d d d
e = e N = ek N , In SI unit system k =1, e  N
dt dt dt dt
d
 Emf per conductor is e 
dt
Where,
 d = total flux in the airgap that cuts the conductor for one revolution.
As (P) No. of poles and each pole produces the  flux, then d = P
 dt = time taken by the conductor to cut the flux of d
60
i.e The time taken for the armature coil to complete one rotation dt  sec
N
Thus,

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 P PN
e 
 60  60
 
N
As there are (A) No. of parallel paths with ‘Z’ No. of conductors, then the emf per
parallel path is given by

PN  Z  ZN P
e *   *
60  A  60 A
ZN P
Therefore, average value of the emf induced is E *
60 A

The No. of parallel paths in the armature winding depends on the type of the armature
windings
For Wave connected Armature (A=2)
ZN P
E *
60 2
For Lap connected Armature (A=P)
ZN P
E *
60 P
Differences between LAP and WAVE windings
Lap Winding Wave Winding
The lap winding can be defined as a coil which can be lap The wave winding can be defined as the loop of the
back toward the succeeding coil. winding can form the signal shape.
The connection of the lap winding is, the armature coil The connection of the wave winding is, the armature coil
end is connected to the nearby section on the end is connected to commutator sections at some distance
commutators. apart.
The numbers of the parallel paths are equal to the total of The number of parallel paths is equal to two.
number poles.
Another name of lap winding is multiple Another name of wave winding is Series
winding otherwise Parallel Winding Winding otherwise Two-circuit
The e.m.f of lap winding is Less The e.m.f of wave winding is More
The no. of brushes in lap winding is Equivalent to the no. The no. of brushes in wave winding is Equivalent toTwo
of parallel paths.
The types of lap winding are Simplex lap winding & The types of wave winding are Progressive &
Duplex lap winding. Retrogressive
The efficiency of the lap winding is Less The efficiency of the wave winding is High
The additional coil used in the lap winding is Equalizer The additional coil used in the wave winding is Dummy
Ring coil
The winding cost of the lap winding is High The winding cost of the wave winding is Low
The lap winding used for high current, low voltage The applications of wave winding include low current
machines. and high voltage machines.

TYPES OF DC GENERATORS
Based on the excitation given to the field winding, the dc generators are classified in to two
types
a. Separately excited dc generator
b. Self excited dc generator
SEPARATELY EXCITED DC GENERATOR:
1. In a separately excited generator field winding is energized from a separate voltage source in
order to produce flux in the machine and is shown in the below figure.

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2. The flux produced will be proportional to the field
current in unsaturated condition of the poles.
3. The armature conductors when rotated in this field will
cuts the magnetic flux and generates the emf (Eg).
4. The emf will circulate the current against the armature
resistance (Ra), brushes and to the load.
5. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
E g  V  I a Ra  Vbrush
PL
Ia  IL and IL  and
V
Vf
If 
Rf
SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR:
1. In self excited generator field winding is energized from the armature induced emf and there
is an electrical connection in between this armature and field winding.
2. There are three possibilities of connecting the field winding to the armature they are
a. Shunt generator
b. Series generator
c. Compound generator
i. Long shunt compound generator
ii. Short shunt compound generator
DC SHUNT GENERATOR
1. In the dc shunt generator the field winding
circuit is connected in parallel to the armature
circuit and as well as to the load.
2. The armature current is divided in to the field
and the load as If and IL.
3. The shunt field winding has more number of
turns with thin wire, so that resistance of the
field will be in the range of hundreds and was
designed to withstand for the rated voltage.
4. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
E g  V  I a Ra  Vbrush
PL V
Ia  IL  I f and IL  and If 
V Rf
DC SERIES GENERATOR
1. In the dc series generator the field winding circuit is
connected in series to the armature circuit and as well as to the
load.
2. Here the armature current is equal to the series field current
and also equal to the load.

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5. The series field winding has less number of turns with thick wire, so that resistance of the
field will be in the smaller values and was designed to carry the rated current.
6. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
E g  V  I a Ra  Rse   Vbrush
PL
I a  I L  I se and IL 
V
DC COMPOUND GENERATORS
1. A compound generator has two field coils wound over the field poles.
2. The coil having large number of turns and thinner cross sectional area is called the shunt field
coil and the other coil having few numbers of turns and large cross sectional area is called the
series field coil.
3. Based on the series field winding connected to the armature the compound generators are
classified as long shunt generator and short shunt generator
Short Shunt DC Compound Generator
1. In a short shunt dc compound generator, the series
field is connected in series to the load and shunt
field winding is connected in parallel to the
armature and the series combination of the load and
series winding.
2. Thus, the series field current will depend on the
load variations which will effect in further the shunt
field current.
3. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
E g  V  I a Ra  I L Rse  Vbrush
PL V  I L Rse
I a  I L  I se and IL  and If 
V Rf

Long Shunt DC Compound Generator

1. In a long shunt dc compound generator, the series
field is connected in series to the armature and
shunt field winding is connected in parallel to the
armature and to the load.
2. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
E g  V  I a Ra  Rse   Vbrush
PL
I a  I L  I se and IL  and
V
V
If 
Rf
 Also, the dc compound generators are further classified into two types based on the
compounding of the series flux to the shunt flux. They are cumulatively compounded and
differentially compounded generators
 In the cumulatively compound generator, the series flux aids to the shunt field flux and the

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 net flux increases, whereas in the differentially compounded generators the series flux
opposes the shunt field flux and the net resultant flux decreases.
 The below figure shows the arrangement of the series and shunt field coils iin the pole core in
both cumulative and differentially compounded generators.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATOR
There are three characteristics to be analyzed for any type of the dc generator, they are
1. Open circuit characteristics (or) No-Load characteristics (or) Magnetization
characteristics (E0 Vs If)
2. Internal characteristics (Eg Vs Ia)
3. External or Load characteristics (V Vs IL)

OCC or No-Load Characteristics of Separately excited DC Generator :

1. OCC is the characteristics drawn between open circuit voltage (E0) for various field currents
(If ) at constant speed.
2. In this generator field winding is excited from a separate source Vf as shown in above circuit,
hence field current is independent of armature terminal voltage
3. The generator is driven by a prime mover at rated speed, say constant speed N rpm.
4. With switch S in opened condition, field coil is excited via a potential divider connection
from a separate d.c source and field current is gradually increased by moving the wiper from
minimum position gradually.
5. The field current will establish the flux per pole Φ.
6. The voltmeter V connected across the armature terminals of the machine will record the
 PZ 
generated emf  E  *N  k *N  . Where k is a constant of the machine.
 60 A 

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7. As field current is increased, E0 will increase.
8. E0 versus I plot at constant speed N rpm is shown in below figure.
f

9. It may be noted that even when there is no field current, a small voltage (OD) is generated
due to residual flux and the small voltage is called residual voltage.
10. If field current is increased, φ increases linearly initially and O.C.C follows a straight line.
11. However, when saturation sets in, φ practically becomes constant and hence Eg too becomes
constant.
12. In other words, O.C.C follows the B-H characteristic, hence this characteristic is sometimes
also called the magnetization characteristic of the machine.
Procedure to draw OCC at different speeds
1. It is important to note that if O.C.C is known at a certain speed N1, O.C.C at another speed N2
can easily be predicted from the emf equation E  k * N
2. Emf at speed N1 rpm for a field current of If,
producing the flux Φ is E1 and is given by
E1  k *N1
3. Emf at speed N2 rpm for the same field current of If,
producing the flux Φ is E2 and is given by
E2  k *N2
4. Therefore, the emf E2 at speed N2 is
E2 k *N 2 E N N
  2  2  E2  E1  2
E1 k *N1 E1 N1 N1
EMF BULID P PROCESS IN A SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR
1. For the buildup of emf in the self excited dc generator,
the poles or magnets must have residual flux in them.
2. Therefore, if the generator is driven at rated speed of N
rpm, then a small voltage (kφresN) will be induced
across the armature.
3. This small voltage will be directly applied across the
field circuit since it is connected in parallel with the
armature.
4. Hence a small field current flows producing additional
flux.

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5. If it so happens that this additional flux aids the already existing residual flux, total flux now
becomes more and generating more voltage.
6. This more voltage will drive more field current generating more voltage.
7. Both field current and armature generated voltage grow cumulatively.
8. This process will be explained clearly from the plot shown above
9. Initially voltage induced due to residual flux is observed from O.C.C as Od.
10. The field current thus produced can be obtained from field circuit resistance line and given by
Op. With this Op filed current the flux is increased and correspondingly the induced voltage
also increases from Od to Oq and so on. In this way voltage build up process continues along
the stair case.
OCC or No-Load Characteristics of self excited DC shunt Generator

1. The OCC of the shunt generator is obtained in a similar

way to the dc separately excited generator by
disconnecting its field winding from the armature and
connecting it to a separate dc source
2. Therefore, the OCC curve at rated speed N rpm is shown
in the above figure, with Od as residual voltage and
increases gradually.
3. Later, the Rf line is drawn which is a straight line
passing through the origin having a slope of its value Rf
4. This Rf line intersects the OCC at point M and gives the
rated voltage of the generator.
5. If the Rf value is increased then its slope increases and
the voltage generated by the generator reduces and if the
value of the Rf is such that it becomes the tangential to
the given OCC, then the field resistance is called critical field resistance(Rf critical).

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6. At this critical field resistance, the emf or voltage of the generator will be very small and it
doesn’t generates any voltage if the Rf selected is greater than the Rfc
7. Thus, Rf must be always less than the Rfc
8. Similarly, for the Rf < Rfc, if the speed decreases then also the voltage generated by the
generator reduces.
9. Thus the generator doesn’t generates any voltage at a speed called critical speed for which the
given Rf line will become the tangent for the OCC drawn at Nc and is shown in the fig.
10. If the speed of the generator is made to run less than its critical speed then no emf will be
induced, so the speed must be always greater than the critical speed.
Conditions to build up the emf in the generator:

1. The magnets in the machine must have the residual flux.

2. Field winding connection should be such that the residual flux is strengthened by the field
current in the coil. If due to this, no voltage is being built up, reverse the field terminal
connection.

3. Total field circuit resistance must be less than the critical field resistance.

4. Speed of the generator must be greater than the critical speed.

APPLICATIONS OF D.C.GENERATORS
Separately Excited DC Generators
1. Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are generally used for
testing purpose in the laboratories.
2. Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation in field
excitation. Because of this property they are used as supply source of DC motors, whose
speeds are to be controlled for various applications. Example- Ward Leonard Systems of
speed control.
Applications of Shunt Wound DC Generators
 The application of shunt generators is very much restricted for its dropping voltage
characteristic.
 They are used to supply power to the apparatus situated very close to its position.
 These types of DC generators generally give constant terminal voltage for small distance
operation with the help of field regulators from no load to full load.
1. They are used for general lighting.
2. They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output voltage.

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3. They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
4. They are also used for small power supply (such as a portable generator).
Applications of Series Wound DC Generators
 These types of generators are restricted for the use of power supply because of their
increasing terminal voltage characteristic with the increase in load current from no load to
full load.
 They give constant current in the dropping portion of the characteristic curve. Because of this
property they can be used as constant current source and employed for various applications.
1. They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives for
regenerative breaking.
2. These are used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop in the feeder in various types of
distribution systems such as railway service.
3. In series arc lightening this type of generators are mainly used.
Applications of Compound Wound DC Generators
 Among various types of DC generators, the compound wound DC generators are most
widely used because of its compensating property.
 Depending upon number of series field turns, the cumulatively compounded generators may
be over compounded, flat compounded and under compounded.
 Thus the desired terminal voltage can be obtained by compensating the voltage drop due to
armature reaction and ohmic drop in the in the line.
Such generators have various applications.
1. Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used for lighting, power
supply purpose and for heavy power services because of their constant voltage
property. They are mainly made over compounded.
2. Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving a motor.
3. For small distance operation, such as power supply for hotels, offices, homes and
lodges, the flat compounded generators are generally used.
4. The differential compound wound generators, because of their large demagnetization
armature reaction, are used for arc welding where huge voltage drop and constant
current is required.

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 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DC MOTOR
 A dc motor is a electro mechanical energy conversion device that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy.
 Its operation is based on the principle that “when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical force”.
 The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule which states that “ Stretch the
first three fingers of left hand mutually perpendicular to each other in such a way that central
finger indicates the direction of the current in the conductor, fore finger in the direction of the
magnetic field, then the thumb indicates the direction of the force developed on the conductor
The magnitude of the force developed on the conductor is F = BIL Sinθ
BACK EMF
When the armature of a d.c. motor rotates under the influence of
the driving torque, the armature conductors move through the
magnetic field and hence an e.m.f. is induced in them as per
Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction.
This induced e.m.f. acts in opposite direction to the applied
voltage V (Lenz’s law) and is known as back or counter e.m.f. Eb .
Significance of Back E.M.F
The presence of back e.m.f. makes the d.c. motor a self-regulating machine i.e., it makes the
motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient to develop the torque required by
the load. Back e.m.f. in a d.c. motor regulates the flow of armature current i.e., it
automatically changes the armature current to meet the load requirement.
ARMATURE TORQUE OF A DC MOTOR
Torque is the turning and twisting moment of a force about an axis and is measured by the
product of force (F) and radius (r) at right angle to which the force acts i.e T = F*r
Let
T = Torque developed on the rotor of the motor in Nm
Φ = Flux per pole in weber
Z = No. of the armature conductors
Ia= Armature current in A
P = No. of poles
A = No. of Parallel paths
r = radius of the pulley in mts
Work done by the pulley, W= Force * distance = F * 2πr

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 work done F  2r F  2r  N 2N 2NT
Power = P    (F * r)   T  P  T
time 60 / N 60 60 60
As, power developed in the armature is the gross mechanical power and is given by
P  E g I a , therefore E g I a  T

ZN  P  2NT ZN  P 

 I a   Eg   
60  A  60 60  A 

Z  P 
 I a  T
2  A 
Z  P 
T   I a
2  A 
1 P
T ZI a
2 A
Also, from the fundamentals, the gross torque or armature torque is
P  T  Eb I a  T
Eb I a Eb I a * 60  60  Eb I a EI P
T   *  9.55 b a  9.55 m
 2N  2  N N N
Also, the shaft torque or useful torque is
Psh  Tsh
Psh Pm  Mechloss  60  Psh P
Tsh    *  9.55 sh
   2  N N
Therefore,

T  I a
Torque relations in a dc motor
T2 2 I a 2

T2 1 I a1
Speed of a DC Motor

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 Therefore,
In a dc motor speed is directly proportional to back emf, Eb and inversely proportional to
flux, φ.
TYPES OF D.C. MOTORS
Based on the field winding excited from the armature the dc motors are of three types
1. DC Shunt motor
2. DC Series motor
3. DC compound motor
a. Long Shunt Compound motor
b. Short Shunt Compound motor
DC SHUNT MOTOR
1. In the dc shunt motor the field winding circuit is
connected in parallel to the armature circuit and as
well as to the line.
2. The line current IL is divided in to the field and the
armature as If and Ia.
3. The shunt field winding has more number of turns
with thin wire, so that resistance of the field will be
in the range of hundreds and was designed to
withstand for the rated voltage.
4. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
Eb  VL  I a Ra  Vbrush
PL V
Ia  IL  I f and IL  and If 
V Rf
DC SERIES MOTOR
3. In the dc series motor the field winding circuit is connected in series to the armature circuit
and as well as to the line.
4. Here the armature current is equal to the series field current
and also equal to the line.
7. The series field winding has less number of turns with
thick wire, so that resistance of the field will be in the
smaller values and was designed to carry the rated current.
8. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
Eb  VL  I a Ra  Rse   Vbrush
PL
I a  I L  I se and IL 
V

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 DC COMPOUND MOTORS
4. A compound motor has two field coils wound over the field poles.
5. The coil having large number of turns and thinner cross sectional area is called the shunt field
coil and the other coil having few numbers of turns and large cross sectional area is called the
series field coil.
6. Based on the series field winding connected to the armature the compound motors are
classified as long shunt motor and short shunt motor
 SHORT SHUNT MOTOR
4. In a short shunt dc compound motor, the series field is
connected in series to the line and shunt field winding
is connected in parallel to the armature and the series
combination of the line and series winding.
5. Thus, the series field current will depend on the line
variations which will effect in further the shunt field
current.
6. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
Eb  VL  I a Ra  I L Rse  Vbrush
PL
Ia  IL  I f and IL  and
V
VL  I L Rse
If 
Rf

 LONG SHUNT MOTOR

3. In a long shunt dc compound motor, the series field is
connected in series to the armature and shunt field
winding is connected in parallel to the armature and to
the line.
4. Applying KVL to the armature loop the Eg is
Eb  VL  I a Ra  Rse   Vbrush
PL V
Ia  IL  I f and IL  and If 
V Rf
 Also, the dc compound motors are further classified into two types based on the
compounding of the series flux to the shunt flux. They are cumulatively compounded and
differentially compounded motors
 In the cumulatively compound motor, the series flux aids to the shunt field flux and the net
flux increases, whereas in the differentially compounded motors the series flux opposes the
shunt field flux and the net resultant flux decreases.
 The below figure shows the arrangement of the series and shunt field coils in the pole core in
both cumulative and differentially compounded motors.

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APPLICATIONS OF D.C. MOTORS
1. Shunt motors
The characteristic of a shunt motor is an approximately constant speed motor. So, it is used
where the speed is required to remain almost constant from no-load to full-load
Industrial applications of shunt motor:
1. Lathes
2. Drills
3. Boring mills
4. Shapers
5. Spinning and weaving machines etc.
2. Series motors
It is a variable speed motor i.e., speed is low at high torque and vice-versa. It is used
(i) Where large starting torque is required e.g., in elevators and electric Traction
(ii) Where the load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and the speed is automatically required
to reduce at high torques and vice-versa
Industrial applications of series motor:
1. Electric traction 2. Cranes
3. Elevators, 4. Air compressors,
5. Vacuum cleaners 6. Hair drier 7. Sewing machines etc.
3. Compound motors
Differential-compound motors are rarely used because of their poor torque characteristics.
However, cumulative-compound motors are used where a fairly constant speed is required
with irregular loads or suddenly applied heavy loads.
Industrial applications of Compound motor:
1. Presses,
2. Shears,
3. Reciprocating machines etc.

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LOSSES IN DC MACHINE

Power Stages in DC Generator:

The power stages in a d.c. generator are represented diagrammatically in below Fig.
Mechanical Input - Electrical Power generated = A - B = Iron and friction losses
Electrical Power generated - Electrical Power output = B - C = Copper losses
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power
Electrical efficiency, ɳe = C/B
Mechanical efficiency, ɳm = B/A
Overall efficiency, ɳc = C/A
Therefore, Overall efficiency = Electrical efficiency * Mechanical efficiency

Power Stages in DC Motor:

The power stages in a d.c. motor are represented diagrammatically in below Fig.
Electrical Power input – Mechanical power developed = A - B = Copper losses
Mechanical power developed - Mechanical power output = B - C = Iron and friction losses

Electrical efficiency ɳe = B/A

Mechanical efficiency ɳm = C/B
Overall efficiency ɳc = C/A

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 Condition for maximum efficiency for dc motor:

Necessity of starter:
 The function of the starter is to limit the starting current in the motor.
V  Eb
The current drawn by the motor armature is given by I a 
Ra
where V is the supply voltage,
E b is the back emf and
R a is the armature resistance of the motor.

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 At starting, when motor is at rest there is no back emf in the armature (since Eb α N)
Now the total supply voltage is applied across the stationary armature and it will draw a very
large current because of small armature resistance.
Consider the case of 440 V, 5 HP (3.73 KW) motor having a cold armature resistance of 0.25
 and full load current of 50A.
If this motor is started from the line directly, it will draw a starting current of Fehler! = 1760
A which is Fehler! = 35.2 times its full-load current.
This excessive current will blow out the fuses and damages the commutator and brushes. To
avoid this, a resistance is placed in series to the armature for the time duration until the motor
pickups the speed.
Once the motor pickups the speed, the back emf is developed and the current was limited by
the small voltage (VL-Eb) applied to the armature against the small resistance.
Thus, the starter is used to limit this starting current by inserting the resistance only at the
starting time.
There are three types of starters used namely
3 point starter b) Four point starter c) Two point starter
THREE POINT STARTER
The 3 terminals of the three point starter are marked A, B and C.
First terminal A is connected to the handle arm (L) through the overload release (OLR) from
the supply terminals
Second terminal B is connected to the field winding of the motor through the Hold ON coil
from the stud 1 of the external resistance placed in series to the armature.
Third terminal C is connected to the armature by inserting the external resistance.
The handle initially is at OFF position and when the supply is given, to start the motor the
handle is dragged towards the stud 1.
This position of the handle divides the line current into two paths one path to the armature
through the current limiting resistance and second path to the field winding.
Thus the current is limited by this resistance placed in series with the armature. Also as the
speed picks up, the handle was dragged over the studs from off position to ON position.
At this ON position all the external resistance is removed from the armature and the spring on
the other side of the handle develops the restraining torque with the spring placed.
The soft iron piece (S) on the handle is attracted by the hold on coil in normal running
conditions

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The resistance that was removed from the armature circuit will be added to the field circuit.
Thus the field current is reduced, to overcome the drawback of weakening of the flux the
field winding terminal is connected from the brass arc placed below the studs and is shown in
the figure
Hold ON coil (or) No Volt Release (NVR)
The Normal function of the HOLD-ON coil is to hold on the arm in then full running position
when the motor is in normal operation.
When the supply failure (or) disconnection, it is de-energised, so that handle is released from
the hold on coil and pulled back by the spring to the OFF position.
The Hold ON coil protects the motor from dangerous speed when field circuit opens.
Over Load Release (OLR)
It consists of an electro-magnet connected in the supply line.
If motor becomes over loaded, then D is lifted and short circuits the electro-magnet. Hence
arm is released and returns to OFF position.
Disadvantage of three point starter:
To control the speed of motor, a field rheostat is connected in the field circuit.The motor
speed is increased by decreasing the flux (N  I/). There is a difficulty that if too much
resistance is added by the field rheostat, then field current is reduced very much so that the
current in the hold on coil is unable to create enough Electromagnetic pull to overcome the
spring tension. Hence arm is pulled back to OFF position.
Therefore the shunt motor with this three point starter is not suitable for adjustable speed
drive applications.

Speed control of DC motors:

The speed of a d.c. motor is given by:

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 Eb V I R
N or N L a where R is Ra for shunt motor and (Ra + Rse). for series motor
 
From the above expression,
The speed of a d.c. motor is controlled
(i) By varying the flux per pole (f) known as flux control method.
(ii) By varying the Ra and is known as armature control method.
(iii) By varying the applied voltage V and is known as voltage control method.
Speed Control of D.C. Shunt Motor
a) Field control method:

1. In this field control method the variable is flux (f)

2. The rheostat is placed in series to the field winding, as the field resistance increases
the field current decreases and this weakens the flux
3. The weakening of the flux increases the speed since speed is inversely proportional to
the flux.
4. Thus using the field control, above base speeds can be controlled.
5. This method is also known as constant power method or variable torque method.
Advantages
1. This is an easy and convenient method.
2. It is an inexpensive method since very little power is wasted in the shunt field rheostat
due to relatively small value of If
3. The speed control exercised by this method is independent of load on the machine.
Disadvantages
1. Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained.
2. There is a limit to the maximum speed obtainable by this method. It is because if the
flux is too much weakened, commutation becomes poorer.
b) Armature control method

1. In this armature resistance control method the variable is Ra

2. The rheostat is placed in series to the armature winding, as the Ra increases the IaRa
drop increases and this decreases the speed.
3. The decreasing of the back emf decreases the speed since speed is directly
proportional to Eb.

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 4. Thus using the Ra control method, below base speeds can be controlled.
5. This method is also known as constant torque method or variable power method.
Disadvantages
1. A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance since it carries full
armature current Ia.
2. The speed varies widely with load since the speed depends upon the voltage drop in
the controller resistance and hence on the armature current demanded by the load.
3. The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced.
4. This method results in poor speed regulation.
c) Voltage control method by Ward-Leonard system
1. This method is used to get the wide range of speed control 10:1.
2. As the speed of the motor is directly proportional to the applied voltage to the
armature, thus by applying the variable voltage the speed is controlled.
3. The armature of the shunt motor M (whose speed is to be controlled) is connected
directly to a d.c. generator G driven by a constant-speed a.c. motor A.
4. The field of the shunt motor is supplied from a constant-voltage exciter E.
5. The field of the generator G is also supplied from the exciter E.
6. The voltage of the generator G can be varied by means of its field regulator.
7. By reversing the field current of generator G by controller FC, the voltage applied to
the motor may be reversed.
Advantages
1. The speed of the motor can be adjusted through a wide range without resistance losses
which results in high efficiency.
2. The motor can be brought to a standstill quickly, simply by rapidly reducing the
voltage of generator G.
3. The disadvantage of the method is that a special motor-generator set is required for
each motor and the losses in this set are high if the motor is operating under light
loads for long periods.
Speed Control of D.C. Series Motor
a) Flux control method
In this method, the flux produced by the series motor is varied
and hence the speed.
The variation of flux can be achieved in the following ways:
(i) Field diverters.
1. In this method, a variable resistance (called field diverter) is
connected in parallel with series field winding as shown in Fig.
2. Its effect is to shunt some portion of the line current from the
series field winding, thus weakening the field and increasing the
speed (Nα1/Φ).
3. This method can only provide speeds above the normal
speed. The series field diverter method is often employed in
traction work.

ii) Armature diverter.

1. In order to obtain speeds below the normal speed, a variable
resistance (called armature diverter) is connected in parallel
with the armature as shown in Fig.
2. The diverter shunts some of the line current, thus reducing
the armature current.
3. Now for a given load, if Ia is decreased, the flux Φ must increase (TαΦIa).

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4. Since (Nα1/Φ). The motor speed is decreased.
5. By adjusting the armature diverter, any speed lower than the normal speed can be obtained.
iii) Tapped field control.
1. In this method, the flux is reduced by decreasing the number of
turns of the series field winding as shown in Fig, and hence
speed is increased
2. The switch S can short circuit any part of the field winding,
thus decreasing the flux and raising the speed.
3. With full turns of the field winding, the motor runs at normal
speed and as the field turns are cut out; speeds higher than
normal speed are achieved.
iv) Paralleling field coils.
This method is usually employed in the case of fan motors. By regrouping the field coils as
shown in Fig below, several fixed speeds can be obtained.

b) Armature-resistance control:
1. In this method, a variable resistance is directly connected in
series with the supply to the complete motor as shown in
Fig.
2. This reduces the voltage available across the armature and
hence the speed falls.
3. By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed
below the normal speed can be obtained.
4. This is the most common method employed to control the
speed of d.c. series motors.
5. Although this method has poor speed regulation, this has no
significance for series motors because they are used in varying speed applications.
6. The loss of power in the series resistance for many applications of series motors is not too
serious since in these applications.
TESTING OF DC MACHINES:
Testing of DC machines can be broadly classified as
i) Direct method of Testing
ii) Indirect method of testing
Direct method of testing:
In this method, the DC machine is loaded directly by means of a brake applied to water
cooled pulley coupled to the shaft of the machine. The input and output are measured and
output
efficiency is determined by  
input
It is not practically possible to arrange loads for machines of large capacity.

Indirect method of testing:

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In this method, the losses are determined without actual loading the machine. If the losses are
known, then efficiency can be determined. Swinburne’s test, Hopkinson’s test and retardation
tests are commonly used on shunt motors.

This method of testing can be used for small motors only because for a large motor it is
difficult to arrange for dissipation of heat generated at the brake.

(ii)Swinburne’s Test:

This test is a no load test and hence cannot be performed on

series motor.
The circuit connection is shown in Figure
The machine is run on no load at rated speed which is
adjusted by the shunt field resistance.
Advantages
1. Economical, because no load input power is sufficient to
perform the test
2. Efficiency can be pre-determined
3. As it is a no load test, it cannot be done on a dc series
motor
Disadvantages

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1. Change in iron loss from no load to full load is not taken into account. (Because of
armature
reaction, flux is distorted which increases iron losses).
2. Stray load loss cannot be determined by this test and hence efficiency is over estimated.
3. Temperature rise of the machine cannot be determined.
4. The test does not indicate whether commutation would be satisfactory when the machine is
loaded.

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