Chapter I

Introduction
By
Dr. Mariam yacoup
Dr. Amira Fahmy
 Introduction
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) affect the muscles, nerves, blood
vessels, ligaments and tendons. Workers in many different industries and
occupations can be exposed to risk factors at work, such as lifting heavy items,
bending, reaching overhead, pushing and pulling heavy loads, working in
awkward body postures and performing the same or similar tasks repetitively.
Exposure to these known risk factors for MSDs increases a worker's risk of injury.

Work-related MSDs can be prevented. Ergonomics fitting a job to a person

helps lessen muscle fatigue, increases productivity and reduces the number and
severity of work-related MSDs.

Examples of Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)

• Carpal tunnel syndrome

• Tendinitis

• Rotator cuff injuries (affects the shoulder)

• Epicondylitis (affects the elbow)

• Trigger finger

• Muscle strains and low back injuries

Impact of MSDs in the Workplace

• Work related MSDs are among the most frequently reported causes of lost
or restricted work time.

• According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) in 2013, MSD1 cases

accounted for 33% of all worker injury and illness cases.

A Process for Protecting Workers:

Employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthful workplace for
their workers. In the workplace, the number and severity of MSDs resulting from
physical overexertion, and their associated costs, can be substantially reduced by
applying ergonomic principles.

Implementing an ergonomic process is effective in reducing the risk of

developing MSDs in high-risk industries as diverse as construction, food
processing, firefighting, office jobs, healthcare, transportation and warehousing.
The following are important elements of an ergonomic process:

• Provide Management Support - A strong commitment by management is

critical to the overall success of an ergonomic process. Management should
define clear goals and objectives for the ergonomic process, discuss them
with their workers, assign responsibilities to designated staff members, and
communicate clearly with the workforce.

• Involve Workers - A participatory ergonomic approach, where workers are

directly involved in worksite assessments, solution development and
implementation is the essence of a successful ergonomic process. Workers
can:

o Identify and provide important information about hazards in their

workplaces.

o Assist in the ergonomic process by voicing their concerns and

suggestions for reducing exposure to risk factors and by evaluating
the changes made as a result of an ergonomic assessment.

• Provide Training - Training is an important element in the ergonomic

process. It ensures that workers are aware of ergonomics and its benefits,
become informed about ergonomics related concerns in the workplace, and
understand the importance of reporting early symptoms of MSDs.

• Identify Problems - An important step in the ergonomic process is to

identify and assess ergonomic problems in the workplace before they result
in MSDs.
 • Encourage Early Reporting of MSD Symptoms - Early reporting can
accelerate the job assessment and improvement process, helping to prevent
or reduce the progression of symptoms, the development of serious
injuries, and subsequent lost-time claims.

• Implement Solutions to Control Hazards - There are many possible

solutions that can be implemented to reduce, control or eliminate
workplace MSDs.

• Evaluate Progress - Established evaluation and corrective action

procedures are required to periodically assess the effectiveness of the
ergonomic process and to ensure its continuous improvement and long-
term success. As an ergonomic process is first developing, assessments
should include determining whether goals set for the ergonomic process
have been met and determining the success of the implemented ergonomic
solutions.

WHAT IS ERGONOMICS?

Ergonomics derives from two Greek words:

Ergon: meaning work,

And nomoi: meaning natural laws,

To create a word that means the science of work and a person’s relationship to
that work.

The International Ergonomics Association has adopted this technical definition:

"ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the
understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and
the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in order
to optimize human well-being and overall system performance."
 Ergonomics is the science of making things comfy. It also makes things
efficient. And when you think about it, comfy is just another way of making
things efficient. However, for simplicity, ergonomics makes things comfortable
and efficient.

Ergonomics is the science of fitting workplace conditions and job demands

to the capabilities of the working population

It is interaction between the operator and the job demands.

Ergonomics provides the guiding principles and specifications according

to which tools, machines, work procedures and workplaces are designed for safe
use. The efficiency of a machine depends on the ability of the worker to control
it effectively and accurately. The fact that workers are able to operate in poorly
designed workplaces does not mean that this is the most efficient method of
production; workers should be able to operate machines in the least stressful way.

environment

Ergonomic deficiencies in the workplace may not result in immediate body

pain but over time the body’s ability to adapt fails resulting in musculoskeletal
disorders. Ergonomics should be seen not as finding problems but rather as giving
solutions to the problems and can be applied to any industry.

Note: An ergonomic process uses the principles of a safety and health

program to address MSD hazards. Such a process should be viewed as an ongoing
function that is incorporated into the daily operations, rather than as an individual
project.

Ergonomics can roughly be defined as the study of people in their working

environment. More specifically, an ergonomist (pronounced like economist)
designs or modifies the work to fit the worker, not the other way around. The goal
is to eliminate discomfort and risk of injury due to work. In other words, the
employee is our first priority in analyzing a workstation. Officially:

“Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with

the understanding of the interactions among human and other elements of a
system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to
design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance.”

When evaluating a job, looking for three main characteristics known as

Ergonomic Stressors: the force required to complete a task, any awkward or static
working postures adopted in completing a task, and the repetitiveness of a task.
Any of these factors, or any combination of these factors, may place someone at
greater risk for discomfort.

What Is the Study of Ergonomics?

At its simplest definition ergonomics, it literally means the science of
work. So, ergonomists, i.e. the practitioners of ergonomics, study work, how
work is done and how to work better.

It is the attempt to make work better that ergonomics becomes so useful.

And that is also where making things comfortable and efficient comes into play.

Ergonomics is commonly thought of in terms of products. But it can be equally

useful in the design of services or processes.

It is used in design in many complex ways. However, what you, or the user,
is most concerned with is, “How can I use the product or service, will it meet my
needs, and will I like using it?” Ergonomics helps define how it is used, how it
meets your needs, and most importantly if you like it. It makes things comfy and
efficient.

Purpose
The Department of Environment, Health and Safety’s (EHS) purpose is to
help all UNC employees create and maintain a healthy and safe working
environment.

Goal
EHS wants to provide information and education to allow any employee to
avoid injury. EHS wants to educate people on the basics of ergonomics. Not only
will they be able to help themselves at work, but these principles can be applied
to home, hobbies or help friends and coworkers who may have similar issues.
Remember, knowledge is contagious.

What Is Efficiency?
Efficiency is quite simply making something easier to do. Efficiency comes
in many forms, however.

• Reducing the strength required makes a process more physically efficient.

• Reducing the number of steps in a task makes it quicker (i.e. efficient) to

complete.

• Reducing the number of parts makes repairs more efficient.

• Reducing the amount of training needed, i.e. making it more intuitive,

gives you a larger number of people who are qualified to perform the task.
Imagine how inefficient trash disposal would be if your teenage child
wasn't capable of taking out the garbage.
 Efficiency can be found almost everywhere. If something is easier to do,
you are more likely to do it. If you do it more, then it is more useful. Again, the
utility is the only true measure of the quality of a design.

And if you willingly do something more often, you have a greater chance of liking
it. If you like doing it, you will be more comfortable doing it.

What Is Comfort?
Comfort is much more than a soft handle. Comfort is one of the greatest
aspects of a design’s effectiveness. Comfort in the human-machine interface and
the mental aspects of the product or service is a primary ergonomic design
concern.

Comfort in the human-machine interface is usually noticed first. Physical

comfort in how an item feels is pleasing to the user. If you do not like to touch it,
you won't. If you do not touch it, you will not operate it. If you do not operate it,
then it is useless.

The utility of an item is the only true measure of the quality of its design.
The job of any designer is to find innovative ways to increase the utility of a
product. Physical comfort while using an item increases its utility. Making an
item intuitive and comfortable to use will ensure its success in the marketplace.

The mental aspect of comfort in the human-machine interface is found in

feedback. You have preconceived notions of certain things. A quality product
should feel like it is made out of quality materials. If it is lightweight and flimsy,
you will not feel that comfortable using it.

The look, feel, use, and durability of a product help you make a mental
determination about a product or service. Basically, it lets you evaluate the quality
of the item and compare that to the cost. Better ergonomics mean better quality,
which means you will be more comfortable with the value of the item.

Why is Ergonomics important?

In the workplace: According to Safe Work Australia, the total economic
cost of work-related injuries and illnesses is estimated to be $60 billion dollars.
Recent research has shown that lower back pain is the world’s most common
work-related disability – affecting employees from offices, building sites and in
the highest risk category, agriculture.

Ergonomics aims to create safe, comfortable and productive workspaces

by bringing human abilities and limitations into the design of a workspace,
including the individual’s body size, strength, skill, speed, sensory abilities
(vision, hearing), and even attitudes.

In the greater population: The number of people in Australia aged 75 and

over is forecast to double over the next 50 years. With this, equipment, services
and systems will need to be designed to accommodate the increasing needs of the
ageing population, applying to public transport, building facilities, and living
spaces.

How does ergonomics work?

Ergonomics is a relatively new branch of science which celebrates its 50th
anniversary in 1999, but relies on research carried out in many other older,
established scientific areas, such as engineering, physiology and psychology.
 To achieve best practice design, Ergonomists use the data and techniques
of several disciplines:

• anthropometry: body sizes, shapes; populations and variations

• biomechanics: muscles, levers, forces, strength

• environmental physics: noise, light, heat, cold, radiation, vibration body

systems: hearing, vision, sensations

• applied psychology: skill, learning, errors, differences

• social psychology: groups, communication, learning, behaviors.

WHAT ARE WORK-RELATED MUSCULOSKELETAL

DISORDERS (WMSDS)?
Work-related musculoskeletal disorder, is a term used to denote those
musculoskeletal disorders for which there is epidemiological evidence that
workplace factors (for example, force, repetition, and vibration) increase the
probability for the occurrence of the disorder.

• Mechanical stresses of the tissues over a prolonged period; can result in

disorders of the muscles, nerves, tendons, ligaments, joints.

• WMSDs are not the result of an acute injury but have a chronic onset
developing over periods of weeks, months or even years and are often
multi-factorial in origin.

• If not detected and treated early, recovery may require weeks, months and
years and in some cases, may become chronic.

• The nature of the physical stress and the body region enduring the load for
the most part will determine the affected area and the type of injury.

• Examples of work place ergonomic risk factors include repetitive, forceful

or prolonged exertions such as frequent heavy lifting, pushing, pulling, or
 carrying of heavy objects, prolonged awkward postures. Vibration and cold
may add risk to these work conditions. Jobs that present multiple risk
factors will have a higher probability of causing musculoskeletal problems.
The level of risk depends on the intensity, frequency and duration of the
exposure to these conditions.

The human body is continuously required to perform physical work.

Physical stresses include moving of the body, moving objects and maintaining
body posture. The response of the body to the physical stress is described as strain
and is influenced by the capacity of the individual and by the demands placed on
it.

GOAL OF ERGONOMICS:
The goal of ergonomics is to optimize the relationships between the
worker, the task and the environment, in a cost-effective manner, by modifying
people’s work to be within their capabilities. This will result in a decreased risk
of injury and illness, improved job performance and quality of work, in addition
to improving the well-being of the organization due to decreased operating costs,
stable workforce and improved morale.

A task is accomplished by the interaction of the employee and the machine

in a particular workspace, which is contained in a particular environment. The
workspace is described in terms of its size and the layout of the
equipment/machinery. These two factors will have an effect on the posture of the
worker and the reach distances, and with a resultant effect on comfort and
efficiency. The environment is described in terms of its temperature, lighting,
noise and vibration.
ERGONOMIC RISK FACTORS:
Ergonomic risk factors are conditions of a job process, work station or
work method that contribute to the risk of developing a WMSD

1.Static postures

Posture is the general position of your body in space or the position of any body
part/joint with respect to adjacent body parts. Body posture determines which
joints and muscles are used in an activity and the amount of force or stresses that
are generated. An awkward posture is anybody position that overloads muscles,
tendons, or joints. The more a joint deviate from the neutral position the more the
posture is considered to be 'awkward' and the greater the risk of injury.

2. Exertion of force - manual handling

(including lifting, pushing and pulling)

When doing work, the body uses muscles to generate force to allow for
movement of body segments. Tasks that require forceful exertions place higher
loads on the muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints that can result in fatigue.
3. Work procedures

Work procedures determine rest periods, shift work and work pace. They
determine the duration, frequency or severity of exposure to ergonomic risk
factors and consist of work methods, training, job rotation, job design and
equipment maintenance.

4. Contact stress

Contact stress occurs when pressure is exerted on soft tissue of the body,
for example resting the arms on the hard edge of the work surface and when
gripping tools or materials. Pressure on the soft tissue can result in
musculoskeletal disorders due to inhibition of nerve function and blood flow.
5. Repetitive work

Repetition refers to a series of motions performed repeatedly with little

variation over an 8-hour day this may produce fatigue and muscle-tendon strain
eventually leading to tissue damage and musculoskeletal problems.

The severity of the risk depends on how often the action is repeated, the
speed of the movement, the required force and the awkwardness of the posture.
If motions are repeated frequently without adequate time for recovery, fatigue
and muscle tendon strain can accumulate, which can result in permanent tissue
damage.

6. Vibration

Exposure to local vibration occurs when a specific part of the body is

exposed to a vibrating object, for example, a power hand tool. Whole body
exposure occurs whilst standing or sitting on and object that is vibrating, such as.
vehicles or large machinery.

7. Duration

Tasks that require use of the same muscles or motions for long periods
increase the risks of acquiring a MSD.

Note: Workplace conditions that can increase the risk of WMSDs include
cold environments, insufficient rest breaks, machine paced work. Jobs that
combine risk factors will increase the risk for musculoskeletal problems. The
level of risk depends on how long an employee is exposed to these conditions,
how often they are exposed and the level of exposure. Jobs that have multiple risk
factors have a higher probability of causing a WMSD.

ERGONOMIC WORKPLACE RISK ASSESSMENT:

Ergonomic risk assessment is proactive approach to occupational health
and safety, which includes identifying the hazard, estimating the risk (likelihood
and severity of harm) and making recommendations to control the risk where
necessary.

A risk assessment is the process of risk analysis and risk evaluation. Risk
analysis is the use of available information to identify hazardous tasks and to
estimate the risk. Risk evaluation is the process based on the risk analysis but
taking into account other factors, such as economic and social, in which
judgements are made on the acceptability of the risk.

The process is carried out in a number of steps, which will be discussed in the
following pages.

THE PROCESS OF ERGONOMIC WORKPLACE RISK

ASSESSMENT:
STEP 1:

Identify the hazards - Review existing records

• Review records of musculoskeletal injuries, including repetitive trauma

disorders, along with information about the related task or activity and
probable causes.

• Worker complaints of discomfort.

• High absenteeism, frequent clinic visits.

• Identify and analyze trends or problems related to particular departments,

areas, job functions, workstations, etc.
 • Check the job descriptions: for those jobs requiring repetition and exertion,
frequent heavy lifting or overhead lifting/work or use of vibration
equipment.

The outcome of the initial assessment should be an identification of tasks,

operations and processes needing improvement, modification or other controls to
eliminate or minimize ergonomic hazards, increase comfort and optimize
performance.

STEP 2:

Setting up the infrastructures

• Ergonomic programs should be regarded as part of the general safety

programs and should be integrated into the company’s current occupational
safety and health activities.

• Management commitment: management must issue a policy statement,

appoint responsible personnel to champion the programs, give ergonomic
improvements equal priority with cost reduction, productivity and quality
assurance activities, encourage employee involvement and commit
resources for: training, consultants and implementation of ergonomic
improvements.

• Benefits of worker involvement include increased motivation/job

satisfaction, added problem-solving capabilities and greater acceptance of
change.

• Hazard identification, task analyses and the development and

implementation of control measures require input from safety managers,
health care providers, human resources personnel, engineering personnel,
purchasing personnel and ergonomics specialists.

STEP 3:
Training.

Training of employees is critical to the success of an ergonomics program.

Both employees and managers require the knowledge to recognize potential risk
factors for injuries and their prevention. The more aware the workers are of
musculoskeletal hazards in their workplace the more likely they are to work
towards reducing injuries. Training employees ensures that they are informed
about the hazards in their work place so that they can actively participate in
identifying and controlling exposures. Training programs should be directed
according to the needs of the employer/employee and should include programs
for managers, supervisors, job specific training, engineer personnel and general
awareness training.

Ergonomic awareness training should consist of the following:

• Identify the signs and symptoms of WMSDs and the importance of early
reporting.

• Recognize workplace risk factors for WMSDs and understand general

methods for controlling them.

• Recognize the employee’s role in the process, employees know their jobs
better than anyone else knows and are often the source of ideas to improve
them.

• There should be open interaction between trainer and trainees.

• Employees need to know the procedure for reporting ergonomic risk

factors and musculoskeletal disorders.
STEP 4:

Assess the risks - data gathering from all available sources

Primary prevention:

• Encourage early reporting of symptoms of physical stress to allow for

timely and appropriate evaluation, early intervention and treatment.

• Evaluate reports of WMSDs in order to identify any ergonomic risk factors

that may be contributing to the disorders.

Review of medical/injury/absentee records:

• Review records in order to identify jobs that may contain musculoskeletal

hazards. This includes a review of compensation claims, first aid reports,
safety reports, employee complaints, accident reports and symptom survey
reports.

• An ergonomic trend analysis (passive surveillance) begins by gathering

and reviewing existing records, such as injury records, to identify incidents
and patterns of WMSDs. The analysis of these records may reveal jobs or
tasks with increased ergonomic risk factors. A trend analysis should be
conducted at least annually to measure progress and determine if new
problem areas have developed.

• Review of the data will assist in revealing the areas that incur the greatest
number of injuries or complaints and in this way, the team can prioritize
their interventions.

• Consider those risks, which are likely to occur due to the type of work
activities.

Conduct periodic symptom surveys:

Symptom surveys data collection can help identify specific jobs or job
elements deserving an ergonomic analysis. Symptom surveys should be done
periodically to measure the progress of the ergonomic programs and can be
indicators of the employee awareness of WMSDs. Following the trend of work
complaints, problem areas for further investigation can be identified. To
encourage employee participation the survey should be anonymous.

Medical surveillance:

Baseline medicals should be conducted not with the intension to preclude

people from jobs but to establish a base against which health changes can be
evaluated. They are conducted to ensure that workers are fit and suited to the
work they do and meet the inherent requirements of the job. Periodic medical
examinations are done in order to detect occupational disease at an early stage,
thereby determining the efficacy of the hazard control measures.

Initial worksite assessment:

Initial workplace assessments should ideally be performed at the design

stage of equipment and processes to identify ergonomic-related stressors,
operations that create those stressors and operations/tasks where the potential for
ergonomic problems exist.

After the initial assessment, a more comprehensive assessment may be

conducted as needed to identify job risk factors and evaluate the magnitude,
frequency and duration of exposure to these risk factors.

The initial assessment should address the safety of colleagues relative to their
workstations and tasks, particularly those involving lifting and moving objects,
and those requiring extensive hand and arm movements. Screening jobs for
musculoskeletal risk factors can offer a basis for early interventions, and may
involve the following:

• Walk-through observational screening surveys to identify jobs that put

employees at risk of developing WMSDs.
 • Interviews with workers and managers to obtain more in-depth
information.

• Use of checklists for a formal documentation of findings.

• Jobs that place employees at risk will then require further in-depth job
hazard analysis.

Checklists:

Checklists provide a quick method of identifying obvious risk factors and

can assist with the initial detection of ergonomic problems related to jobs or tasks.
Ergonomic checklists are a good method for screening jobs for ergonomic risk
factors but they do not differentiate hazardous from non-hazardous tasks. Some
hazard may be obvious and easily solvable others will require further in-depth
risk assessment. One or more of these checklists can be used depending on the
type of workplace being assessed. Checklists should be tailored to the specific
needs and conditions of the workplace. The checklist should include components
such as posture, materials handling and upper extremities factors.

Periodic ergonomic surveys:

Periodic surveys should be conducted to identify previously unnoticed risk

factors or failure of engineering or administrative controls. The periodic review
period should also include feedback and follow-up sessions with affected
employees.
Performing Job Hazard Analyses:

Jobs that have been identified in the previous steps as placing employees
at risk of developing a WMSD require a job hazard analysis. A job analysis is
done in order to identify existing ergonomic risk factors and the activities causing
them. The objectives of a worksite analysis are to recognize, identify, document
and make recommendations to eliminate or minimize ergonomic hazards.

A job analysis is done by breaking the job into discrete tasks, describing
them, measuring and quantifying the risk factors inherent in the elements and
identifying the conditions contributing to the risk factors.

Employees are interviewed in order to determine the specific risk factors

that occur during each task. Each risk factor is evaluated in terms of its magnitude,
the number of repetitions and the duration of the risk factor. The tasks of most
jobs can be described in terms of the: (i) tools, equipment and materials used to
perform the job, (ii) the workstation layout and physical environment and, (iii)
the task demands and (iv) organizational climate in which the work is performed.

Procedures for collecting information include:

• Observing the workers performing the task in order to measure the task
cycle: videotaping can be used for this purpose.

• Still photographs for work postures, workstation layouts, tools

• Measurement of workstation layout.

• Measuring tool handle sizes, weights and vibration levels.

• Determining characteristics of work surfaces e.g. slip resistance, hardness

and surface edges.

• Identifying specific assessment tools that can be used to conduct task

analyses e.g. RULA, NIOSH lifting equation.

• Measuring exposure to heat, cold and whole body vibration.

 • Biomechanical calculations (for example, weight of a load lifted or pulled)

• Physiological measures (e.g. heart rate).

• Special questionnaires, interviews and subjective rating procedures to

determine the amount of perceived exertion and the psychological factors
influencing work performance.

Establishing work relatedness:

MSDs are deemed work-related if the exposure in the work environment
caused or contributed to the resulting condition. Most conditions that can be
categorized as WMSDs can also occur because of leisure or domestic activities
or the disorder could be the first signs of a chronic rheumatic condition. In these
situations, you must evaluate the employee's work tasks and environment to
decide whether the exposures caused or contributed to the resulting disorder. By
linking MSDs to identifiable job risk factors, work relatedness can be established.

The health care provider must make a specific diagnosis of an MSD and
then a causation assessment should be made to determine if the MSD is a work-
related. Substantial epidemiological support for a relationship with work should
exist before a diagnosis of WMSD is made. In addition, objective evidence of
exposure should be evaluated and other factors from outside of the work setting
should be considered by the healthcare provider before reaching the diagnosis. If
a job is believed to have contributed towards the MSD, then that job should be
evaluated and those ergonomic risk factors eliminated or reduced.

A causation assessment should be performed by healthcare providers with

extensive knowledge of the workplace, ergonomics and medicine. A causation
assessment would include input from a variety of sources including occupational
health nurse practitioners, industrial hygienists and engineers.

In order to determine if a musculoskeletal disorder is related to work, an ordered

approach to determining work-relatedness is essential. The following guidelines
are used for assessing whether associations found between exposures and health
outcomes (effects) are causal (the effect is due to the exposure).

The data gathered will provide information on:

• Job/work stations that are problematic.

• Determine duration of exposure and frequency of use.

• Relative ranking of the above in terms of severity.

• A priority list for ergonomic intervention.

• Job elements that require excessive force, extreme joint deviation, or are
frequently performed.

• Vibration frequencies that may be harmful.

• Indication about cumulative fatigue and exposure duration.

Record significant risks:

A baseline ergonomic risk assessment is done in order to establish a risk
profile and these profiles are used to prioritise action programmes. Risk profiles
from baseline assessments form the basis for conducting detailed issue-based
assessments. An issue based ergonomic risk assessment is a detailed assessment
that will result in the development of action plans for the elimination or
minimization of a significant risk.

Priority setting

• Highest priority is given to jobs associated with cases of musculoskeletal

disorders, followed by those that show past records of a higher incidence
of WMSDs.

• Priority should be given to those jobs in which most people are affected or
in which work method changes are going to be taking place.
 • Jobs associated with worker complaints of fatigue and discomfort are
ranked next.

• Proactive ergonomic assessments should then be done to assess the

problem potential.

STEP 5:

Prevention and control of ergonomic risk factors

Ergonomic risk factors are prevented primarily by effective design of the
workstation, tools and job. The employer must determine all measures necessary
to eliminating or reducing the hazards identified in the work site analysis by
changing the jobs, workstations or environment to fit the worker. It is an active
process of reducing the risk of injury by changing the things that contribute to the
risk factors.

Risks can be reduced through use of the following types of controls:

• Engineering controls: these controls are the most effective as they make
permanent changes that eliminate or reduce the hazards at the source. They
involve making changes to workstations, tools or equipment to avoid work-
related musculoskeletal hazards. Engineering control strategies include the
following factors:

o Workstation, equipment, tool or work process redesigns e.g.

sequence of assembly. Workstations should be design for a specific
task and be easily adjustable with sufficient workspace.

o Use of mechanical assist devices to reduce manual handling

 o Change in the process or product to reduce worker exposure to risk
factors. (For example, reduction of flashing by improved fit pf
plastic moulds).

o Modifying containers/parts presentation e.g. height adjustable

material bins.

o Changing workstation layout, for example height-adjustable

workbenches or locating tools and materials within short reach
distances.

o Change the way parts, tools, and materials are to be manipulated,

such as the use of vices/jigs to hold work pieces or suspended tools.

o Tool and handle designs: the appropriate tool should be used for the
task and tools should be available in a variety of sizes to achieve a
proper fit

o Change in materials, for example, light-weight packaging materials

to reduce lifting loads

o Work methods should be designed to reduce repetitive motion,

excessive force or poor posture. Examples of this are: changing
assembly access and sequence.

• Administrative or work practice controls to reduce exposure to ergonomic

risk factors including scheduling more rest breaks, rotation of jobs,
reduction in shift length, adjusting work pace, broadening job content,
regular maintenance programme, effective housekeeping, training workers
to recognize and reduce exposure to ergonomic risk factors, reduction in
work pace and instruction in safe and proper work practices.

Proper work techniques should include appropriate training and practice

time, correct lifting techniques, proper use and maintenance of hand/power
tools and correct use of ergonomically designed workstations.
 Monitoring should include a periodic review of techniques and practices
and their effectiveness.

Administrative controls are only helpful as temporary measures as they do

not eliminate hazards.

• Implementing Controls consists of:

o trials of the selected solutions, testing that solutions actually work.

o modifications or changes that may be needed

o full-scale implementation.

o periodic evaluation of control effectiveness to ensure that the

controls reduced or eliminated the ergonomic risk factors and that
new risks have not been introduced.

• Evaluating of control effectiveness by using the following indicators:

o Reduction in the incidence rate of WMSDs.

o Reduction in the severity rate of WMSDs.

o Increase in productivity and quality.

o Reduction in absenteeism.

STEP 6:

Health Care Management

Primary prevention:

Focusing on prevention will ensure worker safety and reduce claim costs.
Detailed written job descriptions must be developed and should include essential
functions and physical requirement of the job. Defined job descriptions assist in
identifying risk factors and ensure that all employees have similar understandings
of the job requirements. The employee’s familiarity with the job's equipment and
methods is the most direct source of ideas for prevention.

Secondary prevention - Medical management:

Health-care resources should be used to prevent/manage work-related

musculoskeletal disorders. Employees with a WMSD must be promptly evaluated
by a health care provider and appropriate treatment and follow-up provided. The
goals of medical management should be:

• Promotion of ergonomic safety and health, and prevention of injury

• Identification of signs and symptoms as soon as they occur.

• Ergonomic risk assessment to identify causes of WMSDs.

• WMSD management plan, ensuring safe and timely return to work of

injured employees.

• Reduction in the direct costs of injury .

• Reduction in the indirect cost of injury by retaining workers and

maintaining productivity.

Employer responsibilities:

• Provision of training in the recognition and early reporting of WMSDs.

• Conduction of ergonomic risk assessments.

• Making recommended changes to reduce risks.

• Follow health and safety rules.

• Follow work practice procedures.

• Early reporting of signs/symptoms of WMSDs.

• Active participation in the treatment plan.

Health care provider responsibilities:

• Acquire training in the evaluation/treatment of WMSDs.

• Acquire skills to conduct an ergonomic risk assessment.

• Specific knowledge of the job will facilitate matching of the physical

capabilities of the employees with the demands of the job.

The health-care provider, employee and employer should coordinate return-to-

work plans. Light duty is an important part of the rehabilitation of the worker.
This transition time plays an important part in the safe return to work.

STEP 7:

Proactive ergonomics
Initially ergonomic changes will be reactive responses to problems as they
occur; however the ultimate goal should be a proactive approach that seeks to
prevent problems, enabling early detection and more timely interventions in
potential ergonomic problems. Ergonomic issues should be identified and
resolved in the planning stage of the process. Design strategies should emphasize
fitting the job demands to the capabilities of the employees.

Recommended Work Surface Heights:

Recommended work surface heights for sedentary workers (in cm)*

Task requirements Male Female

Fine work 99-105 89-95
Precision work 89-94 82-87
Writing 74-78 70-75
Coarse or medium work 69-72 66-70

Recommended work surface height for standing workers (in cm)*

 Task requirements Male Female
Precision work 109-119 103-113
Light assembly work 99-109 87-98
Heavy work 85-101 78-94
*From Ayoub (1973)

Considerations Relating to Proactive Ergonomics:

The workstation:

The workstation layout should comfortably fit a wide range of body sizes.
The range of bench height, tool access and space clearance should accommodate
all but the very tall or very short worker. An adjustable workstation should be
able to accommodate the majority of works.

Some general guidelines include:

• Employees should be able to work in an upright and forward-facing

position with the majority of tasks performed at or near waist height and
within easy reach.

• Workstations should be adjustable and allow for flexibility of postures to

accomplish work, preferably alternate seated and standing positions.

• Tools/material should not be placed above shoulder height.

• Frequently used tools should be stored in front of and close to the body.

• Items to be lifted should be kept between hand and shoulder height.

• Adjustable fixtures and rotating cutting tables.

• Mechanical assists to eliminate the use of extreme force.

• Suspension of heavy tools.

 • The workbench is divided into primary and secondary task areas, the
primary area is the space recommended for major activities and the
secondary area for infrequent work activities.

Tool design:

Tools should be designed and selected to minimize the risk of WRULD, for
example:

• Matching the tool to the task.

• Redesign of handles so as to reduce wrist bend.

• Select tools with minimum vibration.

• Tool handles should have textured grips in preference to grooves so as to

allow for the distribution of pressure.

Manual material handling:

NIOSH developed an equation to rate lifting tasks in terms of whether the

loads were excessive. Risk assessment of lifting tasks using the NIOSH equation.

Limitations of the NIOSH lifting equation:

• It only applies to two-handed manual lifting tasks, from a standing

position.

• The calculations are based on the assumption that other manual material
handing activities are minimal (less than about 10% of worker activity).

• It does not include factors to account for unpredicted conditions such as

unexpectedly heavy or suddenly applied loads, unstable loads, slips, falls,
traumatic incidents or unfavourable environmental conditions.

The formula takes into account the six different factors in defining a
recommended weight limit (RWL) for lifting and lowering of loads.

• Horizontal location of the load relative to the body.

 • Vertical location of the load relative to the floor.

• Vertical distance the load is moved.

• Frequency and duration of the lifting activity.

• Asymmetry (lifts requiring twisting or rotation of the trunk or body).

• Quality of the worker’s grip on the load.

The RWL (max) is equal to the maximum load under ideal conditions and is taken
to be a load of 23 kg, lifted from a height of 75 cm above the floor and held 25
cm in front of the body. The load is to be lifted no more than 25 cm vertically,
with good handgrips and the load is to be lifted only occasionally.

LC = load constant of 23 kg
HM = horizontal multiplier = 25/H
VM = vertical multiplier = 1 - (0.0003 |V-75|)
DM = distance multiplier = 0,82 + (4,5/D)
AM = asymmetric multiplier = 1 - 0.0032A
FM = frequency multiplier (from Table 1)
CM = coupling multiplier (from Table 2)

And

H = Horizontal distance of the hands at the midpoint of hand-grip from midpoint

of the ankles
V = Vertical distance of the hands from the floor at the origin of the lift measured
vertically from the floor to the mid-point between the hand grasps, as defined by
the large middle knuckle
D = Distance through which the load is lifted, the distance between the origin and
the destination of the lift
A = Angle of asymmetry is the angular displacement of the load (required pivot).
The sagittal plane extends vertically from front to back in the body’s medium
plane (dividing the body left and right). This angle is measured at the origin and
the destination of the lifts (degrees). The asymmetrical angle is defined as the
angle between the asymmetry line and the mid-sagittal line. The asymmetry angle
is limited to the range from 0° to 135°. If A > 135° then AM is set equal to zero.
F = Frequency of lifting is determined from Table 1. For repetitive lifting tasks,
FM is determined by:

• The number of lifts per minute over a 15-minute period.

• The amount of time engaged in the lifting activity.

• The vertical height of the lift from the floor.

For lifting tasks with a frequency < 0.2 lifts/minute, frequency is set = 0.2
lifts/minute.

The ratio between the load actually lifted and the RWL is known as the
lifting index, (LI). The lifting index provides a relative estimate of the level of
physical stress associated with a particular lifting task. It is defined by the
relationship of the weight of load lifted (L) and the recommended weight limit
(RWL). In an equation form this index is LI = L/RWL.

A lifting index < 1 is believed not to increase the risk of injury. An index
of three or more indicates that many workers will be at increased risk and the task
should be redesigned. The goal of NIOSH in developing the equation is to protect
workers by setting limits on occupational lifting. The goal of the exercise is to
apply the NIOSH lifting guidelines to this task and determine what factors would
need to be changed to have this task meet the guidelines. To find the most
appropriate solution for the job, look for the lowest number used to do the
calculation.
Lifting and Lowering:

The figure on the right shows the basic numerical limits for lifting and lowering. These
guideline weight limits can be applied

• If the load can be easily grasped.

• The working environment is reasonable, and the body is stable.

If the hands enter more than one of the box zones during the task, then the smallest
weight limit should be used.

Twisting: The handled weights should be lowered by about 10% if the handler twists
by about 45 degrees and by 20% if he twists by 90 degrees.
Frequency: The guideline weights are for tasks that are done less than 30 times an
hour. The figure should be reduced by 30% if the operation is repeated once or twice
a minute, by 50% if the operation is repeated 5 to 8 times per minute, and by 80% is
the task is repeated by 12 times a minute.
Carrying: The load should not be carried more than 10 m. without stopping to rest.
Handling while seated:

The figure on the left shows the seating weight limit

Handling must be done with the boxed zone

Manual materials handling - pushing, pulling and carrying

WORK RELATED UPPER LIMB DISORDERS (WRULD)

The Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) is an ergonomic technique
used to evaluate exposures to posture, forces and muscle activities that have been
shown to contribute to repetitive strain injuries. The ergonomic evaluation results
in a risk score between one and seven, where higher scores signify greater levels
of apparent risk.

The RULA tool was developed to detect work postures or risk factors that
need further attention. This tool requires no equipment and provides a quick
assessment of the postures of the neck, trunk and upper limbs along with muscle
function and the external loads experienced by the body. A coding system is used
to generate an action score, which indicates the level of loading experienced by
the different body parts. The final score is then used as a guideline for the level
of intervention required to reduce the risks of injury due to physical loading on
the operator. The risk factors assessed are external load factors which include the
number of movements, static muscle work, force, work posture determined by
the equipment and time worked without a break.

The Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA) technique was used to assess
the tablet packaging task of filling blisters.

Hand-arm vibration:

Vibrating hand tools transmit vibrations to the holder and depending on the
vibration level and duration factors, may contribute to Raynaud’s syndrome or
vibration induced white finger disorders (hand-arm vibration syndrome).

Vibration analysis:

The Specific Performance Approach to analyzing vibration can be found

on page 6 of the Hazard Zone Checklist*. This simple method bypasses the need
to measure the vibration transmitted to the hand. It depends on the vibration
reported by the manufacturer and is only as accurate as their claimed value. Care
should be taken in using such values since they may be measurements taken under
favourable conditions.

Repetition:

A task cycle time of less that 30 sec has been considered as "repetitive".
Motions performed every few seconds may produce fatigue and muscle-tendon
strain. Without sufficient recovery, time for repair there is an increased risk of
tissue damage.

How much is too much? There is no consensus at to what repetition rates

increase the risk factor for MSDs. Tray 6-B is a possible guideline published by
A. Kilbom.
 High Risk Repetion Rtaes for Different Body Parts

Body Part Repetitions per minute

Shoulder More than 2½

Upper arm/elbow More than 10

Forearm/wrist More than 10

Finger More than 200

From Kilbom, A. Repetitive work of the upper extremity; Part

II; The scientific basis for the guide: Int,.J. Ind. Erg. 14 59-86

Frequency and duration of exposure from "Cumulative trauma disorders of

the upper extremities" by Anil Mital state that:

• Repetitive work, including forceful grips or high demands on precision,

should not be accepted if performed for >4 hours

• Cycle times <30s, including forceful grips, should not be allowed if

performed > 4 hours distributed over the entire day or > 1 hour
continuously

• Same motions every few seconds, > 2 hours

• Fixed or awkward postures, > 2 hours

• Use of vibrating tools, > 2 hours

• Using forceful hand exertions, > 2 hours

• Unassisted frequent or forceful manual handling, > 1 hour.

Critical design factors to be considered:

• Anthropometric principles:

Anthropometry means measurement of humans. Difference in statue is

important in the design of equipment and work environment and has
implications for the way most products and devices are designed. Body
size and proportion vary greatly between different populations.
Anthropometric data can provide the designer with guidelines for
dimensioning workspaces and a perspective on usability issues so that
"little people can reach and the big person has enough room"!

• Biomechanics: This is the application of the principles of mechanics to the

study of biological systems dealing with the mechanical aspects of body
movement.

• Human sensors such as vision and hearing.

• Psychological system; psychological stress can result in fatigue and

reduced motivation possibly leading to accidents/illness

• The physiological system is effected by environmental stressors such as

heat, noise and vibration.

Treating the risks/reporting to management:

All the steps taken during the risk assessment must be systematically
recorded. An action plan must be developed and implemented, focusing first on
the most significant risks, showing clear motivation for recommendations and
decisions taken. The process should be kept simple, realistic and practical with
the use of descriptive techniques rather than statistical techniques. Recommended
action converts the risk analysis into actions to reduce risk. Recommended
options are evaluated in terms of viability, cost and benefits with the aim of
choosing the most suitable and practical way of reducing risk to a reasonable
level.
Cost justification:

• Labour turnover - recruitment costs.

• Development costs - training costs.

• Skill enhancement costs.

• Separation costs - severance pay, vacant position.

• Absenteeism costs - compensation costs, medical costs, replacement costs.

• Productivity costs - slow work rates, wastage.

Versus

• Investment capital needed to implement ergonomic interventions.

• Determine the reduction in costs due to these interventions.

Ergonomics must be economically justified. Justify ergonomics based on

the payback period - preferably within a period of 2 years or less.

Tertiary prevention:

If prevention and management have failed and the injuries become chronic,
then chronic injury intervention should begin with a goal to ensure return to work
without further complications and to prevent disability. If the injury is too severe
to allow return to work then it is important to work towards claim resolution and
if possible, to return the employee to a job that meets his/her reduced capacity.
Re-evaluation of injured employee should be done by everyone involved in the
treatment to minimize confusion and ensure that all barriers to return to work are
discussed.

A rehabilitation program should use a multidisciplinary team consisting of:

• independent medical examination.

• functional/physical capacities evaluation.

• vocational rehabilitation assessment.

 • psychological evaluation.

• work-hardening program.

• pain clinic program.

Ergonomics for the Prevention of Musculoskeletal disorder:

* US government - public domain

OSHA - Meat packing assessment is a good example of an in-depth ergonomic

assessment.
 Chapter II

Factors Affecting Human Performance

By

Ahmed Mohamed Ahmed Saleh

 Factors Affecting Human Performance:
There are several factors that affect human performance however extrinsic
or intrinsic factors. A list of everyday items, which can influence human
performance, they are :

➢ Lack of Communication
➢ Complacency
➢ Lack of Knowledge
➢ Distraction
➢ Lack of Teamwork
➢ Fatigue
➢ Lack of Resources
➢ Pressure
➢ Lack of Assertiveness
➢ Stress
➢ Lack of Awareness
➢ Norms
➢ Goal Clarity
➢ Repertoire
➢ Knowledge of Structures
➢ Feedback
➢ Mental Models
➢ Motivation
➢ Environment

The above are all factors that can affect an individual's performance, and
will be discussed in greater detail in the body of this document.
Lack of Communication:
It is important to be aware that in general only 30% of verbal
communication is received and understood by either side in a conversation.
People normally remember what was said first and last in an exchange;
consequently it is important to put the most important part of your message first
and then repeat it at the end. Depending on the complexity of the message it might
be more effective to provide some form of written instruction such as a checklist.

Complacency:
Defined as: “Self-satisfaction accompanied by a loss of awareness of the
danger.” If an activity has become routine and your feeling “fat dumb and happy”,
you may be missing important signals. There is a tendency to see what you expect
to see.

Lack of Knowledge:
Air operators have a regulatory responsibility to ensure that their personnel
have the required training.

Distraction:
This is anything that draws your attention away from the task at hand.
Psychologists say distraction is the number one cause of forgetting things. We are
always thinking ahead. Thus, we have a natural tendency, when we are distracted
before returning to a job, to think we are further ahead than we actually are.

Lack of Teamwork:
An effective team will:

1) Maintain a clear mission

2) Maintain team expectations

3) Communicate to all team members

 4) Maintain trust

5) Pitch in

Fatigue:
Studies have shown that, similar to being under the influence of alcohol,
we tend to underestimate the problem and overestimate our ability to cope with
it. These studies have proven that after 17 hours of wakefulness, you are
functioning as if you had an equivalent blood alcohol level of 0.05%. After 24
hours the level increases to 0.1%; a very sobering thought. The more fatigued you
are, the lower your IQ. It is also noteworthy that the more fatigued you are, the
more easily you are distracted.

Lack of Resources:
A lack of resources can interfere with one’s ability to complete a task
because there is a lack of supply and support. Low quality products also affect
one’s ability to complete a task.

Pressure:
Urgent demands, which influence our performance, include:

1) Company

2) Client

3) Peer

4) Self-Induced

Interestingly, people put the most pressure on themselves. Self-induced

pressures are those occasions where one takes ownership of a situation, which
was not of their doing. The “monkey on your back” is yours because you accepted
it. Being assertive and not accepting the “monkey” will help.
Lack of Assertiveness:
Assertiveness is the ability to express your feelings, opinions, beliefs and
needs in a positive, productive manner. It is not the same as being aggressive.

The following are examples of how a lack of assertiveness can be offset:

1) Get the persons attention and state the problem: John, I have a concern
with…
2) Give consequences: If we continue… this will be the result…
3) Give solutions: We could… you may want to try… I’d like to…
4) Solicit feedback: What do you think?

Remember to deal with one issue at a time (not multiples), do not embellish
or exaggerate, stick to the facts, and stay calm.

Stress:
There are two types of stress: acute and chronic. Acute stress relates to the
demands placed on the body because of current issues; for example, time
constraints for converting the aircraft from passenger to cargo configuration.
Chronic stress results from long term demands placed on the body by both
negative and positive major life events, such as divorce, or winning the lottery.
Chronic stress can exaggerate the effects of acute stress. To handle acute stress,
try to take a five-minute break and relax by deep breathing. Dealing with chronic
stress is more difficult and usually involves a lifestyle change.

Lack of Awareness:
Defined as, “a failure to recognize all the consequences of an action, or
lack of foresight”. To combat this, try asking yourself, “What if…, Do I see the
complete picture? What have we forgotten?”
Nvorms:

Norms are unwritten rules or behaviours, dictated and followed by the

majority of a group. Norms can be positive and negative. A positive norm would
be scanning the area inside the aircraft you have been working on prior to closing
up. A negative norm would be pushing an aircraft into the hangar by yourself.

Goal Clarity:
People must have in mind a clear picture of any end or goal they are to
achieve. If this picture does not exists, they cannot tell if they are making
progress or when they have completed the task or assignment, let alone if it has
been completed properly (see feedback below). "Keep the end in view" has been
sae advice for almost two thousand years. The time a manager spends in
developing, communicating and clarifying the goals or ends to be achieved is
time well spent.

Repertoire:
To achieve a goal, the people working toward it must possess a suitable,
flexible repertoire. They must be able to engage in whatever behaviors are
necessary to obtain that goal – despite changing circumstances and environmental
disturbances. In some cases, this will involve carrying out a routine that has been
specified in advance by someone else. In other cases, it will require figuring out
— on the spot — an appropriate course of action. In many situations, the end to
be achieved will remain constant but the conditions under which it is to attained
will vary.

Knowledge of Structures :
Figuring out what to do in a particular situation requires knowledge of the
structure of that situation. People must understand the elements that make up the
situation, how those elements are connected to one another and the relationships
that exist between and among these elements. This knowledge of the structure of
the situation allows people to say how the actions they take will lead to the result
they seek. It also allows them to say, for a given result, the actions that will lead
to it. Absent this knowledge, action is little more than a shot in the dark and
achieving desired results depends mainly on luck or intuition.

Feedback :
Without information about actual conditions in relation to intended goals
or results, no one can perform to standard. Such information is known as
“feedback.” It informs progress, enables corrections and, eventually, signals
attainment of the objective.

For most “hard” tasks (i.e., tasks involving tangible products or other
immediate and readily measured effects of one’s actions), feedback is generally
available without much effort on anyone’s part. We are aware of our actions and
their effects.

But, for “soft” tasks (i.e., tasks where the effects of our actions are not
tangible, immediate nor readily measured), the feedback loop is essentially open.
This is especially true when the main effects of a person’s actions are the reactions
of other people.

Mental Models :
Absent feedback, people have no choice except to act in ways that are
consistent with internally-held views or mental models of what is appropriate or
what should work instead of externally-based information about what is and isn’t
actually working.

For this reason, it is worthwhile spending time working with people to

identify the mental models they currently use in situations where feedback isn’t
readily available. In some cases, this will surface mental models that are
inappropriate or inadequate. In other cases, it might surface mental models that
are superior to those held by most people.
Motivation :
It is one thing to be capable of doing something; it is something else
altogether to want to do it. Setting aside the issue of coercion, people generally
want to do things for two basic reasons: (1) it serves some purpose of their own
or (2) it serves someone else’s purpose and they’ve accepted something in return
for doing whatever it is that someone else wants done. Self-satisfaction and
incentives; these are the two great motivators.

Environment :
Even if the first six factors are present, performance might not occur if the
environmental conditions are so unsuitable as to present insurmountable barriers
to performance. Most of us can successfully drive our cars on windy days but
none of us can drive through a tornado. In less dramatic terms, missing tools and
equipment, competing priorities, a repressive climate and other factors can
interfere with our ability to perform as expected, regardless of our motives or our
repertoire, the presence or absence of feedback and the quality of the mental
models that guide our thinking and actions. In short, the task environment must
support the desired performance; at the very least, it must be manageable.

Recapitulation
The seven factors that make performance possible are these:

1. a clear picture of the ends to be attained,

2. a suitable repertoire,

3. knowledge of the structure of the situation,

4. a functioning feedback loop,

5. sound mental models,

 6. adequate motivation and

7. a supportive or manageable task environment.

If you’re concerned about your performance or the performance of other

people, a good place to start your analysis is with the seven factors listed above.
 Chapter III
Seating and chair design
By
Dr. Ahmed Abdou
 Seating and chair design

Introduction:
This guidance gives advice on how to ensure that seating in the workplace
is safe and suitable. It also gives examples of good practice, including information
on seating design and selection. It is aimed at those responsible for health and
safety at work. It may also be useful to employees, manufacturers, designers,
suppliers and users of industrial and office furniture.

Why is seating at work important?

Most jobs nowadays require people to sit whilst working. This is partly due
to the rapid increase in information technology and mechanisation within
business and industry. Unsuitable seating can cause people to adopt awkward
postures which can lead to discomfort, back pain and upper limb disorders. This
may prove costly to employers in the form of staff absences, potential civil claims
and lost production. Individuals also bear some of the costs in the form of
suffering and lost income.

How to do a risk assessment:

employers must assess risks in the workplace, including seating. A risk
assessment involves identifying hazards and deciding whether enough has been
done to prevent harm to people. There are five simple steps that employers can
take to make sure that a proper risk assessment is done:

Step 1: Look for the hazards:

It is important for employers to assess seating in the workplace to see what
may cause harm or injury. For example, seating that is not adjustable may lead to
common complaints, such as back pain. Usually seating needs to be looked at as
part of a work system.
Step 2: Decide who might be harmed:
Employers must consider employees and others who may use seating in
the workplace. For example, if employees are working at home, children’s safety
may need to be considered.

Step 3: Evaluate the risks:

Employers need to consider whether existing seating poses a health or
safety risk to employees. If it does, they must take action to remove, reduce or
control the risk. If there is no risk present, then no action needs to be taken. For
example, if the seating is suitable and safe, it meets the needs of the user and is
fit for the task at hand, then no further action is needed.

Step 4: Record the findings:

Employers who have five or more employees are required by law to record
the significant findings from a risk assessment. They also need to record their
health and safety arrangements so that

1- people in the workplace are informed about the hazards and are better
placed to deal with them;
2- safety representatives can use this information to carry out their duties
3- any action that is taken can be referred to if, in the future, a similar hazard
needs to be addressed.

Step 5: Review the assessment regularly:

It is important for employers to check the risk assessment from time to
time, especially if there are any changes, for example to work procedures or
equipment. The assessment needs to take into account any new hazards that may
cause harm to the health and safety of employees, or others affected by the change
in working conditions. A review may find that the special needs of an individual
have changed, as in the case of a pregnant worker, and this may lead to the
employer providing more suitable seating

Assessing whether seating design is suitable and safe:

When choosing or assessing seating design employers need to consider the
needs of the individual, the type of work being carried out and the dimensions of
the workstation. There are simple basic checks to ensure that seating is safe and
suitable:

Is the chair comfortable for the intended period of use?

Is the lower back adequately supported?

Is the upholstery sufficiently supportive and comfortable?

Are edges sufficiently padded and shaped to prevent uncomfortable pressure on

the thighs?

Does the chair have adequate types and ranges of adjustment?

Is the height adjustable to allow work to be carried out at or below elbow height?

Does the backrest adjust sufficiently in height and depth to allow the user to gain
support?

Are armrests suitable for the task and workstation?

Do the armrests allow the user to bring the chair far enough forward?

Do the armrests allow adequate arm movement?

Are footrests required and, if so, are they suitable?

Are there special requirements for a chair at this particular workstation?

Are there special user requirements?

Are there special task requirements?

WHY DO WE SIT DOWN?
• to relieve the joints of the lower limbs of load bearing;
• to avoid working in unnatural positions;
• to reduce energy consumption to make less demands on the vascular
system;
• to provide greater stability

(A)The natural ‘S” shape of the lumbar region of the human spine when
standing (B) The spine is distorted into a kyphotic ‘C’ shape when sitting on a
conventional seat. (C) Leaning forward on a conventional seat not only deforms
the spine further increasing intradiscal pressure but also produces compression of
the thorax and abdomen, which restricts the function of lungs and abdominal
organs.
A Chest and abdomen compressed from seated posture on conventional seat

B Chest & abdomen even more compressed from seated posture on

conventional seat when leaning forward to work

C Normal chest & abdominal space restored from seated posture on The
Bambach

D Normal chest & abdominal space retained from seated posture on The
Bambach

E Normal chest & abdominal space retained even when leaning forward to
work from seated posture on The Bambach
CAN THE SITTING POSITION PROLAPSE LUMBAR DISCS?

Experts agree that the backward rotation of the pelvis, which occurs when
sitting on conventional seats is compensated for by flexion of the lumbar spine
and that this position is close to, or at the limit of, the range of movement of the
lumbar spine. Moreover that this position is held for long periods of time when
sitting. This is achieved at the expense of a considerable degree of deformation
of the intervertebral discs.

WHAT ABOUT ALTERNATIVE DESIGNS FOR TASK

SEATING?
1-A way of achieving an upright pelvis is afforded by the ‘kneeling’ seat. This
seat provides the sitter with a way of achieving the advantages of tilt, but the
person must now kneel on a bar, or knee pad, to prevent sliding off. This works
very well for pelvic and spinal posture, but it is quite an awkward seat to get into
and out of, as the legs must be tucked back under the body, and on getting up,
they must be extricated from the kneeling pad. A further disadvantage of the
kneeling seat is that the feet lose plantar contact with the floor. Mobility around
the workplace is difficult, even on models that have castors. For people with sore
knees, the kneeling seat can be a problem and the lack of a back rest can be a
problem if not supported by a desk over a long day.
 The idea of the kneeling seat is that with balanced posture there is no need for
a backrest. However, if one sits all day from time to time one needs to rest the
abdominals. And when one is performing tasks that require a more upright
position, such as typing, phoning, listening and talking it is an advantage to have
the backrest to use as a rest point.

2-‘Sitting balls’ are often recommended. These balls are equipment that were
used for exercise and therapy, with great success. The reason I would not
recommend them for task seating is that, in the first instance, they are not quickly
adjustable. They are not shaped to support the pelvis in its upright position and
they require great muscular effort to achieve this. Further, the legs are in front of
the body, and because of the bulge of the ball it is not easy to get close to the task.
Finally, as can be imagined these seats are very cumbersome to move from one
workplace to another especially where arms and backrests have been fitted.
THE BAMBACH – A NEW APPROACH

What is the ideal seat? In theory, a sitting position where the angle at the
hip joints is about 450 is ideal, since in this position the pelvis is upright, the
muscles at the front and the back of the body are in balance and the body’s centre
of gravity is over its supporting base rather than behind it. The ideal seat,
therefore, is one that preserves the natural spinal ‘S’ curves while allowing free
balance and easy use of the arms, trunk and head as well as facilitating easy
mobility around the work station. Hip abduction and external rotation are also
essential for a pelvis which can remain upright and stable in the sitting position.
There is an obvious similarity between the ideal sitting position and the way a
rider sits on a horse. In the horse-riding position, the spine is upright, with the
hips flexed at 450 , and the body is in perfect balance, capable of adjusting as
required to the movements of the horse.

The Bambach is shaped like a saddle to enable the body to maintain ideal
posture when sitting. It is purpose-designed to position the pelvis in its upright,
neutral position and keep it there. In this position the person now bends forward
from the hip joints rather than the “waist” (or spine). In the Bambach position,
the hips are abducted in external rotation and at between 450 and 600 of flexion.
This is the position in which the head of the femur is in its most loose-packed
contact with the acetabulum which means the joint is stable and at ease in the
“rest” position. This also means that the thoracic and cervical spinal curves are in
natural, neutral alignment. This being the case, the shoulders, neck and head are
positioned for maximum ease, accuracy and powerful function because they also
are in their neutral positions The legs are able to move freely, the feet are in full
plantar contact with the floor, able to take more or less weight as required. The
person can move the seat freely around the workplace or the room with ease and
safety. The arms, hand, head and neck are positioned for least stress, resulting in
a natural increase in range and strength of reach and ease of functional activity
YOU CAN TEST THE ABDOMINAL SPACE FOR YOURSELF:
YOU CAN TEST YOUR CHEST SPACE FOR YOURSELF:

Seating design:
When workstations go wrong, the first place people typically look is their
chair. Providing an ergonomic chair does not benefit the user if the user does not
know how to use and adjust the chair. There are some basic guidelines to look for
in a suitable office chair:

1. Provides lumbar support.

2. Height can be adjusted.

3. Width is appropriate for the individual using the chair.

4. Backrest is adjustable.

5. Seat depth – well-fitted or adjustable.

6. Adjustable or removable armrests.

7. Five-prong base.

8. Breathable fabric.

9. Well-fitted – small, medium or large chair.

Height
While standing, adjust the height of the chair so the highest point of the
seat is just below your kneecap. This should allow your feet to rest firmly on the
floor when seated. If you feel pressure near the back of the seat, raise you chair.
If you feel pressure near the front of the seat, lower your chair. The goal is to
evenly distribute your weight.

Back support
When sitting, adjust the height of the backrest so the lumbar pad supports
the natural curve of your lower back (lumbar curve). The tilt of the back support
should allow you to sit with your upper body slightly reclined (110 degrees is
usually recommended).

Seat tilt
Seat tilt can be adjusted to improve your comfort. This will also affect
your weight distribution. A tilt of five degrees is usually recommended.

Depth
When sitting, the seat pan (part of the chair you sit on) should allow you to
use the back support without the front of the seat pressing against the back of
your knees. If the seat is too deep, try a back support (lumbar roll, or Obus Forme)
to reduce the size of the seat pan. Some chairs have adjustable seat pans. The
adjustment lever is usually located under the front of the chair, much like the lever
that moves the seat forward and backward in a car.

Width
The seat pan should be wide enough so it does not apply pressure to your
thighs. Conversely, the seat should be narrow enough to be able to reach the
armrests when they are properly adjusted.
 Armrests
Armrests can provide support for the upper part of your forearms, thereby
reducing the stress on your shoulders and back. However, the armrests should not
prevent the chair from being drawn close to the desk, nor restrict natural
movements. If your armrests cannot be adjusted to allow for this, then consider
removing or replacing them. Also keep in mind that soft armrests will minimize
contact stresses on your elbows. Gel wraps can be purchased to go over armrests
that may be too hard.

Footrests
Any worker who cannot easily place their feet flat on the ground, when using
the seat adjusted to the correct working height, needs a footrest. This should be
large enough to allow for foot movement. Adjustable footrests of a selection of
heights are preferred. Free-standing footrests should not be so light that they
move accidentally

Mobility
Swivel-action chairs provide flexibility when the worker needs to conduct
a variety of tasks and move from one location to another. Ensure that chairs with
castors do not slide away too easily when the user gets up or sits down. This a
common problem when they are used on hard floors, or with chairs with a high
or tilting seat. Different types of castors are available for different floor types,
such as hard floors and carpeted floors. In certain situations glides are safer to use
than castors. Ensure that the correct ones are chosen to meet workplace needs.
Some seating is designed so that a brake is applied when the chair is sat on, or
when the user gets up.
Adjustability
The commonest adjustments included in seating design are seat height,
backrest height and tilt. In some chairs the seat and backrest can tilt forward
together; this feature can reduce neck discomfort and also improve the worker’s
reach over the work surface. Some backrests can be adjusted backwards and
forwards to change the depth of the seat to meet individual needs. Armrests can
be designed to be adjustable to aid work that requires a steady arm position, and
to provide for a better match between the needs of the user, their workstation and
the task
 Chapter IV
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs)
By
Dr. Omnia Mostafa
 Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs)

Affect the muscles, nerves, blood vessels, ligaments and tendons. Workers
in many different industries and occupations can be exposed to risk factors at
work, such as lifting heavy items, bending, reaching overhead, pushing and
pulling heavy loads, working in awkward body postures and performing the same
or similar tasks repetitively. Exposure to these known risk factors for MSDs
increases a worker's risk of injury.

Work-related MSDs can be prevented. Ergonomics --- fitting a job to a person --

- helps lessen muscle fatigue, increases productivity and reduces the number and
severity of work-related MSDs.

Examples of Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs)

• Carpal tunnel syndrome

• Tendinitis

• Rotator cuff injuries (affects the shoulder)

• Epicondylitis (affects the elbow)

• Trigger finger

• Muscle strains and low back injuries

• Impact of MSDs in the Workplace

• Work related MSDs are among the most frequently reported causes of lost
or restricted work time.

• According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) in 2013, MSD1cases

accounted for 33% of all worker injury and illness cases.

A Process for Protecting Workers

 Employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthful workplace for
their workers. In the workplace, the number and severity of MSDs resulting from
physical overexertion, and their associated costs, can be substantially reduced by
applying ergonomic principles.

Implementing an ergonomic process is effective in reducing the risk of

developing MSDs in high-risk industries as diverse as construction, food
processing, firefighting, office jobs, healthcare, transportation and warehousing.
The following are important elements of an ergonomic process:

▪ Provide Management Support - A strong commitment by management is

critical to the overall success of an ergonomic process. Management should
define clear goals and objectives for the ergonomic process, discuss them with
their workers, assign responsibilities to designated staff members, and
communicate clearly with the workforce.

▪ Involve Workers - A participatory ergonomic approach, where workers are

directly involved in worksite assessments, solution development and
implementation is the essence of a successful ergonomic process. Workers
can:

o Identify and provide important information about hazards in their

workplaces.

o Assist in the ergonomic process by voicing their concerns and suggestions

for reducing exposure to risk factors and by evaluating the changes made
as a result of an ergonomic assessment.

▪ Provide Training - Training is an important element in the ergonomic

process. It ensures that workers are aware of ergonomics and its benefits,
become informed about ergonomics related concerns in the workplace, and
understand the importance of reporting early symptoms of MSDs.
▪ Identify Problems - An important step in the ergonomic process is to identify
and assess ergonomic problems in the workplace before they result in MSDs.

▪ Encourage Early Reporting of MSD Symptoms - Early reporting can

accelerate the job assessment and improvement process, helping to prevent or
reduce the progression of symptoms, the development of serious injuries, and
subsequent lost-time claims.

▪ Implement Solutions to Control Hazards - There are many possible

solutions that can be implemented to reduce, control or eliminate workplace
MSDs.

▪ Evaluate Progress - Established evaluation and corrective action procedures

are required to periodically assess the effectiveness of the ergonomic process
and to ensure its continuous improvement and long-term success. As an
ergonomic process is first developing, assessments should include
determining whether goals set for the ergonomic process have been met and
determining the success of the implemented ergonomic solutions.

Note: An ergonomic process uses the principles of a safety and health

program to address MSD hazards. Such a process should be viewed as an ongoing
function that is incorporated into the daily operations, rather than as an individual
project.
 Chapter V

Workstation Design

By

Dr. Ahmed Gamal

 Workstation Design
Introduction

Designing for ergonomics requires understanding and

consideration of the following:

The physical and psychological attributes of the person or

population of people that will perform the job.

The design and arrangement of the workstation furniture,

computer hardware, and other workstation accessories.

The tasks required to perform the job.

The work environment, including such things as noise and

temperature, also management and organizational methods and
constraints.

Modern Work Environment

• Changes in modern business practices have considerably changed

the way we work in the office.
• The delivery of low-cost, high-quality, customized products and
services to customers who are increasingly demanding is critical
to organizational success.
These changes in business practices are being reflected in modern
office designs

Workstation Design Guidelines

Avoid Static Loads and Fixed Work Postures

 • Static load increases systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
• Metabolic wastes accumulate in the muscles.
• Consider increasing recovery time.
• Employees should be encouraged to wear proper shoes for work
requires lots of standing.
• Workstations should be equipped with mats.
• Have hips parallel to the floor.
• Slips and falls are a major cause of injury deaths and have annual
direct cost/capita of $50–400.
• Causes of falls:
– Slips: unexpected horizontal foot movement
– Trips: restriction of foot movement
– Stepping-on-air: unexpected vertical foot movement
• Don’t bend your wrist.
• Don’t lift your elbow.
• Don’t reach behind your back.

• Don’t bend your wrist.

• Don’t lift your elbow.
• Don’t reach behind your back.
Follow guidelines for hand and arm motions

• Work height is defined in terms of elbow height.

• Optimum height is slightly below the elbow.
• Optimum height from the elbow is the same for sitting and
standing.
Work height is not table height.
 • The cost of an adjustable chair is very low compared to labor
cost.
• Allow users to try chairs in their specific jobs.
• Buy chairs that are easily adjustable.
Train people in proper adjustment

– Seat Height from Floor

– Seat Length
– Seat Width
– Slope of Seat
– Seat Shape
• Backrests
– Position of Backrest
– Molded Chair Back Position & Curvature
• Armrests
• Legs/pedestals
– Clearance of feet and calves under chair

• Make movements horizontal or downward; avoid lifting.

• Consider using the weight of the body to increase mechanical
force.
• Use gravity to move material to the work.
• Use gravity as a fixture.

Use gravity in feeding and disposal

• Avoid unnecessary acceleration and deceleration.

 • Use circular motion for moving and polishing.
• Eliminate grasping motions by providing edges, rolled edges,
and holes.
• Avoid transporting weight in the hand.

• Motion time is minimized with motion about the elbow.

• Cross-body movements are more accurate than those about
the elbow.
Physiological cost is lower for movements about the elbow
Chapter VI
Safety
By
Dr. Ebrahim
 Safety
As with most professions, Safety professionals often come into the field in
positions where their responsibility is to focus on the day-to-day tasks of a jobsite
or facility. The “big picture” is left to somebody else, whether it’s the Corporate
Safety Director or some other member of a company’s management. Eventually,
however, many Safety professionals will rise to the next level. They will be
expected to make not just a single work site safe, but an entire organization. If
those professionals that find themselves in this situation have not had the proper
training or experience to know how to focus on a broader spectrum of issues, they
could be doomed for failure.

So, what should be the focus of a Safety professional trying to build a safe
work environment? There are, of course, many answers to this question, but here
are ten very important things to help make your program a successful one:

1. Management Commitment
A safety program without management commitment is like a town
ordinance that doesn’t have support of the local authorities – it lacks teeth and
will most likely never be enforced. As a Safety professional tasked with
developing an organization’s program, you need to immediately gauge the
support you have at every level of management. If the top brass doesn’t have
your back, you’d better believe that line supervisors won’t either. If the
company’s executives do support you, it’s a good idea to ask them to make an
announcement – whether at a company meeting, through individual meetings
with members of management, or even through an official memo – that they
support the safety program and expect full cooperation. If they don’t, you’ve got
a hard sell and you need to figure out fast how to get them on-board. If they’re
not in it for the good of their employees, then getting them to understand how a
solid safety program will save them money can often bring about an epiphany.
2. Employee Buy-In and Involvement
Sure, some people like to come to work, be told what to do, do their job,
and go home. But, the vast majority of people are more likely to adhere to rules
they feel they’ve played a part in. This doesn’t mean you need to ask every
member of the labor force to write a part of the safety plan, but it does mean you
should let them know how important they are in the plan’s development. Let’s
face it; nobody knows a machine more thoroughly than the guy who has been
operating it for 25 years. He knows its quirks, he knows its temperament. He
knows the right way to use it, but you’ll also find he knows the wrong way to use
it. This is helpful information when building safety controls and it makes that
operator understand his knowledge is valued. Other ways to get employees
involved are suggestion boxes and the all-important Safety Committee. Some
companies make a huge mistake by including only members of the Safety
department and management on this committee, leaving vast amounts of
untapped knowledge and experience on the plant floor.

3. Drug and Alcohol Abuse

Some facilities feel that drug and alcohol abuse is a personal issue and, if
they just turn a blind eye to it, it will go away. Worse yet, I’ve seen some
contractors with an office refrigerator full of beer – sending the message that
drinking on the job is not only okay, but perhaps encouraged. This is an accident
waiting to happen. Drug and Alcohol abuse needs to be nipped in the bud through
a clearly stated policy which is consistently enforced. Unless you’re looking for
a lawsuit, if you test Joe when he goes to the medical clinic, you’d better also test
Mike.

There are four main ways to test for drug and alcohol abuse: pre-
employment, random, post-accident, and reasonable suspicion. Again, once you
make your policy, it must be adhered to for everyone. I worked with one
contractor who would test their employees, but refused to take action against a
laborer who was “shotgunning” beer in the parking lot at lunch because he could
“really hump the concrete hose”. Not only were they toying with getting
somebody seriously hurt, they were opening themselves up to a discrimination
lawsuit from any of the men who had been tested. Random testing must be run
very specifically in order to avoid discrimination or harassment charges as
well. If you choose to pursue random testing, there are organizations out there
that will run the program for you to avoid any chance of somebody claiming
you’re singling them out. Finally, for “for-cause” or “reasonable suspicion”
testing, it is important that you have supervisory personnel trained in Substance
Abuse Recognition. If possible, and again to protect yourself and your company,
before sending somebody for testing, try to have two trained supervisors
independently conclude that the employee is suspected of being under the
influence.

4. Training
You simply can’t expect an employee to work safely if he or she has never
been trained in the proper safe working procedures. What may seem like
common sense to you, may be the farthest thing from common sense to
another. Your common sense comes from a set of experiences and learned
behaviors which are completely different than the experiences and learned
behaviors of the next guy. If he has spent 25 years walking the steel without fall
protection and has never had an incident or seen one, it is likely that his common
sense says it’s okay to walk the steel without fall protection. You and I, as safety
professionals, know this to be untrue and maybe, because of our education and
experience, feel it should be common sense. In building a safe work
environment, you need to determine what areas require training both by
regulatory requirement and by your own hazard assessment. In my experience,
when OSHA comes to a jobsite for an inspection, one of the first questions they
will ask is, “Where is the training documentation?”

5. Plan
No safety program has ever been successful by winging it. Some get lucky
for a while, but those that leave safety to chance will always have
incidents. There are many levels of planning: having a written corporate plan, a
site-specific plan where necessary, being involved in pre-construction meetings,
being a part of daily pre-work meetings, performing JHAs (Job Hazard Analyses)
or other hazard assessments. Let’s be honest, what would happen if a roofing
crew had not planned for their job? They showed up to their work area, got their
materials up the hoist, got set up, and realized they had no means of fall
protection. Would they stop, come back down off the roof, and get what they
need? In a perfect world, yes, but in reality, most likely they would not. Instead,
they would continue with the work completely unprotected.

If you can get supervisors to understand how much better it is to plan ahead
than it is to have you stop work, you’ve made progress. Don’t be shut out of pre-
construction meetings. This is a great opportunity to find out how the steel
erector plans to achieve fall protection and how they plan on maintaining it as the
project goes on, for example. Morning meetings might give you an opportunity
to find out that a certain business unit plans to have one of the employees
operating a machine that is supposed to be tagged out of service. Be involved
early and often.

6. Communicate

What good is a plan if nobody knows what it is? If you expect people to
work the way you want them to work, you need to let them know just what that
way is. A good Safety professional is a good coach. Don’t berate employees,
teach them what it is they are doing wrong and how to do it properly. Be available
and let them know that communication is a two-way street. Make sure they
understand that you are always approachable for questions, suggestions, or
concerns (but that you also encourage them to use the proper chain of command
– you don’t want to shoot yourself in the foot by making supervisors feel you are
stepping on their toes). Have a weekly meeting – often called “Toolbox Talks”
in the construction industry, but make it relevant. You don’t want to talk to your
forklift operators about excavations, they’ll just tune you out. Cover topics the
employees need to know about and use that time to survey the workforce about
how things are going. And, don’t forget to communicate up the ladder. Nothing
can come back to bite you more than an executive being blindsided by something
important. If there is an injury or an OSHA inspection, make sure they know.

7. Incentive
Incentive has almost become a dirty word in the world of OSHA, primarily
because poorly constructed programs often encourage workers to hide
injuries. This not only means that a worker might not receive the necessary
medical care his or her company’s worker’s comp policy should be paying for, it
also skews statistics. Therefore, if you decide to go forward with a formal
incentive program, you should take care to construct it in a way that does not
encourage – and perhaps punishes – failure to report an injury.

However, incentive comes in many forms. The most powerful incentive

for an employee should be their own health and well-being. Make them
understand that safety is part of their job, not just an optional aspect for which
they should be rewarded if they perform well. Do they get rewarded for showing
up to work on time and dressing appropriately? Do they get rewarded for
performing assigned tasks? Sure, it’s called their paycheck. Make them
understand this, because it is important in how the workforce perceives
safety. Then, when you decide to throw them a pizza party or buy them jackets
(it’s amazing how far a little food or clothing go toward garnering goodwill with
your workforce), it’s just icing on the cake.

One very effective way I’ve found to get guys to work safely is to talk to
them. When I’m on a worksite, I know the names of the people. I ask how their
weekend was. I learn about them. If Tony has a prized dog, I ask how that dog
is doing. If Sara is in a bowling league on Tuesday, on Wednesday I ask her how
she bowled. When you establish this type of relationship with workers, it helps
them to understand that while safety is your job, you genuinely care about
them. This is often enough to give them incentive to cooperate with you.

8. Discipline
When all else fails – and, at times, it will – you must have a disciplinary
policy in place. It’s not something anybody likes to do, but you will occasionally
come across blatant violators and repeat offenders that do not respond well to
coaching or incentives. If you’ve done all we’ve previously discussed to this
point to no avail, you are left with little choice but to discipline them. The policy
should be clear and consistent. Document everything. Make it progressive –
verbal warning, written warning, suspension, termination. You will, however,
want to leave yourself some wiggle-room in the plan. Use of the words “up to
and including” (as in, …”a third violation will result in disciplinary action up to
and including suspension”) gives you the ability to decide that maybe a third
violation of your 100% safety glasses policy is not as serious as someone failing
to follow proper hot-work procedures for the third time. You also want to leave
yourself room for swift, immediate action on more dangerous violations. Some
facilities have “zero tolerance” policies for such things as failure to utilize fall
protection, failure to observe proper lockout/tagout procedures, or failure to
follow proper confined space procedures, because of the nature of incidents that
can result from them. The odds are the severity of one of these incidents would
be high.
 Whatever you decide, your line supervision needs to be supporting the
program and enforcing it. Remember, you are not the Safety Police. You cannot
be everywhere at once, especially if supervision is letting unsafe behavior occur
when you turn your back. You should develop the plan and make sure they are
enforcing it with your support.

Finally, one of the most important pieces of advice I ever got was: praise
in public and punish in private. Remember that the people working for the
company are adults. They should not be belittled or berated at any time. When
you are disciplining them, bring them to your office or some other private area to
do so. When you are praising them, say it out loud in front of everybody.

9. Housekeeping
Once you’ve gotten things up and running, you need to maintain the
program. The workforce has been trained, management is on-board, the
employees are involved, but the workplace is a mess. Is this really an
issue? Well, let’s look at the vast array of problems that could occur from poor
housekeeping: fire hazards, environmental hazards, slip, trip, and fall hazards,
lacerations, puncture wounds, impalement hazards, etc. etc. It’s not all about
making it look nice (though that certainly helps – if a compliance officer comes
in to do an inspection, they certainly get an immediate impression of a facility
and can set the tone of the inspection based on the facility’s housekeeping). Have
people assigned to clean up work areas, rotate this responsibility through the
workforce, and make sure they understand why it is important to clean up after
themselves. Plus, it’s nice to have a sense of pride in your workplace.

10. Avoid Complacency

Sometimes you do such a good job setting up your program that it runs
smoothly for long periods of time. While this is a great accomplishment, it can
also be a deadly trap. Employees who do the same thing day in and day out, who
haven’t had any safety issues along the way, can tend to grow complacent. They
go into auto-pilot mode. Have you ever gotten into your car to drive to work and
next thing you know you’re halfway there but you can’t remember a single
moment of your drive? That’s your brain on auto-pilot. Scary when you think
that you drove miles and miles without a single recollection. In the same vein, a
worker can operate a machine for hours without once thinking about what he or
she is doing. That allows for them to slip up because their mind has wandered
or, worse yet, they can become so comfortable with what they do that they feel
they can develop shortcuts that are not necessarily safe. Task rotation is a good
way to avoid this, but simply consistently talking to the workforce about not being
complacent helps bring it to the forefront. Keep an eye out for it. Encourage the
workforce to look out for complacency in one another by making sure they
understand that they can also be harmed by a fellow employee not paying
attention.
 References
[1] in An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering. Wickens, Gordon, Liu,
1997.

ISO 6385 defines "ergonomics" and the "study of human factors" similarly, as
the "scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions
among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that
applies theory, principles and methods to design to optimize overall human
performance."

"What is ergonomics?". Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors. Essentially

yes, they are different terms with the same meaning but one term may be
more in favour in one country or in one industry than another. They can be
used interchangeably.

"CRIOP" (PDF). SINTEF. Ergonomics is a scientific discipline that applies

systematic methods and knowledge about people to evaluate and approve
the interaction between individuals, technology and organisation. The aim
is to create a working environment and the tools in them for maximum work
efficiency and maximum worker health and safety ... Human factors is a
scientific discipline that applies systematic methods and knowledge about
people to evaluate and improve the interaction between individuals,
technology and organisations. The aim is to create a working environment
(that to the largest extent possible) contributes to achieving healthy,
effective and safe operations.

International Ergonomics Association. What is Ergonomics. Website. Retrieved

17 March 2014.

Wojciech Jastrzębowski

Hywel Murrell
Swain, A.D.; Guttmann, H.E. (1983). "Handbook of Human Reliability Analysis
with Emphasis on Nuclear Power Plant Applications. NUREG/CR-1278"
(PDF). USNRC. Human Factors Engineering, Human Engineering,
Human Factors, and Ergonomics ... describe a discipline concerned with
designing machines, operations, and work environments so that they match
human capacities and limitations ... The first three terms are used most
widely in the United States ... The last term, ergonomics, is used most
frequently in other countries but is now becoming popular in the United
States as well.

"Home Page of Environmental Ergonomics Society". Environmental-

ergonomics.org. Retrieved 2012-04-06.

John L. Campbell; Monica G. Lichty; et al. (2012). National Cooperative

Highway Research Project Report 600: Human Factors Guidelines for
Road Systems (Second Edition). Washington, D.C.: Transportation
Research Board.