Chapter 37.
Relativity
Special Theory of Relativity
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History
Non-invariance of Maxwell equations
Under Galilean transformation
(cf. F=ma is invariant under Galilean transformation)
➔ Maxwell’ laws are not physical law?
(or Galilean transformation is wrong?)
Michelson-Morley Experiment
➔ The speed of light was always the same no matter what the motion of the
observer was. (Maxwell equations are correct)
Einstein Special Relativity Theory
History
▪ 물리 법칙은 관성계 (가속하지 않는 계)에서 동일 해야 함.
(어떤 관성계가 다른 관성계에 비하여 다를 이유가 없음)
→ 관성계들 간에 변환은 갈릴레이 변환 (어는 관성계에서든 시간은 동일하게 간다.)을 통하여 얻어 질 수 있
다는 것이 너무나 당연한 생각이었음.
(F=ma는 어느 관성계에서나 동일, 즉 물리 법칙임)
→ 하지만, 맥스웰 방정식은 이 갈릴레이 변환을 했을 때, 관성계마다 달라짐. (non-invariance)
→ 그래서 맥스웰 방정식은 에테르라고 하는 빛의 매질기준 관성계에서만 성립하는 식이라고 생각했음.
→ 그러나 마이켈슨-몰리 실험 결과 빛의 속도는 어느 관성계에서나 일정하다고 밝혀짐.
→ 즉, 갈릴레이 변환이 틀렸고, 맥스웰 방정식이 맞다.
→ 관성계들 변환에 새로운 방식이 필요하다. 우리의 시공간에 대한 인식이 틀렸다.
즉 시간이 모든 관성계에서 동일하게 가는 것이 아니다. 일정한 것은 빛의 속도 뿐이다.
Synchronized clock arrays
The Relativity of Simultaneity
Sally
Blue and Red lights generation
Sam
For Sally, the light would not be detected
simultaneously: So, After checking the light source
positions, she says that lights were not generated
simultaneously. (Because for her, light velocity for
blue and red light is same, so if they were generated
If Sam happed to detect both light simultaneously: simultaneously, they should have been detected
After checking the light source positions, he says that simultaneously.) If the emitted things were balls,
blue and red light were generated simultaneously. instead of light, Sally can accept that two balls were
launched simultaneously because speeds of ball are
different in that case.
The Relativity of Simultaneity
Blue and Red lights generation
Sam ▪ 빛이 동시에 도착했다 -> 거리를 확인해보니 같은 거리이다 -> 동시에 빛이 발생했다
▪ 내가 보기에 Sally는 오른쪽으로 가고 있으니까 Sally는 빨간 빛을 먼저 봤겠지
-> 그래서 Sally는 동시에 빛이 발생하지 않았다고 생각하는거야
-> 근데 내가 네 입장에서 생각해보면, 네가 움직이고 있더라도 빨간 빛, 파란 빛의 속도가 네게는 일정하
다고 느낄 때니까 동시에 발생 안 했다고 얘기할 수 있겠군.
(야구공일 경우, 어떤 프레임이냐에 따라 속도가 달라지겠지만)
Sally ▪ 빨간 빛이 먼저 도착했다 -> 거리를 확인해보니 같은 거리이다 -> 빨간 색 빛이 먼저 발생했군
▪ 내가 보기에 Sam은 왼쪽으로 가고 있으니까 Sam은 빨간 빛, 파란 빛을 동시에 볼 수도 있겠네
-> 그래서 동시에 빛이 생겼다고 생각하는거군.
-> 근데 내가 네 입장에서 생각해보면, 네가 움직이고 있더라도 빨간 빛, 파란 빛의 속도가 네게는 일정하다고
느낄 때니까 동시에 발생 했다고 얘기할 수 있겠군 (야구공일 경우 명백히 네가 틀렸지만)
The Relativity of Simultaneity
Time Dilation
“A” inertial frame For events happened at the same position in “A”
inertial frame, observer in
“B” inertial frame measures longer time duration than
observer in A frame.
“B” inertial frame
For events happened at the same position in “B”
inertial frame, observer in
“A” inertial frame measures longer time duration than
observer in B frame.
Time Dilation
Time interval between
event 1 and event 2 in Sally
frame is proper time, here.
To Sam, Sally is moving.
Time dilation is direct consequence of constant speed of light.
Lorentz Factor
Example of Time Dilation
Microscopic Clocks
The lifetime of a muon is the time interval between its
production (event 1) and its decay (event 2). When muons are
stationary and their lifetimes are measured with stationary
clocks (say, in a laboratory), their average lifetime is 2.200 s.
뮤온과 같이 안 움직이는 frame에서 봤을 때 lifetime이 길어 보인다.
(움직이는 얘가 더 젊어 보인다.)
Example of Time Dilation
Macroscopic Clocks
Time Dilation
For sally, Sam is using clocks which is not properly
synchronized.
She insists that is the reason why Sam measured
longer time interval. But for Sam, he insists that clocks
are synchronized properly. ( Relativity of
Simultaneity)
Length Contraction
“A” inertial frame
The length L0 of an object in the rest frame of the
object (“A” inertial frame): observer in
“B” inertial frame measures shorter length than L0
“B” inertial frame
The length L0 of an object in the rest frame of the
object (“B” inertial frame):, observer in
“A” inertial frame measures shorter length than L0
Length Contraction
Sally v
Train
Station platform length L0
Station
Sam
Sam: Length L0
Sally: By measuring the time interval, Sally can estimate
the length of the platform
Length Contraction
Sally
Train
v
Train Length D0
Station
Sam
Sally: Length D0 𝐷0 = 𝑣 ∆𝑡
Sam: By measuring the time interval, Sam can estimate
the length of the train 𝐷 = 𝑣 ∆𝑡 0
Length Contraction
Same length at rest
Sally For Sally,
Sam
Sally Sam For Sam,
Length Contraction
For Sam,
Sally Sam
Sam can say that there is a moment when Sally train is fully included Sam’s train.
But for Sally, it just like below (difference of simultaneity).
The Lorentz Transformation
The Galilean Transformation Equations
The Lorentz Transformation Equations
The Lorentz Transformation
Some Consequences of the Lorentz Equations
Simultaneity
Time Dilation
→ Δx’ is zero → Δt’ is the proper time.
Length Contraction Suppose rod length of L at rest with respect to S’ frame.
→ Then by measuring the coordinates of end points of rod
in S’ frame, Δx’ = L0 (proper length)
→ To measure the length of the rod in S frame, the coordinates of end
points of rod should be measured at the same time.
Example
Example
The Relativity of Velocities
The Galilean Transformation Equations
𝑢′ = 𝑢 -v
The Lorentz Transformation Equations
Doppler effect: typical wave
Toward direction → higher frequency
Away direction → lower frequency
When the detector moves relative to the air → the motion changes the frequency
When the source moves relative to the air → the motion changes the wavelength
Doppler Effect; Detector Moving, Source Stationary
Doppler Effect; Source Moving, Detector Stationary
Relativistic Doppler Effect
Relativistic Doppler Effect
Transverse Doppler effect
Relativistic Momentum
➔ No momentum conservation under Lorentzian transformation.
➔ Classical momentum conservation is no longer a physical law, because it depends on inertial frame.
➔ Momentum conservation under Lorentzian transformation.
➔ Relativistic momentum conservation is a physical law, because it does not depend on inertial frame.
Relativistic Energy
Momentum and Kinetic Energy
Relativistic Energy: example
Before collision After collision
m m
u -u
After collision, velocity becomes zero.
➔ Kinetic energy is zero,
𝐸𝑖 = 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2
and there is only rest mass energy.
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑀𝐶 2
From energy conservation law (assuming no energy loss to other path)
𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝛾𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑀𝐶 2
➔ 𝑀 = 2𝛾𝑚 Kinetic energy is converted to mass!
Minkowski space
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Clock synchronization
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Time Dilation
Length Contraction
Twin Paradox
