Agenda

Recap

Meaning Analysis
1. Literal meaning
2. Definitions
3. Necessary and sufficient conditions

GE2134 – Critical and Creative Thinking Clarify Ideas and Concepts

1. Explain how context and purpose affect the quality of an interpretation
Meaning Analysis
Week 3 Semester A 2024 2. Explain the conditions under which vagueness and ambiguity become
problematic, clarify your explanation with examples
3. Apply five strategies to effectively resolve problematic vagueness and ambiguity
4. Explain why strong critical thinking, particularly judicious interpretation, is helpful
when encountering a new language community
© 2016 by Pearson Education, Inc. 2

Literal Meaning

• A property of linguistic expressions

• Determined by its syntax and the conventional meaning of the words in the sentence
• The literal meaning of a sentence
should be distinguished from its conversational implicature the information that
is implicitly conveyed in a particular conversational context, distinct from the
literal meaning

Meaning Analysis • Example: Peter asks Mary to go to a movie. Mary replies with “I am exhausted.”

Literal meaning We would infer that Mary does not want to go to a movie

Meaningless versus empty statements This is NOT part of the literal meaning of her reply

Definitions: Reportive, Stipulative, Precising, Persuasive, Evaluating She does not want to go is inferred indirectly

Necessary and sufficient conditions • But when want to find out whether a statement is true
We should consider its literal meaning, and not the conversational implicature
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Meaningless versus Empty statements Definitions

• Very often, claims that are pointless or empty are also Lack of clarity in meaning can hinder good reasoning and obstruct
described as meaningless communication. One way to make meaning clearer is to use definitions.

A definition is made up of two parts: the definiendum and the definiens.

• The definiendum is the term that is to be defined

“If I come, I will come.” e.g., “bachelor”

• The definiens is the groups of words or concepts used in the definition
that is supposed to have the same meaning as the definiendum
e.g., “an unmarried man”
• This statement is meaningless or empty?

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Four kinds of definitions (1/2) Four kinds of definitions (2/2)

1. Reportive definition 3. Precising definition

• A lexical definition to report the existing meaning of a term • To make the meaning of a term more precise for some specific purpose
• Capture the correct usage of the term that is defined • A combination of reportive and stipulative definition
• E.g., the bachelor example in the previous slide • E.g., Give discounts to elderly passengers; one might define “an elderly person” is
any person of age 65 or above
2. Stipulative definition
4. Persuasive definition
• Assigns a new meaning to a term, regardless the term has already got a meaning
• Any definition that attaches an emotive connotation to a term when it actually
• If accepted, the term is used in the new way that is prescribed. none
• E.g., KFC to mean “Korean-style Fried Chicken” • The connotation can be either positive or derogatory
• E.g., some against might define “abortion” as the murder of an innocent child
inside the womb
This definition carries a negative connotation
The term suggests that abortion is wrongful killing
7 It also assumes that the aborted fetus is already a person 8
Necessary Condition Sufficient Condition

To say that X is a necessary condition for Y is to say that it is impossible to have Y To say that X is a sufficient condition for Y is to say that the presence of X guarantees
without X. the presence of Y.
• In other words, the absence of X guarantees the absence of Y • In other words, it is impossible to have X without Y
• A necessary condition is sometimes also called an essential condition • If X is present, then Y must also be present

E.g., Having four sides is necessary for being a square. E.g., Being a square is sufficient for having four sides.

To show that X is not a necessary condition for Y, we simply find a situation where Y is To show that X is not sufficient for Y, we come up with cases where X is present but Y is
present but X is not. not.

E.g., Being rich is not necessary for being well-respected, since a well-respected teacher E.g., Having a large market share is not sufficient for making a profit. The company might
might in fact be quite poor be dominating the market by selling at a loss.

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Discussion question

Consider these two clauses which might appear as part of a

rental/employment/license … agreement. How would you explain their differences
in literal meaning?

Think about their different implications with regard to your rights and duties.

1. You may terminate the contract after 12 months by giving 2 months notice.
• As such, the minimum duration of the contract is ____ months?
Clarify Ideas and Concepts
1. Interpretation, Context, and Purpose
2. After 12 months, you can give 2 months notice and terminate the contract. 2. When Vagueness or Ambiguity Cause Misunderstandings
• As such, the minimum duration of the contract is ____ months? 3. Resolving Problematic Vagueness and Ambiguity
4. Language community and critical thinking
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 Opening Remarks - explains how context and purpose affect an interpretation; e.g., gestures

Clarify Ideas and Concepts

1. Interpretation, Context, and Purpose

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1. Interpretation, Context, and Purpose Meaning Matters

The purposes and context of a material determines its interpretation and use Essentials for making an accurate interpretation
• Meaning matters • Context within the use of a word or expression
• Meaning of words could be ambiguous
• Intent of the speaker
• But, clear enough for what?
• Interpretation, and the habit of judiciousness are the primary critical thinking Examples
skills • There was a legal battle over whether a genetic child can receive Social Security survivor
benefits if the sperm donor father dies.
• Worth 1000 words
• Some messages are better communicated in images

• Communication, language, and thought

• Complex ways of communicating, the uses of language, and thinking are closely
connected
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But, Clear Enough for What? Worth 1000 Words

• Clarity depends on purpose and context of the communication

First rule of fair-minded interpretation is to be __________________________.

• Strong critical thinkers use interpretive questions to reveal context

and purpose
• What values, beliefs, events, or issues were important enough to motivate the
author to initiate communication?
• Who was the author’s intended audience?
• What did the author intend to communicate?
• Given the context and the intended audience, what did the author believe that
audience already knew?
• Can also be applied to non-verbal communication
• Some icons are meaningful only to
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Communication, Language, and Thought

• Closely connected
• The capacity to use language gave Homo sapiens an advantage over other
hominids
• Earliest language was a rich and varied system of gesticulations, sounds,
pictures, and symbols
• Complexity of human society and the importance of agreements and ideas lead to the
evolution of written language

• Written communications increase the risk of vagueness or ambiguity

Clarify Ideas and Concepts
• In the presence of the other person facial expressions, gestures, and body language add 1.
context 2. When Vagueness or Ambiguity Cause Misunderstandings
• An individual often interprets textual or recorded communications correctly when he/she
knows the other person 3.
• Longer and more carefully prepared messages can also be difficult to interpret 4.
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2. When Vagueness or Ambiguity Cause Misunderstandings Vagueness: Does the Meaning Include this Case or Not?

• Vagueness: Does the meaning include this case or not? • Vagueness: Does the meaning include this case or not?
• Problematic vagueness • A generally correct statement may not be precise enough for practical
purposes

• Ambiguity: Which meaning are we using? • Problematic vagueness

• Problematic ambiguity • It is the characteristic of a word or expression having an imprecise
meaning or unclear boundaries in a given context or for a given purpose
• Considered relative to the context within which and purposes for which
the term is being used

Example
“We have to find those who were responsible for causing this terrible car
accident.”
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Ambiguity: Which Meaning are we Using?

• Ambiguity: Which meaning are we using?

• Context of the conversation and the purpose of the speaker, helps a
person understand the speaker’s intended meaning
• Problematic ambiguity
• Characteristic of a word or expression that gives multiple meanings

Clarify Ideas and Concepts

A word, expression, or statement that has more than one meaning 1.
Examples 2.
“Heads up!” 3. Resolving Problematic Vagueness and Ambiguity
“That’s sick!” 4.
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3. Resolving Problematic Vagueness and Ambiguity 3.1 Contextualizing

3.1 Contextualizing Reminds the topic of discussion or the circumstances within which a statement
was made
3.2 Clarifying original intent
• If a person says “I’m joining the AAA”, by noting that the person was an undergraduate
3.3 Negotiating the meaning physics major and is interested in astronomy, we can clarify which AAA she meant

3.4 Using qualifications, exceptions, or exclusions • To establish context, certain questions can be asked
• Who said it to whom? When and where was it said? What was the topic of the conversation?
3.5 Stipulating the meaning • Was the expression meant to be ironic, hyperbolic, misleading, or deceptive, rather than taken literally?
• What information, events or issues, public or personal, may the speaker have assumed that the intended
audience knew about?

Donkey cart words signal twisted meanings • …

Words taken out of context can be misleading

• In the statement “I smoked 50 years . . . today I can run a marathon,” the three-dot ellipsis
signals that there is more to the story
• Intellectual integrity and a habit of truth-seeking are needed when summarizing and de-
contextualizing words of others
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3.2 Clarifying Original Intent 3.3 Negotiating the Meaning

• Challenging when multiple alternative wordings are possible and • Strong critical thinkers reflect on their thinking process
asking for clarification is unlikely • Discover that assumptions may be mistaken

• Compromising - Settling for less

• Problematic vagueness can be intentional
• Position-based negotiation - Each side has its opening position, negotiation chips away
• Framers of the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights wrote in a way that left those positions
room for interpretation of the documents to fit times and circumstances of the
future • Interest-based negotiation - Parties are collaborators, not adversaries
• Tries to understand each party’s interests.
• Intentional vagueness can be frustrating when precise, practical answers are • Helps mutually explore creative resolutions.
desired
• Example - Voters demand clarity and operational precision, rather than platitudes from Senatorial
candidates.
• A word has marginal value for communication, if it can mean anything any
person might want
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3.4 Using Qualifications, Exceptions, or Exclusions 3.4 Stipulating the Meaning

• Qualifications that clarify included and excluded cases help resolve • Adding qualifications or noting exceptions and exclusions may not be
problematic vagueness and ambiguity sufficient when the determination of a term’s meaning has
• Expressions can be clarified using descriptive phrases, contrasts, technical terminology, and consequences for parties involved
thorough examples.

• Stipulating meaning intends to remove problematic vagueness and

• Judicious habit of mind
ambiguity
• Drives a person to make judgments about what to believe or do as the subject matter,
context, and purposes permit • Establishes a term’s meaning for a specific set of purposes

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Simulation Donkey Cart Words Signal Twisted Meanings

Donkey cart words - Good words used with twisted meanings

• Used to mislead and exploit gullible individuals

• Example - “True freedom means not choosing to do what you know you cannot do.”

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 4. Language Communities

• National and global language communities

• Language communities formed of people with like interests
• Academic disciplines as language communities
• Critical thinking and college introductory courses

Clarify Ideas and Concepts

1.
2.
3.
4. Language community and critical thinking
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National and Global Language Communities Language Communities Formed of People with Like Interests

• Language community: Community which shares an understanding of the • Words and symbols used specialized fields have conventional
meanings of words and icons meanings
• Meanings of words within a language are conventional
• Depend on the mutual agreement
• People who know and use these words and symbols form a part of the
• People may use expressions that symbolize their own language community community
• Context of the expression may remain the same in different parts of the world
• To interpret correctly, individuals need to know how words and symbols are used by the
• Example - Bribe is referred to as “money for tea” in Farsi and “a little coffee” in Brazil members of the language community.

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Academic Disciplines as Language Communities Critical Thinking and College Introductory Courses

Newcomers to academic language communities: Strong critical thinking skills and habits of mind help individuals venture
into different academic language communities
May not understand textbooks or lectures prepared by senior One can gain confidence to speak effectively and interpret accurately through effort,
members of the community practice, and attention to language conventions of the different communities.

Do not comprehend the conventions within different disciplines on

conducting inquiry and communicating findings

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Discussion Question Ending note - the importance of being precise and suggests solutions to avoid vagueness and ambiguity

What language communities are you a member of?

What language communities would you like to be a member of, and why?

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Before you leave

Remember
To review the discussion questions
To play with the Simulation

Thank you and see you next week!

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