POULTRY MANAGEMENT

Unit 1 General Introduction

Unit 2 Poultry Production Systems
Unit 3 Feeding Principles of Poultry
Unit 4 Incubation and Hatchery Practices
Unit 5 Management of Day Old, Growers, Layers and Broilers
Unit 6 Poultry Diseases and Their Prevention
Unit 7 Poultry Products and Marketing

UNIT 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Taxonomy of the domestic fowl
3.2 Advantages of poultry keeping
3.3 Disadvantages of poultry keeping
3.4 Problems or constraint of poultry production in Nigeria
3.5 Guidelines to improve poultry production
3.6 Breeds of chickens and their characteristics
3.6.1 Egg type
3.6.2 Meat type
3.6.3 Dual purpose
3.6.4 Rhode Island Red
3.6.5 Leghorn
3.6.6 Light Sussex
3.6.7 Barred Plymouth Rock
3.6.8 Harco
3.6.9 Local breeds
3.6.10 Hybrids
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION
What are Non-Ruminants?
Non-ruminant animals are those animals that have simple stomach. They possess no rumen,
reticulum and omasum. They have abomasum as the only true stomach. Examples include
Poultry, Rabbits and pigs.

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 Meaning of poultry
Poultry generally refers to domesticated birds that are used mainly as food to man. These
include domestic fowl, ducks, turkeys, guinea fowl, pheasant, quails, ostrich, pigeons,
doves etc. many species, breeds and strains of poultry are used in the service of man. Some
of these species are of limited importance examples are guinea fowl, goose, ducks and
the ostrich, others and particularly Gallus domesticus (domestic fowl) have assume a
worldwide importance.

Domestic fowl are believed to have been domesticated in Asia around 2500 BC, Geese in
Egypt 1500 BC, turkey in Mexico 2500 BC, ducks in China 2500 BC, Muscovey ducks
were found in Peru in the sixteenth century and were probably domesticated at about
that time. Most modern breeds of poultry were developed from 1850 onwards. Modern
breeding programmes to produce hybrids started in 1950s and 1960s.

2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 explain the terms poultry and non-ruminants
 know the advantages and disadvantages of keeping poultry
 understand the problems or constraints of poultry production in Nigeria
 know the guide lines on how to improve Poultry production in Nigeria
 distinguish the different commercial breeds of Chickens and their Characteristics.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Taxonomy of the domestic fowl

It is important to trace the taxonomy of the domestic chicken in the animal kingdom
considering its importance as a supplier of meat and eggs to ever growing population of
the world.

Below is the taxonomy of the domestic chicken: Kingdom -

Animalia
Phylum - Chordata
Class - Aves
Subclass - Neomithes
Order - Galliformes
Family - Phasinidae
Genus - Gallus
Specie - Gallus domesticus
3.2 Advantages of poultry keeping

1) They have comparatively small body size which makes it reasonably possible to be
raised in a confinement. The success of the extensive range of systems and methods that
have been developed to produce chickens in widely varying environments is an
important step to the success of poultry keepers.
2) There is a low cost of production and quick return from poultry compared to other farm
animals.
3) Poultry meat and egg are high quality animal protein sources. Eggs are the most
nutritive and have the best amino acid profile known to man.
4) Poultry are efficient feed converters to meat and egg (i.e. they have high feed
efficiency)
5) Poultry production can be used to minimize the protein intake in- balance in Nigeria.
6) There is excellent product acceptance with respect to social and religious traditions, in
other words no strong taboo against the eating of poultry product, thereby ensuring
ready market for the products.
7) Curative and preventive drugs are available for most poultry diseases.
8) Poultry birds assist in scientific research.
9) Poultry also gives useful by-product like feathers and droppings (feaces).Their
droppings contain more nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium than other animal wastes.
10) From a genetic standpoint, the short inter-generation interval of this species (about 1
year) has favoured the rapid selection of breeds which meet more of the specific
demands of consumers.

3.3 Disadvantages of keeping poultry

1) The digestive tract of birds is relatively short compared to other farm animals and can
only utilize high quality concentrate feeds. These are also use as feed for human
making them to be in direct competition with man.
2) They are highly susceptible to extreme weather conditions and diseases.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

ia. Explain the term ‘non-ruminants’ using suitable examples.

b. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of poultry keeping.

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3.4 Problems or constraint of poultry production in Nigeria

1) Because of the competition with man the cost of feed ingredient is high.
2) Housing, diseases and parasitic problems.
3) The nutrient composition of available feed ingredient not well understood.
4) The nutrient requirement of birds for maintenance and production is not well
known.
5) Unavailability of adaptable egg laying and broiler birds.

3.5 Guidelines to improve poultry production

1) Farmers should provide balance ration to improve the birds diet.

2) Farmers should follow sound management practices.
3) Farmers should adopt proper vaccination programmes and effective disease
control measures.
4) Farmers should renew their stock regularly.
5) Farmers should raise birds of imported breed that are more productive.

3.6 Breeds of chickens and their characteristics.

All breeds and varieties of chicken are due to natural selection. Many are
commercially exploited. These include:

3.6.1 Egg type

These are breeds raise for egg production. They have small body size and slow
growth rate. Examples are Harco, Ancona, Rhode Island Red, black leghorn white
leghorn.

3.6.2 Meat type

They are breeds raised for meat production. They have large body size, they are also
heavy breed, and they have faster growth rate. Examples are light Sussex, white
Sussex, white Wyandotte, Plymouth Rock and Anak.

3.6.3 Dual purpose

These are birds that are raised for both meat and egg production. Examples are Light Sussex,
Rhode Island Red, and Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire etc.
In today’s economic reality, in developed countries dual-purpose breeds
are regarded as in efficient, producing neither meat nor eggs very
efficiently. However in Nigeria dual-purpose birds can be very useful
especially in less intensive systems of production.
For example the cocks are used for meat production and the hens for the
production of both eggs and meat. Both are considerably older when
slaughtered than are broilers and therefore, have more flavour.
3.6.4 Rhode Island Red

The Rhode Island red originate from America the feather is red with
some black feather in part of the wing. It has yellow skin and lays large
brown eggs.

3.6.5 Leghorn
The white leghorn has white feather and is use mainly for egg
production. It is small in size and lays over 300 white shell eggs in a
year.

The brown leghorn produces brown shells eggs and is not as productive
as the white leghorn.

3.6.6 Light Sussex

It is an important English breed which grows rapidly. It is large with

good fleshing property. It is good as a broiler but poor as a layer. Some
exotic breeds of chicken are shown below.

Fig 1.1 White leghorn Fig 1.2 White Wyandotte

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 Source: Poultry - Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith, page14 &15

Source: Poultry - Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith, page 15

Fig 1.3 Light Sussex

White leghorn
Fig 1.4 Poultry breeds

Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low, page 90

3.6.7 Barred Plymouth Rock

The feather colour is grayish black with white underneath, while the sides are black with
prominent streaks of white spots. They are heavy breeds and are used for dual purpose.
They lay brown eggs.
3.6.8 Harco
Harco is a heavy American breed and has been commonly used to develop the present day
breeders. It is a good egg laying bird.

Other breeds like the Ancona, Andalusian and Spanish white are all of the Mediterranean
origin and are early maturing between 150-160 days, producing 240-250 white shell eggs per
year.

3.6.9 Local breeds

These are breeds peculiar in the west African sub-region they are generally small with tough
flesh. They are poor layers but good brooders. Their feather varies in colour from white to
black including multi-colour mixtures.

3.6.10 Hybrids

They are commonly seen and use in commercial farms. They are generally high yielding in
both meat and egg production. They are fast replacing most standard birds.

4.0 CONCLUSION
There are many advantages of keeping poultry, the few problems associated with their keeping
can be corrected by following some few guidelines. Several breeds of chickens are available
and can be commercially exploited.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit will have learnt that:

 Poultry generally refers to domesticated birds that are used mainly as food to man.
These include domestic fowl, ducks, turkeys, guinea fowl, pheasant, quails, ostrich,
pigeons, doves etc.
 Advantages of keeping poultry include-their small body size, low cost of production,
high quality protein, feed efficiency, not associated with taboos, useful by-products,
short generation interval and help to improve protein intake.
 Problems associated with poultry keeping includes, feed competition with man,
housing, diseases, parasites and lack of adequate knowledge in their nutrition.
 To improve poultry production we need to improve birds diet, sound management
practices, vaccination programs e.t.c.
 There are several breeds of chickens that are available and all can be exploited
commercially.

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 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1a) List the problems and constraints of poultry production in Nigeria and suggest ways of
their improvement.
b) Name five improved breeds of chickens that are found in Nigeria.
c) Briefly explain the characteristics of any three breeds mentioned above.

7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READING

Lee, S. and Summers, J. D. (2000) Broiler breeder production. McDonald, I. and Low,

J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Sainsbury, D. (1992) Poultry Health and Management Smith, A. J., and Coste, R. (2001)
(Poultry) The Tropical Agriculturalist (CTA) Macmillan

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. A. (1987) An introduction to Animal husbandry in the

tropics.
UNIT 2 POULTRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 Extensive system/free range
3.2 Advantages
3.3 Disadvantages
3.4 Semi –intensive/restricted range
3.4.1 Advantages
3.4.2 Disadvantages
3.5 Intensive system
3.5.1 Deep litter system
3.5.2 Advantages
3.5.3 Disadvantages
3.6 Battery cage system
3.6.1 Advantages
3.6.2 Disadvantages
3.7 fold system
3.7.1 `Advantages
3.7.2 Disadvantages
3.8 Poultry Housing
3.8.1 General principles of poultry house in the tropics
3.8.2 General guidelines
3.9 Poultry equipment
3.9.1 Maintenance of poultry equipment
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment (TMA)
7.0 References and Further readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

There are several production systems employed by poultry farmers in different parts of the
world. Examples include: Extensive or Free range system, Semi-intensive or Restricted range
system and Intensive system. Each of these systems has its merits and demerits.

Poultry of various classes are kept either for meat or egg production. For example white
leghorns are normally used for egg production while broiler strains are based on crosses
between Cornish white, New Hampshire and white Plymouth Rock.

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Large poultry units are being increasingly developed in areas of high temperature that are
not traditional to advanced methods of husbandry and special techniques are needed for
satisfactory management of poultry under these conditions.

In a tropical environment the design and construction of poultry houses must take into
consideration the climatic and weather conditions of the environment. The guiding
principle is to keep poultry productive throughout their producing life. This involves the
provision of optimum conditions of temperature, humidity, ventilation and light.

Another important principle relates to design and durability. Poultry house should be
structurally strong, durable, and cheap.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 know the different systems used in the production of poultry.

 understand the advantages and disadvantages of each production system of keeping
poultry.
 understand the guide lines on how to improve on our poultry production system in
nigeria.
 distinguish the different commercial breeds of chicken that are suitable for each
production system based on their characteristics.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Extensive/ Free Range System

This system involves the rearing of chickens in an open unrestricted environment with or
without artificial shelter. This is the most common system of poultry production in
Nigeria. It has the following advantages

3.2 Advantages

1) Reduce cost of feeding.

2) Nutritional deficiencies rarely occur because of access to green feed, grains, white
ants and other insects.
3) It involves low capital investment.
4) It eliminates cannibalism among the birds.
 3.3 Disadvantages

1) Difficulties in controlling birds, especially during disease outbreak, breeding

and proper feeding.
2) Loss of eggs and birds through accidents, theft and predators.
3) Requires large area of land.

3.4 Semi-Intensive/Restricted Range System

This system involves the use of poultry rum which is an area of land enclosed by fence of
wire netting. The birds are allowed to wonder about during the day and at night they are
kept in poultry house.

Fig 2.1 Suspended poultry house for about 10 birds

Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low
page 92

a)

b)

Fig 2.2 a) Simple chicken house for hot areas for 10 birds.
b) Deep litter house for 200 layers, warm climate
Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low page 92

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3.4.1 Advantages

This system has the advantages that the birds are under strict control e.g. prevented from
crossing with inferior cocks. The birds are protected from predators and
accidents.

3.4.2 Disadvantages

The disadvantages include high cost of production and large space or land requirement.

3.5 Intensive System

3.5.1 Deep litter system

In the deep litter system, the birds are confined to a large permanent house. The floor is
kept covered with finely cut straw, rice hall or sawdust. Troughs of dry mash and
water are always made available for the birds.

An initial litter layer of 2-3 inches is recommended for young birds, this is build up to 9
inches for the adult birds. The litter is normally renewed ones every year or when
it becomes lumpy. Floor space per bird is 1 square feet or 30.5cm.2

This system can be used to raise broilers and layers. In addition to feeding and water troughs,
perches and nest boxes are provided for the layers.

3.5.2 Advantages

1) No risks of trouble from predators.

2) With proper condition, there is less risk of parasitic infection.

3.5.3 Disadvantages

1) Increase chances of nutrient deficiency especially when bird are

not well fed, incidence of cannibalism also increases.
2) Difficulties of keeping the floor clean especially during the rainy
season when humidity is very high.
3) It involves high capital investment.
4) It predisposes birds to social vices such as fighting, cannibalism,
broodiness in laying birds.

3.6 Battery cage system

The birds are housed or kept in cages within the house. The cages varies in size, type and form
but they are all designed with facilities to provide water and feed as well as egg and droppings
 collection. The system is very efficient for raising layers. The cages are either constructed
entirely of wire or wire and wooden frames. Most cages are about 18 inches high and 8 inches
deep. The width of individual cages varies depending on whether they are designed to hold
one, two or more birds (14 inches for one layer or two light breeds).

The floor is of wire mesh to allow droppings drop through. The floor slopes from behind into
which eggs roll as they are laid. The cages are usually arranged in blocks of 3 or 4 tiers. See
fig 2.3a. Modern cages incorporates some forms of mechanical feeding.

Fig. 2.3a Intensive Battery house Fig 2.3b House

with a slatted floor
Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 132

3.6.1 Advantages

1) The birds are easy to manage.

2) It is also very easy to cull unproductive birds.
3) Better control of parasites and minimal incidence of diseases.
4) It also prevents cannibalism and broodiness in birds.
5) High production and low mortality rate.

3.6.2 Disadvantages

1) It involves high capital investment.

2) There is need for a well balance ration.

3.7 fold system

The fold system has a house made together with the run to form one unit.
This unit can be moved from one place to another. (see fig 2.4)

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Fig 2.4 Fold unit, should be moved daily
Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low page 92

3.7.1 Advantages

1) The birds can be examine and attended to individually when necessary.

2) The birds dropping improves the soil fertility.
3) Farmers can combine poultry keeping and crop rotation.
4) There is reduced build-up of parasite because the unit can be
moved from one place to another.

3.7.2 Disadvantages

1) The system is only suitable for small or backyard poultry

business.

3.8 Poultry Housing

Reasons for providing suitable housing for poultry

1) To protect the birds from bad weather.

2) To protect the birds from thieves and predators.
3) To be able to control the birds.
4) To be able to keep the birds in age group

3.8.1 General principles of poultry housing in the tropics

In a tropical environment the design and construction of poultry houses

must take into consideration the climatic and weather conditions of the
environment. The guiding principle is to keep poultry productive
throughout their producing life. This involves the provision of optimum
conditions of temperature, humidity, ventilation and light.

Another important principle relates to cost and durability. Poultry house

should be structurally strong, durable, and cheap.
 3.8.2 General guidelines

The following guide lines will help a poultry farmer in providing simple
and adequate housing for poultry under tropical conditions.

1) External wall should be low(about 0.6m-1m) with a chicken wire

mesh(1-2cm) extending from the wall to height of 2m leaving
some margin under the roof for un impeded or free air flow.
2) The roof should be of corrugated material or thatched.
3) There should be enough roof overhangs to prevent rain from
entering the pens.

4) Internal partitions when necessary should be made of wire mesh to aid

unrestricted air circulation.
5) The poultry house should be clear of other buildings or structures which may
obstruct the free flow of air.
6) The poultry house should not be too wide (more than 9m) as this tend to cut down
fresh air movement in and out of pen.
7) The house should be constructed in an east west direction, to protect the birds
from the direct rays of the sun.
8) Water reservoir should be located under shades to prevent excessive heat up
of water during hot days.
9) Stocking density for tropical areas should be 10-20% lighter than the temperate
environment.
10) Poultry houses should be located on a well-drained ground to prevent flood.
11) The poultry house should be accessible by road to facilitate evacuation of
produce or delivery of feed and other supplies.

3.9 Poultry Equipment

It is very important that food troughs should not be overfilled and neither should the
tube feeders be too widely opened (fig.2.5 and fig. 2.6) the construction of the food
trough is also important and there exist types that reduce spillage and so reduce food
wastage by up to 20 percent. Food wastage can turn a profitable enterprise into one
making a considerable loss.

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Fig 2.5 Growing birds in pens where the food s is provided in tube
feeders
Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 129
Fig 2.6 Feed trough and suspended feed tray for poultry
Source: Livestock rearing in the tropics by I. McDonald and J. Low
page 98

Table 2.1 Floor space and trough space requirement per 100 chicks
Age (weeks) Floor space (m2) Trough space (m)
0-4 4 1.5
5-8 9 3.0
9-20 12 6.0

For drinkers and food troughs the requirements are

1. It should be impossible to tilt over.
2. It should have adequate size and depth.
3. It should discourage scratching out of contents.
4. It must not cause injury to the bird.
5. It should be cheap and can be constructed locally.
6. It should allow the bird full access and not limit food intake.

3.9.1 Maintenance of poultry equipment

Proper maintenance includes the following:

 cleaning of feeders and drinkers and emptying them every day in

case of deep litter system;
 Complete cleaning using soap and water and if possible
disinfectants. This should be followed by complete drying and
disinfection in direct sunlight;

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SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. Discuss the general principles of poultry housing under tropical

conditions.
ii. List the qualities of good feeders and drinkers on a poultry farm

4.0 CONCLUSION

There are several production systems employed by poultry farmers in

different parts of the world, these are Extensive or Free range system,
Semi-intensive or Restricted range system and Intensive system. Each of
these systems has its merits and demerits.

However, in a tropical environment the design and construction of

poultry houses must take into consideration the climatic and weather
conditions of the environment.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt that:

 Poultry has proved to be particularly versatile domestic bird that

is adapted to almost all environments and system of production.
 Poultry production makes it an open choice for the farmer to
decide which system of production he is interested based on his
capital, skills, and needs.
 In a tropical environment the design and construction of poultry
houses must take into consideration the climatic and weather
conditions of the environment.
 The guiding principle is to keep poultry productive throughout
their producing life. This involves the provision of optimum
conditions of temperature, humidity, ventilation and light.
 Another important principle relates to cost and durability. Poultry
house should be structurally strong, durable, and cheap.
 It is very important that food troughs should not be overfilled and
neither should the tube feeders be too widely opened. The
construction of the food trough is also important and there exist
types that reduce spillage and so reduce food wastage by up to 20
percent.
 Food wastage can turn a profitable enterprise into one making a
considerable los.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1a. Compare and contrast the extensive/free range system

and the intensive system of poultry production.
b. Explain the reasons for providing suitable housing for poultry.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Lee, S. and summers, J. D. (2000) Broiler breeder production.

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Sainsbury, D. (1992) Poultry Health and Management Smith, A. J., and

Coste, R. (2001) (Poultry) The Tropical Agriculturalist (CTA)
Macmillan

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. A. (1987) An introduction to Animal

husbandry in the tropics.

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UNIT 3 FEEDING PRINCIPLES OF POULTRY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Digestive System of Poultry
3.2 Nutrients Requirement of Poultry
3.2.1 Nutrition:
3.2.2 Energy
3.2.3 Protein
3.2.4 Water
3.2.5 Minerals
3.2.6 Vitamins
3.2.7 Feed additives:
3.2.8 Types of poultry feed
3.3 Recommended Nutrient Allowance for Poultry under
Tropical Climatic Conditions
3.3.1 Feed requirement and body weight of Broilers
3.3.2 Growth rate, feed intake and floor
space requirement of pullets
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The digestive system of the fowl is simple but well-organized. Food is

picked up by the beak and selected on the basis of feel and appearance
rather than tastes. However, birds do have a functional olfactory system
and the influence of taste and smell cannot be entirely overlooked.

To understand the principles behind the feeding of the chicken it is

useful to look at the way the birds digest its food.

Poultry are monogastric they are unable to manufacture essential amino

acids or the B vitamins, and they cannot exist on high fibre diets. The
diets of birds which are intensively housed and which have access to
neither soil, grass, nor sunshine must contain the materials essential for
the processes of maintenance, production and reproduction.
The essential nutrients can be conveniently grouped under the following:

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 Water
 Carbohydrates sources of
 Fats and oils Energy
 Protein (amino acids)
 Vitamins
 Minerals

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 understand how digestion takes place in the poultry.

 learned the nutritional requirement of poultry in terms of their
energy, protein vitamin and mineral needs.
 know the plant and animal sources of proteins and other types of
feed available to poultry.
 appreciate the recommended nutrient allowance for poultry under
tropical conditions.
 be familiar with growth rate, feed intake and floor space required
of pullets, broilers etc.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Digestive System of Poultry

1. Beak 9. Large intestine

2. Tongue 10. Cloaca
3. Oesophagus 11. Caeca
4. Crop 12. Liver
[Link] 13. Gall-bladder
6. Gizzard 14. Pancreas
7. Duodenum [Link] of fabricus
8 Small 16. Bronchus
17. Lung
Fig : 3.1
Source: Poultry Health and Management by D. Sainsbury page 24

The fowl is a simple stomach animal. Digestion starts from the mouth.
The beak is adapted for picking of the feed. The tongue is an arrow
shaped barbed like structure which forces feed into the oesophagus.
Salivary glands secrete saliva which lubricate the feed and facilitate the
downward movement into crop. The crop act as a storage pouch which
retain feed for gradual passage into the stomach (proventriculus). The
feed acted upon by enzymes and amylase which break down
carbohydrate. In the stomach, feed mixed with gastric juice containing
enzyme pepsin and hydrochloric acid. The Pepsin breakdown protein
into amino acid. The feed particles then moves into the gizzard which is
a bean shaped strong muscular organ, which crushes or breakdown feed
particles by its rhythmic contraction into pulp. This process is assisted
by the presence of insoluble grit, the feed then passes into the duodenum
loop which is the first part of the small intestine where most of the
enzymatic digestions of feed take place. The pan crease secret various
amylotic, proteolitic and lipolitic enzyme into the duodenum. The liver
also produces bile which hydrolyses fats. Digestion is completed in the
small intestine and the nutrients are absorbed through its wall. At the
junction of the large and small intestine are two blind sacks known as
caeca. Their main function is for fibre digestion and water absorption.

Large intestine is also responsible for water absorption and storage of

feacal matter or digesta which passes into the cloaca where they are
secreted.

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3.2 Nutrients Requirement of Poultry

3.2.1 Nutrition

Nutrition is the process which provides nourishment to a living

organism. This implies the provision of certain food elements (nutrients)
which the body of the organism absorbs and uses to perform its normal
function associated with life as well as storing the excess in its tissue.
The nutrients required by poultry include:

1) Energy 4) Minerals
2) Protein 5) Water
3) Vitamins

3.2.2 Energy

Energy requirement by poultry are supplied from carbohydrate and

lipids. In adverse condition, protein can also be broken down to supply
energy. The energy in poultry is normally expressed in unit of
metabolizable energy per unit weight e.g. kilo joule/gram (KJ/G) or
requirement in terms of metabolizable energy per day (KJ/day).

The metabolizable energy refers to that portion of the feed which is

available to the bird for the production of meat and egg and for the
maintenance of vital function and body temperature.

Birds are usually given free access to feed and they eat to satisfy their
energy requirement. The more increase in energy value of feed the less
its intake and the reverse is true.

Sources of energy
Maize; Sorghum; Millet; Wheat; Barley; Maize bran; Wheat bran;
Brewers dried grain (BDG); Cassava; Yam; Vegetable oils (groundnut
coconut, soybean cotton seed e.t.c.)

3.2.3 Protein

Proteins are nitrogen containing compounds. They promote growth and

flesh formation. Proteins are made up of units of amino acids. The
synthesis of proteins in the body requires about twenty different amino
acids. Ten of these amino acids cannot be synthesis by the birds and
must be provided in the [Link] are termed essential amino acids.
Examples include:
Phenyl alanine; Valine; Threonine; Tryptophan; Isoleucine;
Methionine; Histidine; Arginine; Leucine; Lysine

25
The non-essential amino acids are:
Alamine, Aspartic acid, Glycine, Proline, Hydroxyl praline,
Tyrosine, Serine, Cysteine, Cystine, Glutamine.

Of all the essential amino acids. Lysine, methionine and tryptophan are
called critical amino acids because they are the most limiting amino
acids in feed stuff.

In general deficiency of essential amino acids leads to poor growth, poor

egg production and low feed utilization.

Sources of proteins

Sources are of two types, plants and animal sources.

Plant sources
Sunflower meal, Palm kernel meal, Soya bean, Bambara nut, Cotton
seed cake, Ben seed meal, Bambara nut meal, Locust bean meal, Shear
butter meal, Groundnut cake, Soybean meal, Cowpea e.t.c.

Animal sources
Fish meal, Meat meal, Maggot meal, Termite meal, Chicken offal
meal, Grasshopper meal, Feather meal, Meat and bone meal, Blood
meal e.t.c.

3.2.4 Water

Water is the most important nutrient of farm animals. The body of

chicken is composed of at least 70% of water so also the egg. It is
usually made freely available to poultry.
The water intake of birds varies with age, temperature, size, diet and rate
of egg production.

Table 3.1 Estimated water intake (at 21◦C) of chicken of various

ages:
Age (week) water intake/100 birds (litre/day)

0 - 2 4 - 5
2 - 5 7 - 10
5 - 10 15
10 - 20 18 - 22
Adult layers 20 - 30
Lack of water can seriously retard growth rate and impaired egg
production. In tropical countries water deprivation can lead to death
within a very short period of time

3.2.5 Minerals

Minerals are inorganic substances required by farm animals to build

their skeleton and perform various metabolic function in the body.
Minerals are classified into two groups based on their level of
requirement.
1) Macro or major elements which are minerals required in
relatively large quantity
which are calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium chlorine and
sulphur.
2) Micro or minor elements which are required in small quantities.
These are iron, zinc,
copper, molybdenum, selenium, iodine, manganese, cobalt and fluorine.
The major minerals in poultry feeding are calcium and phosphorus.
The common sources of minerals include:
Bone meal
Oyster shell
Limestone
Di calcium phosphate
Common salt
Wood ash
Green grass etc
The micro minerals are usually in corporated as pre-mix in which form
they contains most of the trace minerals in the right proportion required
by the various classes of chicken.

3.2.6 Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds not synthesis by the body but essential
for normal growth and good health. They are required in small amount.
There are thirteen vitamins required by poultry. They are the fat soluble
and water soluble vitamin.

Fat soluble vitamins include:

Vitamin A, D, E, K

Water soluble vitamins include:

Thiamine (B1)
Riboflavin (B2)
Pyridoxine (B6)

27
Pantothenic acid
Nicotinic acid
Biotin
Folic acid
Cobalamine (B12)
Ascorbic acid
Some of these vitamins are available in green feeds, grains and animal
proteins.
All are available in synthetic form (vitamin premix).

3.2.7 Feed additives

1) Anti oxidants: examples include ethoxyquine or butylated

hydroxytoluene at the rate of 112g per tone of feed to prevent
oxidation of vulnerable vitamins especially vitamin A.
2) Coccidiostats: This is usually introduced at prophylactic levels in
broilers diet according to the recommendation of the
manufacturers. It is completely withdrawn towards the end of the
fattening period

3.2.8 Types of poultry feed

Table 3.2 Types of poultry feed

Classes of poultry Age (weeks) Ration

Broilers 0-6 Broiler starter

Broilers 7-10 Broiler finisher
Layers, Breeders & 0-8 Chicken starter mash
pullets 9-16 Growers mash
17 and above layers mash.

3.3 Recommended Nutrient Allowance for Poultry under

Tropical Climatic Conditions

Table 3.3 Nutrient allowance for poultry under tropical climatic

conditions
Nutrients Chicken Layers Broiler Broiler
ration growers ration starter finisher
ration
Crude protein 19.5 15.0 16.5 22.0 20.0
(%)
Crude fibre (%) 5.0 6.0 5.0 5.5 5.5
Metabolizable 2700 2650 2600 850 2900
energy(kcal/kg)

29
Calcium (%) 1.0 0.80 3.20 1.0 0.80
Phosphate (%) 0.45 0.50 0.50 0.70 0.50
Sodium (%) 0.15 0.10 0.15 0.15 0.12
Vitamin A (iu) 5000 3500 4000 5000 3500
Lysine (%) 100 0.65 0.70 1.30 1.10
Methionine 0.40 0.30 0.35 050 0.40
(%)
Tryptophan 0.20 0.15 0.18 0.25 0.20
(%)

3.3.1 Feed requirement and body weight of Broilers

Table 3.4 Feed requirement and body weight of Broilers

Age (weeks) Average Feed Feed
weight/bird requirement/ requirement
(Kg) 100 birds (kg) cumulative/100
birds
1 0.036 10 10
2 0.080 18 28
3 0.140 21 49
4 0.200 26 75
5 0.350 39 140
6 0.510 52 166
7 0.90 58 224
8 1.5 67 286
9 2.1 67 358
10 2.5 71 424

3.3.2 Growth rate, feed intake and floor space requirement of

pullets

Table 3 .5 Growth rate, feed intake and floor space requirement of

pullets
Age week Body weight(g) Feed/bird/Day Floor space
(gm) cm2/ bird
1 45 10 232
2 90 16 232
3 126 22 232
6 270 44 464
10 427 63 0.10
15 652 69 0.18
18 780 75 0.30
20 850 79 0.30

31
Note An average layer would consume 100gm of feed per day or up to
130gm for heavy breeds.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

ia) With the aid of a diagram briefly explain the process of digestion
and absorption in
poultry.
b) Explain the term ‘nutrition’ and comment on the requirement of
Energy, Protein, Minerals, Vitamins and water in poultry.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Poultry nutrients is made up of Water, Carbohydrates, Fats and oils,

Proteins (amino acids), Vitamins and Minerals, when these nutrients are
ingested by poultry is capable of
being digested, absorbed and utilized to supply us with eggs and poultry
meat.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt that:

 The fowl is a simple stomach animal and digestion starts in the

mouth, ends in the small intestine and nutrients are absorbed
through its wall.
 Caecum is for digestion of fibre and water absorption, while the
large intestine is for absorption of water and storage of faecal
matter.
 Energy required by poultry is supplied from carbohydrates, lipids
and sometimes proteins.
 Essential amino acids are those amino acids that cannot be
synthesized by the bird and must be provided in the diet. In
poultry, lysine, methionine and tryptophan are the critical amino
acids because they are the most limiting amino acids in feed stuff.
 Minerals are classified into macro or major and minor or micro
elements. Those minerals required in large quantities are the
major or macro minerals while those required in small quantities
are the micro or minor minerals
 13 vitamins are required by poultry, they are either fat or water
soluble.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1a) What are proteins, Minerals and Vitamins?

b) Discuss proteins, Minerals and Vitamins under the following:
i) classification
ii) examples of each class
iii) common sources

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Lee, S and Summers, J. D. (2000) Broiler breeder production.

McDonald, P., Edward, R.A., Greenhalgh, J. F. D. and Morgan, C.A.

(1998) Animal Nutrition 5th edition.

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Sainsbury, D. (1992) Poultry Health and Management

Smith, A. J. and Coste, R. (2001) (Poultry) The Tropical Agriculturalist

(CTA) Macmillan

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. P. (1987) An introduction to Animal

husbandry in the tropics.

33
UNIT 4 INCUBATION AND HATCHERY PRACTICES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Course
3.1 Reproductive System of hen
3.2 The avian egg
3.2.1 Composition of the egg
3.3 Incubation
3.3.1 Essential requirement of artificial incubation
3.3.2 Operation of the incubator
3.4 Hatching
3.4.1 Hatchability
3.4.2 Factors affecting hatchability
3.4.3 Fertility
3.4.4 Genetic factors
3.4.5 Nutrition
3.4.6 Disease
3.4.7 Egg selection
3.4.8 Management practices
3.5 Sex Separation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Incubation is the management of fertilized eggs to ensure normal

development of embryo into normal chick. Incubation can be achieved
naturally (when the hen sits on the eggs for a period of time and keeps
the eggs warm until hatching) or artificially by using machines known
as incubators which provide the necessary heat until hatching. Some
essential requirements of incubation include temperature, humidity,
turning of the eggs, candling e.t.c.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 to be familiar with the anatomical features of the hen’s

 reproductive system.
 to know the composition of the egg and factors affecting the egg
size.

35
 to understand the term ‘incubation’ its types, its essential
elements as well as the basic operations of the incubator.
 to be exposed to the concept of hatchability and it’s application in
calculating the overall productive performance of the farm.
 to recognized the techniques used in sex separation of young
chicks.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Reproductive System of the hen

infundibulum

magnum

isthmus
shell gland

Fig 4: 1Urogenital and reproductive systems of a laying hen.

Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 131

The left ovary produces numerous ova. Mature ova are released into the
infundibulum where fertilization takes place. The ovum then migrates down to
magnum where it receives its albumen, then to the isthmus where the shell
membranes, some albumen, water and mineral salts are added. The shell is
formed in the uterus for 18-21 hours.
From ovulation to laying takes 24-26 hours.
3.2 The avian egg shell

Chalazae inner shell

Fig 4:2 Diagrammatic representation of an egg
Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page159

The avian egg is described as irregular ovoid and it is divided into three main
parts
Shell and shell membrane 12%
Albumen and Chalazae 56%
Yolk 32%

3.2.1 Composition of the egg

Nutrients Yolk Albumen Shell

Water 48 86 2
Protein 17 12 5
Fat 33 12 -
Ash 1 1 93
Carbohydrate 1 1 -

Factors affecting Egg size

1) Genetic factors
2) Age of the birds
3) Protein level of the diet
4) Environmental factors
5) Size of the birds
6) Ovum size
37
7) Intensity of egg laying
3.3 Incubation

Incubation is the process of aiding the development of a fertilized egg

into a life chick by providing such factors as adequate temperature,
humidity, ventilation and turning. There are two methods of incubation.

1) Natural incubation
That is getting the hen to sit on fertilize egg to incubate the egg.
2) Artificial incubation
Artificial incubation is carried out with incubator using fuels such
as kerosene, gas, coal etc.

3.3.1 Essential requirement of artificial incubation

1) Adequate ventilation- there should be sufficient oxygen to supply the

respiratory need of the embryo. Also carbon dioxide resulting from
embryonic metabolism should not be allowed to accumulate.
2) Relative humidity of 60-65% should be provided to prevent
excessive water loss by the egg.
3) Adequate temperature should be provided to ensure that life within
the egg is maintained at the optimum level. The temperature of
37.5◦C is ideal.
4) Turner: There should be a turner to prevent the embryo getting
stucked shell. This should be done at least three times daily.

3.3.2 Operation of the incubator

This is divided into two phases

1) Setting of the eggs 0-18 days.

2) Hatching of the eggs 19-21 days.

Some incubators combine the two operations while others are separate.
The selected eggs are set on trays with the large ends up and placed in
the incubator.

39
Fig. 4.3 Eggs in incubating compartments
Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 170

The temperature requirement during the first week is 38oC, 39oC for the
second week and 40oC for the third week.

The relative humidity requirement is 60-65%. There should also be free

passage of air in the incubator. The egg should be turn at least three
times daily up to the 18th day. On the seventh and sixteenth day of
incubation the eggs are checked for infertile eggs and dead embryo by
candling. Candling is the process of testing incubated eggs for fertility
and development of the embryo. This is done by holding the egg before
a strong shaded light see fig 4.4 or placing a strong hand torch under the
tray.

Fig 4 :4 A simple candling device (Chris Mc Kinnell)

Source: Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 170
3.4 Hatching

The eggs are moved from the incubator to the hatching compartment on
the 18 day. The eggs are layed (Placed) flat in preparation for hatching.
The relative humidity should be higher (70%) in hatching compartment.

3.4.1 Hatchability

Hatchability refers to percentage of eggs that were hatched, it should be

about 80-90% from a good flock

Hatch of fertile
This refers to percentage of fertile eggs that were hatched.

Hatch of total
This refers to percentage of total eggs that were hatched.
Example: supposing 500eggs were incubated, after 7 days. 450 were
found to be fertile. If 400 of the fertile eggs hatched into chicks.
Calculate hatch of fertile and hatch of total?

Solution: Total eggs = 500

Fertile eggs = 450
Hatched eggs = 400
%hatch of fertile = 400/450 x 100 = 88.89%
% hatch total = 400/500 x 100 =80.0%

Note:
1) Hatch of fertile is usually higher than hatch of total.
2) Hatch of fertile is more precise because fertility is considered.
3) Hatch of fertile is of practical importance as it refers to the
performance of the breeder stock.

3.4.2 Factors affecting hatchability

There are six factors affecting hatchability.

1) Fertility
2) Genetic
3) Nutrition
4) Diseases
5) Egg selection
6) Management practices

3.4.3 Fertility

41
Percentage fertility is the percentage of egg that are fertile and should be
about 90-95% for a good flock.
Fertility is affected by the following
a) Mating ratio: mating ratio of 10 : 1 is recommended. If the ratio
is higher the fertility of the egg will be lower.
b) Age of breeders: Fertility declines with age
c) Length of period between mating: A mated hen stores sperm and
uses it up to 2 weeks.

Generally it requires 2 weeks after mating the flock before satisfactory

fertility is achieved. The removal of the male from the flock is followed
by decline in fertility within 2 weeks and few if any fertile eggs will be
produced after 3 weeks.

3.4.4 Genetic factors

Hatchability is an inherited trait so strains (breeds) that possess high
hatchability should be selected.

i) In-breeding without selection for hatchability has been shown to

lower
hatchability in poultry.
ii) Cross breeding usually result in increase hatchability.
iii) Lethal or semi- Lethal genes may affect either fertility,
hatchability and
livability (life).
iv) Rate of egg production: Eggs layed by hen producing at a high
rate are more fertile
than eggs layed by low producers.
v) Age: Hatchability is maximum half way into the second laying
year for females.
While for male is one year after sexual maturity.

3.4.5 Nutrition

The egg must contain the entire nutrients needed by the embryo for
development. Breeder hen must be fed ration which supplies adequate
quantities with the nutrients needed for the embryo to develop.

3.4.6 Disease

Eggs for hatching should be collected from healthy flocks. Disease

causing organisms like Salmonella and Mycoplasma are transmitted
from infected hen chiefly through the egg. Breeding stocks should be
tested regularly to prevent infection.

43
3.4.7 Egg selection

Certain physical characteristics of eggs are related to hatchability among

these are size, weight (50-60g), shape, shell quality and internal quality.

3.4.8 Management practices

Eggs for hatching should be collected immediately and stored below

20oC to arrest embryonic development. Fertile eggs deteriorate in
quality after 4 days.
Fertile eggs should be stored at a temperature around 10oC and humidity
80%. Eggs should be stored with the broad end upward. Proper hygiene
should be maintained in the hatchery. Eggs should be collected at least 3
times daily. Soiled eggs should be rejected or fumigated with formaline
solution.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

i. a) What are the factors affecting the size of an egg?

b) In Lamido farm, 5,000 eggs were incubated, after 7 days 4,600
eggs were
Found to be fertile, if 4,200 of the fertile eggs hatched into chicks
calculate hatch of fertile and hatch of total and comment on your
result.
C) Discuss in detailed the factors affecting hatchability of poultry
eggs.

3.5 Sex Separation

The early separation of the sex of young chicks is important economic

factor. There are several ways of sexing chicks.

1) By manual vent inspection at day old. At the center of the vent of

a male chick is located a pin edge size structure called the
process. This can be easily seen with aid of the magnifying lens.
A female vent shows no such structure.
2) Sexing can also be done when the chicks are five to eight weeks
old. Such a separation is based on larger size combs and wattles,
longer tail feathers, stouter shanks, with prominent scales and
generally larger body size in cockerels than in pullets.
3) Sex-linked colour differentiations: for example at day old, golden
comet breed have dark gold coloured pullets while the cockerels
look white.
4.0 CONCLUSION

The avian egg therefore, can be divided into three main parts as shell
and shell membranes, albumen and chalazae and the yolk. The egg can
be incubated either naturally or artificially. Hatchability as well as
fertility is affected by genetic factors but again it is management which
go above genetics in its effect.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt that:

 Factors affecting egg size include; genetic factors, age of the

birds, protein level of the diet, environmental factors, size of the
birds, ovum size and intensity of laying.
 The essential requirements of artificial incubation are adequate
ventilation, relative humidity of 60-65%, temperature of 37.5˚C
and turning at least three times daily.
 Incubator operation is divided into setting and the hatching phase.
 Hatchability refers to percentage of eggs that were hatched; it
should be about 80-90% from a good flock.
 Factors affecting hatchability are fertility, genetic, nutrition,
diseases, egg selection and management practices.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1a) What do you understand by the term incubation?

b) Explain artificial incubation and its essential requirements.
c) Draw and label (i) the reproductive system of the hen
(ii) the avian egg

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Lee, S. and Summers, J. D. (2000) Broiler breeder production.

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Sainsbury, D. (1992) Poultry Health and Management

Smith, A. J., and Coste, R. (2001) (Poultry) The Tropical

Agriculturalist (CTA) Macmillan

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. A. (1987) An introduction to Animal

45
husbandry in the tropics.
UNIT 5 MANAGEMENT OF DAY-OLD GROWERS,
LAYERS AND BROILERS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Management of Day Old Chicks
3.2 Feeding and watering Equipment
3.3 Temperature requirement of chicks
3.4 Broiler Management
3.5 Signs of a good Broiler
3.6 Management of Growers
3.7 Management of Layers
3.7.1 Characteristics of good layer
3.7.2 Calculating Productivity of laying flock
4.0 conclusion
5.0 summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The management of day old chicks is an important and delicate

operation. Any mismanagement at this stage will show up later as heavy
financial loss to the farmer through excessive mortality, disease
outbreak and poor productivity. Growers refers to growing pullets of 9-
20 weeks of age. The birds may be kept in the same pen that was used
for the initial rearing of the chicken but there should be enough floor and
feeding space. At this stage the birds are changed from chick mash to
growers mash. Layer is a matured female chicken meant for egg
production. Layers are normally moved to the laying quarters at 18
weeks of age. They are either reared in battery cages or deep liter. The
diet of the birds should be changed to layer mash.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 acquire knowledge and understanding of growth rate and

development of birds under confinement .
 recognize a good layer from a bad layer and also signs of a good
broiler .
47
 raise birds from day old to table weight for broilers and or point
of lay for layers as the case may be.
 to better understand the nutritional requirement and approximate
daily feed intake of different classes of birds(day-old, growers,
layers, broilers etc)

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Management of Day Old Chicks

The management of day old chicks is an important and delicate

operation. Any mismanagement at this stage will show up later as heavy
financial loss to the farmer through excessive mortality, disease
outbreak and poor productivity. The management starts before the
arrival of the chicks. Two weeks to the arrival of the birds, the brooding
pen should be clean and disinfected. Litter material should be spread to
about 6-8 cm. of height.

3.2 Feeding and watering Equipment

Feeding and watering equipment of small sizes should also be provided.

Twenty four hours before the arrival of the birds, brooder should be set
to required temperature(35oC).

Feed and water should be put in place before birds arrival. On arrival
dead and weak chicks should be removed. Chicks destined or meant to
be layers should be fed chick starter mash while broilers should be fed
broiler starter mash.

3.3 Temperature requirement of chicks

Table 5.1 Temperature requirement of chicks

Age of chick Temperature

Day old - 1 week 35oC

1 - 2 weeks 30oC

2 - 3 weeks 26oC

3 - 4 weeks 23oC

Brooder space requirement is 40-60 cm2 per chick. Overcrowding of the

bird should be avoided as this can lead to slow growth rate, disease build
up, feather and toe pecking, this can be prevented by debeaking.
49
3.4 Broiler Management

The broiler is a young chicken of either sex, being intensively fed for
meat production. With good strain, diet and management, they reach
market weight of 1.5- 2kg live weight in 8-12 weeks. At this stage their
meat is tender, juicy and well flavoured.

The broiler pen should be prepared as above prior to arrival of the

chicks. When the broilers attend the age of 5-6 weeks, they should be
transferred to the broiler finisher pen with free air movement. They
should also be changed from broiler starter ration to broiler finisher
ration. The broiler starter is a high protein moderate energy ration, while
the broiler finisher is a high energy moderate protein ration. At this age
the birds should average 500-900g in weight and consume about 58g of
feed per day per bird. They should be allowed adequate floor space of
about 0.25cm2 per chick to prevent cannibalism.

Vaccination should be ensured at the right time. Good sanitary condition

should be maintained.

Coccidiostat should be included in their feed which should be

withdrawn two weeks to marketing time. This is to prevent the transfer
of the drug to the tissues of the birds and then further to the consumer.
Broilers should have free access to water and feed at all times.

Note
Broilers make economic gains within 10 weeks, beyond 12 weeks, they
tend to eat much more than they gain resulting in lowered profitability.
It is therefore essential to market them at about 8-12 weeks of age.

3.5 Signs of a good Broiler

The sign of a good broiler chicken include

1) Constricted pelvic bone
2) Dry and constricted vent
3) Not very bright comb

3.6 Management of Growers

Growers refers to growing pullets of 9-20 weeks of age. The birds may
be kept in the same pen that was used for the initial rearing of the
chicken but their should be enough floor and feeding space. At this stage
the birds are changed from chick mash to growers mash. This diet is
lower in protein (15-16%) and energy compared to the chick and
broilers mash. This is to prevent excessive fat deposition by the pullets.
The diet need not contain a coccidiostat. Feed wastage during the

51
growing phase can be a very serious problem. This can be reduced by
using feeds that reduce spillage. They should also be deworm from 16th
week.

3.7 Management of Layers

Layer is a matured female chicken meant for egg production. Layers are
normally moved to the laying quarters at 18 weeks of age. They are
either reared in battery cages or deep liter. The diet of the birds should
be changed to layer mash. This diet is higher in calcium, energy and
protein compared to the growers mash. Two weeks to commencement of
laying, level of calcium in the diet should be increased to 3-4%. This is
to enable adequate deposition of calcium in their bones for use in shell
formation when the birds start to lay. The laying birds should be fed
adlibitum because any form of rationing would result in reduced rate of
egg production. There should be adequate water supply. This is because
lack of water will result in decreased egg production and possibly death.

Perches and nests should be provided on deep liter. To stimulate egg

production, the length of artificial day should be increased to 16-18
hours. Eggs should be collected at least twice daily and properly
recorded. The most common management problems in laying flocks are
broodiness and moulting.

3.7.1 Characteristics of good layer

1) Comb is bright red

2) Bright eyes.
3) Pelvic bone- four fingers width
4) Vent – large, soft, moist and oval vent
5) Good layers are very active and alert.
6) They have prominent, soft, smooth wattles.
7) They have worm soiled and close plumage.
8) They have bright red face
Fig 5:1 A simple means of distinguishing laying birds from non laying
birds (Courtesy of ATB)
Source: (Poultry) Tropical Agriculturalist by A. J. Smith page 139

3.7.2 Calculating Productivity of laying flock

1. Hen day egg production (HDEP)

This is the number of eggs laid expressed as percentage of the
number of layers on hand.

HDEP = Total number of eggs laid / Total number of layers on hand

x 100

2. Hen housed egg production:(HHEP)

This is the number of eggs laid expressed as percentage of the number
of layers housed at the initial stage.
HHEP = Total number of eggs laid / Total number of layers housed
at beginning of lay x 100

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1. Your tutor should organize a visit to nearby poultry farm where

can enrich your knowledge with the practical aspect of poultry
management. Have a free interaction with the poultry farmer.
You are expected to be able to answer the following questions.
2a) What are the precautionary measures to be taken in growers’
management?
b) List the signs of good layers and good broilers.

4.0 CONCLUSION

53
Chicks may therefore be reared on litter or on the floor from day-old
until hey are ready to enter the laying house. Similarly, broiler chickens
are reared from day-old to about 46-70 days in controlled environment
house on built-up litter of wood shavings or straw or mixture of the two
types.

5.0 SUMMARY

 In this unit we have studied that:

The management of day old chicks starts two weeks before the
arrival of the chicks.
Brooding pen should be clean, disinfected, liter material should
be spread to about a
height of 6-8 cm, feeding and watering equipment to be set and
temperature set at
35˚C.
 The broiler house should be set as above but the diet should be
broiler starter diet and at the age of 5-6 weeks the birds may be
transferred to the broiler finisher pen with free air movement. The
ration should be change to broiler finisher ration.
 The signs of good broiler include constricted pelvic bone, dry
constricted vent, an not very bright comb.
 The growers are between 9-20 weeks of age and their ration
should be changed from chick mash to growers mash, this is to
prevent excessive fat deposition.
 Layers are normally moved to laying quarters at the age of 18
weeks either in deep liter or battery cage system and their diet
changed to layers mash.
 The signs of a good layer are bright red comb, bright eyes, pelvic
bone with four finger width, large vent, soft, moist and oval vent,
active and alert. Have soft smooth wattles and bright red face.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1a) Describe the management Practices needed for successful

management of day-old chicks in a poultry farm.
b) Compare and contrast the management of a layer in a battery
cage to that of a Layer in a deep liter system.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Lee, S. and Summers, J. D. (2000) Broiler breeder production.

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

55
Sainsbury, D. (1992) Poultry Health and Management
Smith, A. J., and Coste, R. (2001) (Poultry) The Tropical
Agriculturalist (CTA) Macmillan

Williamson, G. and Paye, W. J. A. (1987) An introduction to Animal

husbandry in the tropics.

57
UNIT 6 POULTRY DISEASES AND THEIR
PREVENTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Disease and Disease Prevention
3.2 Diseases of poultry
3.3 Disease Prevention
3.4 Common Diseases of Chicken
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Good management built on the foundation of basically sound units and

buildings, not only will disease be far less likely to occur but, in
addition, productivity can be enhanced at all stages.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 know how poultry diseases are broadly classified (pathogenic,

management, deficiency, and metabolic) and their examples.
 apply practical measures of preventing poultry diseases from
spreading.
 recognized most important vaccines against some common
diseases of poultry in the tropics.
 appreciate the means of transmission, causative agents, signs,
prophylaxis and treatment of some bacterial, viral and parasitic
diseases of poultry.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Disease and Disease Prevention

Disease is any deviation from the normal physiological state of health.

It is always better to prevent a disease than to cure it. It is necessary to
aimed at disease prevention by planning a disease control programme
with a veterinarian. Poultry birds should be vaccinated against prevalent

59
diseases. It is important to maintain strict sanitation practice by cleaning
the poultry house and surroundings regularly. Prevent birds, personnel,
vehicles and stray birds from entering the farm unless disinfection is
properly carried out. Where there is an out break of a disease
immediately contact a veterinarian

3.2 Diseases of poultry

Diseases of poultry can be broadly classified into:

a) Pathogenic diseases:
These are diseases brought about by the presence of one or more
pathogenic or causative organisms.

b.) Management diseases:

Bad management can be caused of pathogenic invasion and can also
cause diseases directly e.g. overcrowding can lead to rapid transfer of
disease from sick animals to healthy ones. It can also cause inadequate
access to feed and water. Other examples of poor or bad management
that can lead directly to diseases are:

i) Failure to vaccinate at the right time.

ii) Failure to remove dead birds promptly.
iii) Poor or old litter.
iv) Failure to remove droppings regularly
v) Overcrowding
vi) Poor ventilation
vii) Poor incubation hygiene
viii) Uncontrolled access to poultry farms and lack of foot baths
ix) Indiscriminate transfer and mixing of eggs, stock and poultry
equipment.

c.) Deficiency diseases

These are diseases caused by lack of one or more essential
nutrients needed for growth and development in the body.

d.) Metabolic diseases

These are group of diseases which are caused by a faulty
metabolic process in the body. This is caused by the absence in
the body of certain fat carrying substances resulting in the
accumulation of fat in the liver, intestines, gizzard, kidneys and
heart.
3.3 Disease Prevention

The following precautions can be taken by poultry keepers to prevent

the spread of diseases.
i) The setting and management of poultry houses: this is very
important in any disease control programme. It is necessary to
ensure that birds of different ages are not kept in close proximity,
this is to prevent diseases spreading from older birds to younger
ones.
ii) The poultry house should be thoroughly clean and disinfected and
a gap of at least 2 weeks allowed before bringing in a new batch
of birds.
iii) Sick birds should also be removed promptly to prevent them
becoming a source of infection to other birds.
iv) Dead birds should be buried or incinerated.
v) Control by vaccination: Birds should be vaccinated against the
common diseases in a locality.
vi) Control by Chemotherapy or prophylaxis: Another way of
preventing diseases is by the use of good management associated
with prophylactics such as Coccidiostats and sulpha drugs.

Table 6.1 The most important vaccinations against common diseases

in the tropics:
Disease Vaccination Age of bird
New castle Intra occular Day old
Lasota 3-4 weeks
Komorov 6 weeks
Mareks disease *MD-Vaccine Day old
(infectious bronchitis) *IB- Vaccine *7-10ddays
Via water **2-3 weeks
Or Intra occular again 24 weeks
Infectious bursal Gumboro vaccine 10-14 days
disease (Gumboro) 5 weeks
(IBD)
Fowl pox Chicken N.P.X Day old
Fowl pox vaccine 3 weeks
poxine and poxinet
Re- Vaccinate 12-14 weeks
Fowl typhoid fowl typhoid vaccine 4 weeks
Fowl cholera Fowl cholera vaccine 12 weeks
Repeat again 17 weeks

* Broilers * MD Marek’s disease

** Pullets * IB Infectious Bronchitis

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3.4 Common Diseases of Chicken

Table 6.2 Common diseases of Chickens

Name Means of causative Signs Prophylaxis Treatment
Transmission Organism

New castle Bird to bird Virus Paralysis Vaccination None

Disease by droplet in difficulty either dead
air in or live
breathing vaccine
greenish
diarrhoea
Infectious Bird to bird Virus Antibiotics
bronchitis Respiratory Vaccination to control
problems secondary
large infections
decrease in
egg
Fowl cholera Through Bacterium production. Annual Remove,
or water and . Severe vaccination slaughter
pasteurellosis food to nose diarrhea with live and destroy
and mouth Blue vaccine infected
combs and birds. Clean
wattles infected
reduction premises
in food
intake

Names Means of Causativ Sings Prophylax Treatment

Transmissi e is
on organism
Marek’s . Affected None
disease Bird to bird birds 12- Vaccinatio
and Virus 24 weeks n Isolation
leukosis old.
Causes
paralysis
and death
of 10-
30% of
flock Cull
Fowl pox Mosquitoes Vaccinatio clinically
and other Virus Scabs on n Isolation affected
biting the birds.
insects and comb, Vaccinate
through wattles, uninfected

63
 damaged eyelids ones.
skin Death

Gumboro Isolation
disease Virus vaccines None
(infectiou By direct Prostratio are
s bursitis) contact n of birds available
especially in Diarrhoe
young birds a
Pullorum
disease Salmonel Adult Sulphur
From hen to la carriers drugs or
chick bacterium High should be furazolidone
through egg death removed
rate in
chicks.
Name of White
Disease diarrhea Prophylax Treatment
Means of Causativ is
transmissio e
n organism Signs
Coccidios Sulphanamid
is Feed e,
From the Protozoa coccidiosta pyrimidine
droppings of of Watery t Separate or prolium in
infected infected and young and water
birds eimeria bloody adults
spp diarrhea
High
death
rate

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1a) List the poor management practices that can lead to disease in a
poultry farm.
b) Describe the precautions to be taken by poultry keepers to
prevent the spread of diseases.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Diseases of poultry can be broadly classified into pathogenic,

management, deficiency and metabolic diseases, there control and
prevention is of paramount importance to ensure both maximum
profitability and productivity.
5.0 SUMMARY

In his unit we have studied that:

 It is always better to prevent a disease than to cure it, this is done
through good management practice, strict sanitation, adequate
nutrition vaccination against prevalent diseases, prompt removal
of dead and sick birds,
 The common diseases of poultry in the tropics include: New
castle disease, Infectious bronchitis, Fowl cholera, Mareks
disease, Fowl pox, Gumboro disease, pullorum disease and
coccidiosis.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss Newcastle, Fowl cholera and Gumboro diseases under

the following:
i) Vaccination programme
ii) Causative agents and signs
iii) Means of transmission
iv) Prophylaxis and treatment

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

McDonald, I. and Low, J. (1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.

Sainsbury, D. (1992) Poultry Health and Management

Smith, A. J., and Coste, R. (2001) (Poultry) The Tropical

Agriculturalist (CTA) Macmillan

65
UNIT 7 POULTRY PRODUCTS AND MARKETING

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Poultry Products and Marketing
3.2 Egg marketing
3.3 Egg grading
3.3.1 Exterior qualities used for grading eggs
3.3.2 Interior qualities used for grading eggs
3.4 Egg processing and preservation
3.5 Marketing Table Birds
3.5.1 Processing of Table Birds
3.5.2 Killing
3.5.3 Scalding
3.5.4 Picking or plucking
3.5.5 Dry plucking
3.5.6 Dressing and Evisceration
3.5.7 Chilling
3.5.8 Storage
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Any farmer who’s production capacity is more than what he can eat with
his family and relatives, he must fine a market for the surplus otherwise
it becomes a burden on him.

The need for poultry meat or egg varies from Country to country and
from locality to locality. The marketing of poultry meat is different from
the marketing of poultry eggs.

In developing countries like Nigeria, where there is shortage of animal

protein, marketing of broilers depend on their market price. For farmers
near a town or a city, setting the market price at a level which the
consumer will be prepared to pay , will be met with people eager to buy
and disposal of products will not be a problem. For farmers from rural
areas that are away from the main market, the cost of transporting his
product to the market may make his product more expensive with no
profit.

67
2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 to understand how the poultry egg are processed preserved over

time.
 to be familiar with external and internal egg quality
characteristics that are used in grading of an egg.
 be aware of the procedure of processing table birds for marketing
purposes.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Poultry Products and Marketing

It is of no value to produce poultry commodities (egg and Meat) without

serious effort to secure a market for them.

3.2 Egg marketing

The egg is a highly perishable product and if not given proper care
between the time it is laid and time it is consumed, it may deteriorate
markedly in several respects for example

 Gross changes in weight as a result of evaporation of moisture

through the shell mostly from the albumen.
 Flavour and odour changes also occur in storage either due to
internal chemical changes or to the absorption of extraneous
odour by the egg.
 Relative changes in size and form of egg components such as
yolk and albumen can indicate age in storage.
 Other changes are inter conversion of minerals and organic
contents, specific gravity, permeability, viscosity, gaseous
concentration and microbial changes.

3.3 Egg grading

The most important point considered in egg for consumption is quality.

In general the interior and exterior factors are considered.

3.3.1 Exterior qualities used for grading eggs

1. Soundness of shell
2. cleanliness
3. size

69
4. colour
5. shape and texture

3.3.2 Interior qualities used for grading eggs

1. Condition of the yolk

2. condition of the shell
3. condition of the air cell.

3.4 Egg processing and preservation

Eggs are processed to prolong their keeping or storage life. Methods of

prolonging edible life of an egg include:

i) Prevent contamination with faeces and other dirt

ii) Chilling at temperatures between -0.5oC and -2oC and relative
humidity of 88% (can store for 2-3 months)
iii) Chemical treatments aimed at sealing the shell pores and thus
preserving the egg contents from environmental changes and
gaseous diffusion using example. Vegetable oils, Vaseline, lard,
gelatin, agar-agar and alum as coating agents.
iv) Heat treatment: egg can be momentarily (5 seconds) dipped in
boiling water to coagulate the thin film of albumen enclosing the
egg membrane.
v) Dehydration: usually applied to the shelled eggs to produce
powdered products or flakes.

3.5 Marketing Table Birds

Table birds are broilers, old hens cockerels and cocks. They can be
marketed live or dressed and ready to cook. Consumers in the southern
part of Nigeria buy very little live poultry but in the northern part of the
country, live birds are commonly sold in the markets.

3.5.1 Processing of Table Birds

It involves the following stages:

i) Killing and bleeding.

ii) Scalding
iii) Plucking or picking
iv) Dressing and evisceration.
3.5.2 Killing

Birds are killed by any of the following methods.

i) By hatching off the head from the live chicken.

ii) By cutting the head off with a knife.
iii) By cutting the jugular vein.

After killing, the chicken is allowed to bleed.

3.5.3 Scalding

Scalding is the used of hot water (50-55oC) to soften the skin and
facilitate the removal of the feathers.

3.5.4 Picking or plucking

The scalded bird is then de feathered by hand picking. However, in

commercial processing units, mechanical pluckers consisting of rotating
drums with several stickers usually of rubber or plastics are used.

3.5.5 Dry plucking

Chickens can also be de feathered by plucking of the feathers by

plucking of feathers without scalding. Though laborious the method
preserves a good colour of the skin and keeps longer than scalded
carcass.

The birds can also be de feathered by means of fire or Wax plucking.

3.5.6 Dressing and Evisceration

Dressing entails the removal of the head, neck, feet, gizzard, lungs, liver,
intestine, crop, legs and other intestinal tissues. The internal evisceration
is done by slitting between the end of the keel bone and the rectum and
then plunging the hand to remove the contents of the body cavity. The
dressed chicken is sold whole or in parts.

3.5.7 Chilling

Dressed chickens are usually chilled to prevent bacterial growth and

enzymatic activities. This is achieved by placing the carcass in a cold
chamber with temperature of 1-5oC.

71
3.5.8 Storage

The temperature depends on the length of time that the carcass are to be
stored. For a day or two temperature of 2oC is ideal. If for a long period
of time, they should be frozen to -5oC to -18oC.

In Nigeria the prices of poultry products is determine by the forces of

demand and supply. A typical market organization of poultry products in
a developing economy is as follows:

super markets *Packaging

a) Table Birds *Packing
*Cold stores
Producer Abattoir * Ware
farms
house
Consumer

Cooperative

b) Marketing eggs
Packaging
house Super markets
Producer
Cold
consumer
Farms stores
Cooperative stores
Ware
Fig. 7.2 Diagrammatic house
representation of marketing table birds and eggs

In underdeveloped economy like Nigeria, the scheme represented above

does not operate. Consequently there are no accurate trends on
production, supply and demand; price changes are violent and difficult
to control. Couple with this , the poor cold storage facilities makes the
handling of poultry products precarious and the prices unstable.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Your tutor should organize a visit to a poultry farm where you will have
the opportunity to enrich your knowledge on the practical aspect of
poultry management.
1a) Briefly explain how table birds are processed and marketed.

73
4.0 CONCLUSION

In developing countries like Nigeria, where there is shortage of animal

protein, marketing of broilers depend on their market price. For farmers
near a town or a city, setting the market price at a level which the
consumer will be prepared to pay , will be met with people eager to buy
and disposal of products will not be a problem. For farmers from rural
areas that are away from the main market, the cost of transporting his
product to the market may make his product more expensive with no
profit.
It is therefore of no value to produce poultry commodities (egg and
Meat) without serious effort to secure a market for them.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we learnt that:

 Egg shelf life deteriorates over time causing gross changes in

weight, flavour and odour changes, relative changes in size and
form also inter conversion of minerals and organic contents.
 Methods of prolonging edible life of an egg are prevention of
contamination with faeces and dirt, chilling at -0.5˚C and -2˚C
and relative humidity of 88%, sealing the hell pores with
vegetable oil or vaseline, heat treatment etc.
 Exterior qualities used for egg grading are soundness of shell,
cleanliness, size, shape and texture while interior qualities
include conditions of yolk, shell and air cell.
 Table birds can be marketed live or dressed and they are
processed by killing, bleeding, scalding, plucking, dressing and
evisceration.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1a) Explain how the avian egg is processed and preserved over time.
b) List all the interior and exterior egg qualities used for grading
eggs.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Lee, S. and Summers, J. D. (2000) Boiler breeder production.

McDonald, I. and Low, J.(1985) Livestock rearing in the tropics

Macmillan education Ltd.
Smith, A. J. and Coste, R (2001) (Poultry) The Tropical Agriculturalist
(CTA) Macmillan.

75