Human skeleton

system
By Deepak Soner
 Introduction
• Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages.
• Bone and cartilage are specialised connective tissues. The former has a very
hard matrix due to calcium salts in it and the latter has slightly pliable
matrix due to chondroitin salts.
• The study of bone structure and treatment of bone disorder is called osteology.
• The specialized branch of medicine that deals with preservation and
restoration of skeletal system and joints is called orthopedics.
• Bones are made up of a protein called ossein and cartilages are made of a
protein called chondrin.
• Hence study of bones is called osteology and study of cartilage is called
chondrology.
SKULL (Dicondylic)
• The skull is the bony framework of the head. It contains 22 bones(not counting the
bones of the middle ears)
• Bones of skull are grouped into two categories: cranial bones and facial bones.
• Sphenoid bone (butterfly shaped) lies at the middle part of the base of the skull
• This bone is the keystone of the cranial floor because it articulates with all the other
cranial bones
• Sella turcica is a bony cavity in sphenoid which houses pituitary gland
• The ethmoid bone is a delicate bone located in the anterior part of the cranial floor
• Ethmoid bone is a major superior supporting structure of the nasal cavity and
forms an extensive surface area in the nasal cavity
• Superior nasal concha (turbinate) and the middle nasal concha (turbinate) of
ethmoid (third pair of conchae, the inferior nasal conchae, are facial bones) bones
greatly increase the vascular and mucous membrane surface area in the nasal cavity,
which warms and moistens (humidifies) inhaled air before it passes into the lungs.
The conchae also cause inhaled air to swirl, and the result is that many inhaled
particles become trapped in the mucus that lines the nasal cavity (cleanse)
HYOID BONE
• Also known as tongue bone
• The single hyoid bone (U-shaped) is a
unique component of the axial skeleton
because it does not articulate with any
other bone.
• Located in the anterior neck between the
mandible and larynx
Ear ossicles
PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE
• The human body has two pectoral or shoulder girdles that attach the
bones of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton.
• Each of the two pectoral girdles consists of a clavicle and a scapula.
• The clavicle is the anterior bone and articulates with the manubrium of
the sternum at the sternoclavicular joint.
• The scapula (flat bone) articulates with the clavicle at the
acromioclavicular joint and with the humerus at the glenohumeral
(shoulder) joint.
UPPER LIMB
• The following bones form the
skeleton of arm, forearm, and hand,
making altogether 30 bones:
• 1. Humerus (1)
• 2. Ulna and Radius (1+1)
• 3. Carpal bones (8)
• 4. Metacarpals (5)
• 5. Phalanges (14)
Hand—Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges
• The carpus (wrist) is the proximal region of the hand and consists of eight small
bones, the carpals, joined to one another by ligaments.
• Articulations among carpal bones are called intercarpal joints.
• The carpals are arranged in two transverse rows of four bones each.
• The capitate is the largest carpal bone
• In about 70% of carpal fractures, only the scaphoid is broken. This is because
the force of a fall on an outstretched hand is transmitted from the capitate
through the scaphoid to the radius.
• Pisciform is sesamoid bone
• Trapezium articulates with the metacarpals of thumb
• carpo-metacarpal joint is gliding joint
• The heads of the metacarpals, commonly called “knuckles,” are readily visible in a
clenched fist.
• The heads articulate with the proximal phalanges to form the
metacarpophalangeal joints.
• The joint between metacarpals and phalanges is ellipsoid or condyloid joint
• Joints between phalanges are called interphalangeal joints, which is hinge joint
LOWER LIMB
• Each lower limb (lower
extremity) has 30 bones in four
locations—(1) the femur in the
thigh; (2) the patella (kneecap);
(3) the tibia and fibula in the leg;
and (4) the 7 tarsals in the
tarsus(ankle), the 5 metatarsals in
the metatarsus, and the 14
phalanges (bones of the digits) in
the foot
Femur
• The femur, or thigh
bone, is the longest,
heaviest, and strongest
bone in the body. Its
proximal end (head)
articulates with the
acetabulum of the hip
bone. Its distal end
articulates with the tibia
and patella
 Tibia & Fibula
• The tibia, or shin bone, is the larger,
medial, weight-bearing bone of the leg.
• The term tibia means flute, because the
tibial bones of bird were used in ancient
times to make musical instruments.
• It articulates at its proximal end with the
femur and fibula, and at its distal end with
the fibula and the talus bone of the ankle.
• The tibial tuberosity on the anterior
surface is a point of attachment for the
patellar ligament
Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges
THORAX
• The term thorax refers to the entire chest region. The skeletal part of the
thorax, the thoracic cage, is a bony enclosure formed by the sternum, ribs and
their costal cartilages, and the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae
• The costal cartilages attach the ribs to the sternum.
• The thoracic cage is narrower at its superior end and broader at its inferior
end.
• It encloses and protects the organs in the thoracic and superior abdominal
cavities, provides support for the bones of the upper limbs, and, plays a role in
breathing.
 Sternum or breastbone
• Sternum Is a flat, narrow bone located in the center of
the anterior thoracic wall that measures about 15 cm
(6 in.) in length and consists of three parts
• The superior part is the manubrium (Prosternum)
• The middle and Largest part is the body (mesosternum)
• Inferior, smallest part is the xiphoid process
(metasternum)
• The segments of the sternum typically fuse by age 25, and
the points of fusion are marked by transverse ridges.
• Xiphoid process provides attachment for some abdominal
muscles and diaphragm
 Thoracic Bones—Ribs (flat bones)
• Twelve pairs of ribs, numbered 1–12 from superior to inferior.
• The ribs increase in length from the first through seventh
• Then decrease in length to the twelfth rib.
• Each rib is flat connected dorsally to vertebral column and ventrally to the sternum.
• The first through seventh pairs of ribs have a direct anterior attachment to the sternum
by a strip of hyaline cartilage called costal cartilage
• The costal cartilages contribute to the elasticity of the thoracic cage and prevent various
blows to the chest from fracturing the sternum and/or ribs. The ribs that have costal
cartilages and attach directly to the sternum are called true (vertebrosternal) ribs
• The articulations formed between the true ribs and the sternum are called sternocostal
joints.
Human rib has two articulation Head - Has two parts. Lower part
surfaces on its dorsal end and is articulates with numerically
called bicephalic. corresponding vertebrae Upper part
articulates with higher vertebrae.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
• The vertebral column, also called the spine, backbone, or spinal column, makes
up about two-fifths of your total height and is composed of a series of bones called
vertebrae
• In addition to enclosing and protecting the spinal cord, it supports the head and
serves as a point of attachment for the ribs, pelvic girdle, and muscles of the back
and upper limbs
• The cervical, thoracic, and
lumbar vertebrae are movable,
but the sacrum and coccyx
are not
Normal Curves of the Vertebral Column
• The curves of the vertebral column increase its strength,
help maintain balance in the upright position, absorb
shocks during walking, and help protect the vertebrae
from fracture.
• The fetus has a single anteriorly concave curve
throughout the length of the entire vertebral column
• 3rd month - cervical curve develops
• Later, when the child sits up, stands, and walks, the
anteriorly convex lumbar curve develops.
• The thoracic and sacral curves are called primary curves
because they retain the original curvature of the
embryonic vertebral column
• All curves are fully developed by age 10
Joints
• Joints are classified structurally, based on their anatomical characteristics, and functionally,
based on the type of movement they permit
• The structural classification of joints is based on two criteria
i. Presence or absence of space between the articulating bones, called a synovial cavity, and
ii. Type of connective tissue that binds the bones together
• Structurally, joints are classified as
1. Fibrous joints -There is no synovial cavity, and the bones are held together by dense
irregular connective tissue that is rich in collagen fibers.
2. Cartilaginous joints -There is no synovial cavity, and the bones are held together by
cartilage.
3. Synovial joints- The bones forming the joint have a synovial cavity and are united by the
dense irregular connective tissue of an articular capsule, and often by accessory ligaments.
 FIBROUS JOINTS
• Fibrous joints permit little or no
movement (synarthrosis). The three
types of fibrous joints are sutures,
syndesmoses, and interosseous
membranes.
 Cartilagenous joints
• Slightly movable also called as
Amphiarthrosis
1. Primary :hyaline cartilage joints
(synchondrosis). After certain age the
cartilage is replaced by bone. e.g. joint
between Epiphysis & Shaft
2. Secondary :(Symphysis) fibro
cartilagenous joints. Here white fibro
cartilage or hyaline cartilage is present
between two bones at joint.e.g. Pubic
Symphysis, intervertebral disc, between
rib and sternum.
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
• [Link]
 Disorders of muscular & skeletal system
1. MYASTHENIA GRAVIS: Auto immune disorder affecting neuromuscular junction
leading to fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscles. Auto antibodies
against Ach receptors.
2. MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY: Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle mostly
due to genetic disorder.
3. TETANY: Rapid spasms (wild contractions) in muscle due to low Ca2+ in body
fluid.
4. SPRAIN: Sprain refers to injury to a joint capsule, typically involving a stretching
or tearing of tendons or ligaments.
5. ARTHRITIS: Arthritis refers to inflammation of the joints. It is a common disease
of the old age. Its common symptoms are pain and stiffness in the joints.
• Arthritis is differentiated in three given forms
a) Osteoarthritis: Secretion of the lubricating synovial fluid between the bones at the joint
[Link] smooth cartilage covering the ends of the bones at the joint wears out due to years
of use and is replaced by uneven bony spurs. The joint becomes inflamed, its movement
becomes painful, and its function is diminished. Such a stiffness or fixation of a joint is also
called ankylosis. The condition of osteoarthritis is more or less permanent. It is common in
old persons, mainly affecting weight bearing joints.
b) Rheumatoid arthritis: It is a chronic painful inflammation of the synovial membranes of
many joints simultaneously. It is a kind of autoimmune disorder and characterised by
presence of rheumatoid factor (Ig M antibody). Here antibody binds on synovial membrane
causes inflammation. Then synovial membrane starts secreting some abnormal granules
called Pannus which after accumulating on the surface of cartilage causes erosion of
articulate cartilage. As a result fibrous tissue is deposited and joint becomes immovable.
usually starts at the age of 20 – 40 years, but may begin at any age. It affects the women
more often than the men.
(c) Gout: It is an inherited disorder of purine metabolism, occurring
especially in men. Body forms excess amounts of uric acid and the
crystals of sodium urate are deposited in the synovial joints, giving rise to
a severe arthritis. It generally affects one or two joints only. It is very
painful, particularly at night, and makes movement difficult. Redness
and tenderness may be noticed in and about the affected joint. Gout
generally affects the great toe. Occurrence of gout is related to diet.
Persons suffering from gout should avoid meat. There is no cure for
arthritis. However, pain relieving (analgesic) drugs are available to give
comfort.
• 6. Osteoporosis
• Meaning: Osteoporosis is reduction in bone tissue mass causing weakness of skeletal
strength. It’s due to excessive resorption of calcium and phosphorous from the bone.
• Causes: It occurs in postmenopausal women and elderly men. may be due defective
intestinal calcium absorption and menopause. Possible environmental factors
include smoking, excessive drinking, and decreased exercise. Osteoporosis is more
common in women than in men, and in older than in middle-aged persons.
• Symptoms: Symptoms of osteoporosis are pain in the bone, particularly the back.
• Prevention: Preventive measures in high-risk patients include supplementary
calcium and exercise, and, in postmenopausal women, estrogen replacement
therapy. Supplementary calcium and sex hormones decrease bone resorption and
may arrest or reduce disease progression.
• 7. Sprain and Strains-
• A sprain is a twisting of a joint without dislocating it
• sprain is the forcible wrenching or twisting of a joint that stretches or tears its
ligaments but does not dislocate the bones.
• Such an injury causes damage to ligaments and also often damages tendons,
muscles, blood vessels, and nerves
• Severe sprains are quite painful and require immobilization during the healing
process
• In contrast to a sprain, a strain is a less severe stretching or twisting of a joint
• A strain is a stretched or partially torn muscle or muscle and tendon.
• Muscles and tendons may be stretched and become somewhat painful, but only
minor damage is done to the tissues of the joint.
• 8. Dislocation- A dislocation is a displacement of the articular surfaces
of a joint; it usually involves a damage to the ligaments surrounding the
joint
• Most dislocations result from falls, blows, or extreme exertion and are
most often seen in the joints of the thumb, fingers, knee or shoulder.
• Symptoms of dislocation include swelling, pain, and loss of motion.
• 9. Osteomalacia and Rickets- Osteomalacia, called rickets when it occurs
in childhood
• In this disease disorder this bones contain insufficient amounts of
calcium and phosphorus.
• The cause of kidney disease, vitamin D deficiency, and an inherited
defect.
Muscular Dystrophy
• It is a group of inherited muscle-destroying diseases that cause
progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle fiber
• The most common form of muscular dystrophy is Duchenne muscular
dystrophy or DMD. Because the mutated gene is on the X chromosome,
and because males have only one X chromosome, DMD strikes boys
almost exclusively.
• In DMD, the gene that codes for the protein dystrophin is mutated, so
little or no dystrophin is present in the sarcolemma. Without the
reinforcing effect of dystrophin, the sarcolemma tears easily during
muscle contraction, causing muscle fibers to rupture and die