How do Atoms Bond?

Polyatomic Ions:

The highlighted we need to remember including Chlorate(ClO3 -) and hypo-(1), -ite(2), per-
(4)

Important Acids:

H2SO4 = Sulfuric acid

HCl = Hydrochloric acid

C12H22O11 = Sucrose

C6H12O6 = Ethanol

Transition Metals:

Naming Rules:

Name of Cation + (charge of the metal in roman numerals) + Base Name of the Anion -ide

Balancing Chemical Equations:

First Step is to count the total no. of each atom in the equations, there are below rules:

1. Subscript talks about only the element it is behind 02 = 2 x O

2. Subscript outside a bracket, you multiply everything in the bracket by that number
(CO3)3 = 3 x C, 9 x O
3. Big numbers before a molecule or atom, you multiple everything Infront with that
number

According to the law of conservation of mass, mass is neither created nor destroyed, it is only
every transformed or rearranged, therefore both sides of the chemical reaction need to have
the same number of atoms of each element to adhere to the law of conservation of mass.

We always balance a chemical equation by adding Big numbers before them so it makes it
tricky where there is a molecule because when one atom increases, another atom increases by
the same ratio.
The concept of balancing equations supports the law of conservation of mass. There are
specific rules to follow when you are balancing equations to make sure that you don’t
accidentally alter the equation in any way.

Ionic Bonding:
Atoms like to have full electron shells, so a metal atom loses electrons to become a positive
cation and a non-metal atom gains electrons to become a negative anion. To obtain stability.
All atoms want to get an Octet(8 electrons in the valence shell), or duet(2 electrons ie.
Hydrogen(H))

Examples of ions

An ionic bond is defined as the electrostatic attraction between a metal positively cation and a
non-metal negatively charged anion. When an ionic compound is formed, the charged must
be balanced so that the resulting ionic compound has an overall neutral charge.

ie. When a sodium ion is formed Na loses one electron to form Na+ , Chlorine ion is formed,
Cl gains one electron from chlorine(transferred) to form Cl -

To form equations:

Calcium Chloride

Ca 2+, Cl -

Switch numbers

CaCl2

same numbers cancel out

Dot-Cross Diagrams are used to represent Ionic Bonds(most likely):

Ionic Bond Properties:

Ionic Bonds exhibit certain properties:

1. Structure: Giant ionic lattice of oppositely charged ions sticking together(giant is used
to depict that there are no individual molecules
2. High Melting and Boiling Points: Strong electrostatic attraction holding the lattice
together, A lot of energy has to be supplied to break the strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between oppositely charged ions in the giant lattice structure.
 3. Crystalline Structure/Brittle: There is a regular arrangements of ions in a lattice. A
small distortion due to force can cause a change in the pattern for the lattice structure
bringing ions with the same charge alongside each other, same charges repel each
other and therefore the ionic bond breaks apart.

1. Soluble in Water and Insoluble in Non-polar solvents/organic shi: Water is a polar

compound which means electrons are more attracted to Oxygen than Hydrogen so the
positive dipole of water attracts the negative anion and vice versa and therefore it is
soluble
2. Conductivity as a solution/molten: Ionic bonds are soluble in water because of the
solubility, ions are free to move and carry a charge and in high temperatures, the
electrostatic attraction breaks and ions are again free to move, due to this ionic
compounds are conductive in water or in molten state.

Covalent Bonding:
In a covalent bond, a pair of electrons is shared between two or more atoms, holding the
atoms is the electrostatic attraction between the nuclei/nucleus of the atom(positively
charged) and the shared pair of electrons(negatively charged)

A covalent bond takes place only between non-metals, atoms can wither have single(one pair
of shared electrons), double(2 pairs of shared electrons), triple(3 pairs of shared electrons)
bonds.

Single: Cl2 Cl - Cl

Double: O2 O = O

Triple: N2

N=N

Lewis Dot structure:

Properties of Simple Covalent Bonds:
1. Covalent bonds themselves are actually really strong because they share electrons, but
we don’t need to break covalent bonds in order to melt/boil the molecule, we need to
overcome the weak intermolecular forces but not the strong intramolecular forces.
2. There are intermolecular forces between simple molecules. These intermolecular
forces are much weaker than the strong covalent bonds in molecules. When simple
molecular substances melt or boil, it is these weak intermolecular forces that are
overcome. The covalent bonds are not broken. Very little energy is needed to
overcome the intermolecular forces, so simple molecular substances usually have low
melting and boiling points.
3. Simple molecules have no overall charge, or charged particles that can separate, so
simple molecular substances cannot conduct electricity, even when liquid or dissolved
in water.
4. Covalent compound are insoluble in water but dissolve in organic solvents because
they are not polar and have less electron negativity usually.
5. Often gases, liquids, or low melting solids at room temperature.

Simple vs Giant Covent Structures:

1. Bonding: Simple molecular structures have covalent bonds within the molecule,
while giant covalent structures have a network of covalent bonds throughout the entire
structure.
2. Melting and Boiling Points: Simple molecular structures have low melting and
boiling points due to weak intermolecular forces, while giant covalent structures have
high melting and boiling points due to strong covalent bonds.
3. State at Room Temperature: Simple molecular structures are often gases, liquids, or
low melting solids at room temperature, whereas giant covalent structures are
typically solids at room temperature.
4. Conductivity: Simple molecular structures generally do not conduct electricity, while
giant covalent structures also do not conduct except for some exceptions (like graphite
and graphene).
5. Examples: Examples of simple molecular structures include water, carbon dioxide,
and methane. Examples of giant covalent structures include diamond, graphite, and
silicon dioxide.

Giant Covalent Structures(Diamond, Graphite, Graphene,

C60-fluerene:
Allotropes of Carbon, are variations of the same element/different forms of the same element

DIAMOND:
 1. Tetrahedral Structure
2. Each carbon makes 4 bonds, no delocalized electrons
3. Giant covalent structure, not a molecule because it has varying number of bonded
atoms whereas molecules has fixed no. of atoms.
4. High melting and Boiling point, due to the very strong carbon-carbon bonds, because
there are no weak intermolecular forces as in with simple molecular substances.
Covalent bonds that need to be broken, are very strong so more energy is required to
melt of boil diamond.
5. Very hard, strong covalent bonds in a tetrahedral structure.
6. Does not conduct electricity because each carbon is bonds to 4 others so there are no
free electrons to carry the charge.
7. Insoluble because it takes a lot of energy to break bonds
8. Conducts heat very very very well because vibrations on one end are transferred
throughout the structure due to the strong and many covalent bonds

Multiple layers of graphene essentially make graphite.

1. Giant covalent structure, not a molecule because it has varying number of bonded
atoms whereas molecules has fixed no. of atoms.

GRAPHITE:

1. Soft material, Although the attraction forces between atoms in the same layer, the
attraction force between layers is very weak due to the great distance. Layers can slide
over each other and be flacked off.
2. High melting and Boiling points, We need to break down each layer which consists of
strong covalent bonds so more energy is required in order to melt/boil.
3. Conducts Electricity: Because each carbon is only bonded to 3 carbon atoms so there
are free delocalized electrons to move around in the layers
4. Conducts heat as well
5. Insoluble because it takes a lot of energy to break bonds
6. Less dense than diamond because there is a lot of space between layers as compared
to carbon atoms, there is a lot of wasted space so are less dense.
7. Giant covalent structure, not a molecule because it has varying number of bonded
atoms whereas molecules has fixed no. of atoms.

C60(fullerene):
C60 fullerene has a molecular structure which means that there are weak intermolecular
forces.
 1. Lower melting and boiling points points than diamond and graphite, only relatively
weak intermolecular forces of attraction need to be broken, does not require much
energy. Additionally, the bonds and spread over a larger surface area so they are
weaker.
2. Not as hard as diamond, weak intermolecular forces.
3. Does not conduct electricity, even though each carbon only combines with 3 carbon
atoms, the delocalized electrons remain inside the molecule and cannot freely move
from one molecule to another molecule so no conduction.

Metallic Bonding:
Electron negativity is the ability of an atom to gain an electron, depending on its attraction
force.

→ As we move down groups, electron negativity decreases due to the outer shell being
further away from the nucleus. → As we move across periods, electron negativity increases
due to more positive ions and therefore a stronger force of attraction.

— Large differences between electron negativity suggests that there is a huge attraction force
and therefore an ionic bonds — Small difference suggests that electrons will be shared and
depicts a covalent bond because of a very small dipole

Polar covalent bonds result when electrons are unequally shared between atoms, while
nonpolar covalent bonds result when electrons are more equally shared between atoms.
The unequal sharing of electrons is due to the differences in the electronegativities of the two
atoms sharing the electrons.

Key Points for the Test:

1. Chemical Equations with Transition Metals and Polyatomic Ions
2. Balancing Chemical Equations
3. Ionic Bonding(Concept, Properties, Dot-Cross Diagrams, Writing Equations,
Structure)
4. Covalent Bonding(Concept, Properties, Lewis Diagrams, Writing Equations(just look
at what is given, remember the simple covalent names), Structure(simple, giant)
5. Giant Covalent Structure(Examples, properties, Structure)
6. Metallic Bonding(Concept, Properties, Structure and Drawing)

Revision Material, Quizzes

Extension:

Intramolecular forces are the forces that hold atoms together within a
molecule. Intermolecular forces are forces that exist between molecules.