Notes: Unit 01: Power Semi-Conductor Devices

Unit 01 Power Semi-Conductor Devices

1.1 Silicon controlled rectifier

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) is the most important and mostly used member of the thyristor
family. SCR can be used for different applications like rectification, regulation of power and inversion,
etc. Like a diode, SCR is a unidirectional device that allows the current in one direction and opposes in
another direction.
SCR is a three terminal device; anode, cathode and gate as shown in figure. SCR has built in feature to
turn ON or OFF and its switching is controlled by biasing conditions and gate input terminal.
This results in varying the average power delivered at the load , by varying the ON periods of the SCR.
It can handle several thousands of voltages and currents. SCR symbol and its terminals are shown in
figure.

Constructional details Schematic diagram circuit symbol of a thyristor

1.1.1 Construction of Silicon Controlled Rectifier

The SCR is a four layer and three terminal device. The four layers made of P and N layers, are
arranged alternately such that they form three junctions J1, J2 and J3. These junctions are
either alloyed or diffused based on the type of construction.
The outer layers (P and N-layers) are heavily doped whereas middle P and N-layers are lightly
doped. The gate terminal is taken at the middle P-layer, anode is from outer P- layer and
cathode is from N- layer terminals. The SCR is made of silicon because compared to germanium
leakage current in silicon is very small.

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To manufacture the SCR, three types of constructions are used, namely the planar type, Mesa
type and Press pack type. For low power SCRs, planar construction is used where all the
junctions in an SCR are diffused. In mesa type construction, junction J2 is formed by diffusion
method and thereby outer layers are alloyed to it.
This construction is mainly used for high power Silicon Controlled Rectifiers. To provide high
mechanical strength, the SCR is braced with plates made up of either molybdenum or tungsten.
And one of these plates is soldered to a copper stud which is further threaded to connect the
heat sink.

1.1.2.1 Static Characteristics

Depending on the biasing given to the SCR, the operation of SCR is divided into three modes.
They are
1. Forward blocking Mode
2. Forward Conduction Mode and
3. Reverse Blocking Mode
Forward Blocking Mode
In this mode of operation, the Silicon Controlled Rectifier is connected such that the anode
terminal is made positive with respect to cathode while the gate terminal kept open. In this
state junctions J1 and J3 are forward biased and the junction J2 reverse biased.
Due to this, a small leakage current flows through the SCR. Until the voltage applied across the
SCR is more than the break over voltage of it, SCR offers a very high resistance to the current
flow. Therefore, the SCR acts as a open switch in this mode by blocking forward current flowing
through the SCR as shown in the VI characteristics curve of the SCR.

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Forward Conduction Mode

In this mode, SCR or thyristor comes into the conduction mode from blocking mode. It can be
done in two ways as either by applying positive pulse to gate terminal or by increasing the
forward voltage (or voltage across the anode and cathode) beyond the break over voltage of
the SCR.
Once any one of these methods is applied, the avalanche breakdown occurs at junction J2.
Therefore, the SCR turns into conduction mode and acts as a closed switch thereby current
starts flowing through it.
Note that in the VI characteristic figure, if the gate current value is high, the minimum will be
the time to come in conduction mode as Ig3 > Ig2 > Ig1. In this mode, maximum current flows
through the SCR and its value depends on the load resistance or impedance.
It is also noted that if gate current is increasing, the voltage required to turn ON the SCR is less
if gate biasing is preferred. The current at which the SCR turns into conduction mode from
blocking mode is called as latching current (IL).
And also when the forward current reaches to level at which the SCR returns to blocking state
is called as holding current (IH). At this holding current level, depletion region starts to develop
around junction J2. Hence the holding current is slightly less than the latching current.

Reverse Blocking Mode

In this mode of operation, cathode is made positive with respect to anode. Then the junctions
J1 and J3 are reverse biased and J2 is forward biased. This reverse voltage drives the SCR into
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reverse blocking region results to flow a small leakage current through it and acts as an open
switch as shown in figure.
So, the device offers a high impedance in this mode until the voltage applied is less than the
reverse breakdown voltage VBR of the SCR. If the reverse applied voltage is increased beyond
the VBR, then avalanche breakdown occurs at junctions J1 and J3 which results to increase
reverse current flow through the SCR.
This reverse current causes more losses in the SCR and even to increase the heat of it. So there
will be a considerable damage to the SCR when the reverse voltage applied more than VBR.

1.1.2.2 Dynamic Switching characteristics of thyristors

The time variation of voltage across the thyristor and current through it during turn on
and turn off process gives the dynamic or switching characteristic of SCR.

Switching characteristic during turn on Turn on time

It is the time during which it changes from forward blocking state to ON state. Total turn
on time is divided into 3 intervals:
1. Delay time
2. Rise time
3. Spread time
Delay time
If 𝐼𝑔and 𝐼 represent the final value of gate current and anode current. Then the delay time
can be explained as time during which the gate current attains 0.9 𝐼𝑎 to the instant anode
current reaches 0.1 𝐼
1. Gate current 0.9 𝐼𝑔𝑔 or the anode current rises from forward leakage current to 0.1 𝐼𝑔 to
0.1 𝐼𝑎.
2. Anode voltage falls from 𝑉𝑎 to 0.9𝑉𝑎.
3. Anode current rises from forward leakage current to 0.1 𝐼𝑎.
Rise time (𝒕𝒓)
Time during which
1. Anode current rises from 0.1 𝐼𝑎 to 0.9 𝑎
2. Forward blocking voltage falls from 0.9𝑉𝑎 to 0.1𝑉𝑎. 𝑉a is the initial forward blocking voltage.
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Spread time (𝒕𝒑)

1. Time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9𝐼a.
2. Time for the forward voltage to fall from 0.1𝑉𝑜 to𝐼𝑎 to on state voltage drop of 1 to 1.5V.

During turn on, SCR is considered to be a charge controlled device. A certain amount of charge
is injected in the gate region to begin conduction. So higher the magnitude of gate current it
requires less time to inject the charges. Thus turn on time is reduced by using large magnitude
of gate current.

1.1.2.3 How the distribution of charge occurs?

As the gate current begins to flow from gate to cathode with the application of gate signal.
Gate current has a non-uniform distribution of current density over the cathode surface.
Distribution of current density is much higher near the gate. The density decrease as the
distance from the gate increases. So anode current flows in a narrow region near gate where
gate current densities are highest. From the beginning of rise time the anode current starts
spreading itself. The anode current spread at a rate of 0.1mm/sec. The spreading anode
current requires some time if the rise time is not sufficient then the anode current cannot
spread over the entire region of cathode. Now a large anode current is applied and also a large
anode current flowing through the SCR. As a result, turn on losses is high. As these losses occur
over a small conducting region so local hot spots may form and it may damage the device.

1.1.2.4 Switching Characteristics During Turn Off

Thyristor turn off means it changed from ON to OFF state. Once thyristor is ON there is no role
of gate. As we know thyristor can be made turn OFF by reducing the anode current below the
latching current. Here we assume the latching current to be zero ampere. If a forward voltage
is applied across the SCR at the moment it reaches zero, then SCR will not be able to block this
forward voltage. Because the charges trapped in the 4layer are still favourable for conduction
and it may turn on the device. So to avoid such a case, SCR is reverse biased for some time
even if the anode current has reached to zero.
So now the turn off time can be different as the instant anode current becomes zero to the
instant when SCR regains its forward blocking capability. 𝑡𝑞=𝑡𝑟𝑟+𝑡𝑞𝑟
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Where, 𝑡𝑞 is the turn off time, 𝑡 𝑟𝑟 is the reverse recovery time, 𝑡𝑞𝑟 is the gate recovery time
At 𝑡1 anode current is zero. Now anode current builds up in reverse direction with same 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡
slope. This is due to the presence of charge carriers in the four layers. The reverse recovery
current removes the excess carriers from 𝐽1and 𝐽3 between the instants 𝑡.

At instant 𝑡3 the end junction 𝐽1 and 𝐽3 is recovered. But 𝐽 still has trapped charges which
decay due to recombination only so the reverse voltage has to be maintained for some more
time. The time taken for the recombination of charges between 𝑡2 is called gate recovery time
𝑡𝑞𝑟. Junction 𝐽2 recovered and now a forward voltage can be applied across SCR.
The turn off time is affected by:
1. Junction temperature
2. Magnitude of forward current 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 during commutation.
Turn off time decreases with the increase of magnitude of reverse applied voltage.

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1.1.3 Specifications/rating of SCR

Under all operating conditions, the reliable operation of the SCR can be ensured only if it is
operated such that its ratings are not exceeded. Each thyristor or SCR is manufactured to a
particular current, voltage, power, temperature and switching frequency limits within which
they can operate reliably.
These are called ratings, which can be minimum or maximum values that set limits on the
capability of an SCR. Exceeding these limits even for short duration could considerably leads to
malfunction or damage the SCR.
Therefore, for the benefit of users, the manufacturer gives a list of current, voltage, power,
temperature ratings, etc. These ratings are essential for the correct application of SCR in
various power electronic circuits. In practice SCRs with ratings higher than the required
working ratings are selected to allow safety margin.
These ratings can be continuous, non-repetitive or surge and repetitive ratings. Depends on
the unilateral or bilateral devices, continuous ratings are denoted in terms of RMS or average
values. Surge and repetitive ratings are corresponding to peak values of the SCR.
So let us discuss various ratings of SCR in brief. Different voltage and current ratings are
assigned with one or more subscripts for easy identification. The first subscript indicates the
state of the SCR and includes
F- Forward bias
R- Reverse bias
T- ON state
D- Forward blocking state with gate open
The second subscript indicates the operating values and those are
T- Trigger
S- Surge or Non-repetitive value
R- Repetitive value
W- Working value
Voltage Ratings of SCR
The voltage capability of the SCR should not be exceeded during the operation even for short
periods. So the SCR is assigned with different voltage ratings, which are the maximum voltages

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at which the SCR can function normally without breakdown of junctions. These are assigned in
both blocking states of an SCR and can withstand against voltage transients. The various
voltage ratings of an SCR are given below.
Peak Working Forward-blocking Voltage VDWM
It specifies the maximum instantaneous value of forward blocking voltage across the SCR
excluding all surge and repetitive transient voltages. Beyond this value of the voltage the SCR
cannot withstand during its operation. This VDWM is equal to the maximum or peak value of
the supply voltage wave shown in figure.

Peak Repetitive Forward-blocking Voltage VDRM

It is the maximum transient voltage that the SCR can block during it’s the forward blocking
state repeatedly or periodically. This is specified with a specific biasing resistance between
cathode and gate or at a maximum permissible junction temperature with gate circuit open.
This voltage VDRM is encountered or appeared across the SCR , when the SCR is turned OFF or
commutated or due to diodes in the converter circuit. During the turn OFF process, an abrupt
change in reverse recovery current causes to create a voltage spike , which is responsible of
VDRM to appear across the SCR.

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Peak Non-repetitive or Surge Forward-blocking Voltage VDSM

This is the maximum instantaneous value of forward surge voltage across the SCR that is of
non-repetitive. This VDSM is less than the forward break over voltage VBO and this value is in
the range about 130 percent of VDRM.
Peak Working Reverse Voltage VRWM
This is the maximum instantaneous value of reverse voltage across the SCR excluding all surge
and repetitive transient voltages. This VRWM is equal to the maximum negative value of the
supply voltage wave shown in figure.
Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage VRRM
It is occurrence of the maximum reverse transient voltage repeatedly or periodically across the
SCR in the reverse direction at permissible maximum junction temperature. Beyond this rating
the SCR may get damaged due to excessive junction temperature. This voltage is also appeared
due to the same reason as of VDRM.
Peak Non-repetitive or Surge Reverse Voltage VRSM
It refers to the maximum value of reverse transient voltage across the SCR that is of non-
repetitive. This VRSM is less than the reverse break over voltage VBR and this value is in the
range about 130 percent of VRRM. The surge voltage ratings VDSM and VRSM can be increased
by connecting a diode of equal current rating in series with the SCR.
The above discussed voltage ratings are belonging to the forward and reverse blocking states
with which the SCR is able to withstand with gate open.
ON-state Voltage VT
This is the voltage drop between the anode and cathode with specified junction temperature
and ON-state forward current. Generally, this value is in the order of 1 to 1.5 Volts.
Gate Triggering Voltage VGT
This is the minimum voltage required by the gate to produce the gate trigger current.
Forward dv/dt Rating
This is the maximum rate of rise of anode voltage that will not trigger the SCR without any gate
pulse or signal. If this value is more than the specified value, the SCR may be switched ON. The
SCR in forward blocking mode is analogous to the capacitor with a dielectric.

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So , the charging current flows through it when the applied voltage is increased. If the rate of
rise of voltage is more, sufficient charges will flow through the junctions J2 of the SCR and
hence the SCR will be turned ON without any gate signal.
This type of triggering is called as false triggering and in practice it is not employed. Also, this
rating depends on the junction temperature. If the junction temperature is high, the dv/dt
rating of the SCR is lower and vice-versa. With the use of snubber networks across the SCRs, it
is possible to limit the maximum dv/dt applied to the SCR.
Voltage Safety Factor Vf
Generally, the operating voltage of the SCR is kept below the VRSM to avoid the damage to the
SCR due to uncertain conditions. Therefore, the voltage safety factor relates the operating
voltage and VRSM and is given as
Vf = VRSM / (RMS value of the input voltage * √2)
Current Ratings of SCR
Basically an SCR is a unilateral device and hence average current rating is assigned to it (while
RMS current rating is assigned to bilateral devices). An SCR has low thermal capacity and short
time constant. This means the junction temperature exceeds its rated value even for short over
current.
This may lead to damage the SCR. Therefore, current ratings must be properly selected for long
life of SCR , as the junction temperature depends on the current handled by it. Let us look at
various current ratings of an SCR.
Average ON-state Current Rating ITAV
This is the maximum repetitive average value of forward current that can flow through the SCR
such that the maximum temperature and RMS current limits are not exceeded. The forward
voltage drop across the SCR is very low when it is in conduction mode. So the power loss in the
thyristor is entirely depends on the forward current ITAV.
In case of phase controlled SCRs, average forward current depends on the firing angle. For the
given average forward current, the RMS value of the current is increased with decrease in
conduction angle. This leads to increase the voltage drop across the SCR which in turn increases
the average power dissipation. Hence the junction temperature rises beyond the safe limit.

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In order to limit the maximum junction temperature, the permissible average forward current
has to be lowered with decrease in conduction angle. The manufacturers usually provide the
data sheet that shows the forward average current variation with respect to the case
temperature. As an example the current waveform formed from the positive half cycle for
different conduction angles is shown in below.

RMS ON-state Current ITRMS

This is the maximum repetitive RMS current specified at a maximum junction temperature that
can flow through the SCR. For a direct current, both RMS and average currents are same.
However, this rating is important for SCRs subject to low duty waveforms with peak currents.
And also this rating is required to prevent excessive heating in leads, metallic joints and
interfaces of SCR.
Surge Current Rating ITSM
It specifies the maximum non-repetitive or surge current that the SCR can withstand for a
limited number of times during its life span. The manufacturers specify the surge rating to
accommodate the abnormal conditions of SCR due to short circuits and faults. If the peak
amplitude and the number of cycles of the surge current are exceeded, the SCR may get
damaged.
I2t Rating
This rating is used to determine the thermal energy absorption of the device. This rating is
required in the choice of a fuse or other protective equipment employed for the SCR. This is

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the measure of the thermal energy that the SCR can absorb for a short period of time before
clearing the fault by the fuse.
It is the time integral of the square of the maximum instantaneous current. For a reliable
protection of SCR by the fuse or other protective equipment, the I2t rating of the fuse (or any
other protective equipment) must be less than the I2t rating of the SCR.
di/dt Rating
It is the maximum allowable rate of rise of anode to cathode current without any damage or
harm to an SCR. If the rate of rise of anode current is very rapid compared to the spreading
velocity of the charge carriers, local hot spots are created due to concentration of carriers (on
account of high current density) in the restricted area of the junctions.
This raises the junction temperature above the safe limit and hence the SCR may be damaged.
Therefore, for all SCRs the maximum allowable di/dt rating specified in order to protect the
SCR. It is specified in amperes/microseconds and typically it lies in the range 50 to 800
ampere/microseconds.
Latching Current IL
It is the minimum ON state current required to maintain the SCR in ON state after gate drive
has been removed. After turning ON of the SCR, the anode current must be allowed to build
up such that the latching current is attained before the gate pulse is removed. Otherwise the
SCR will be turned OFF if the gate signal is removed.
Holding Current IH
This is the minimum value of the anode current below which SCR stops conducting and turns
OFF. The holding current is associated with turn OFF process and usually it is a very small value
in the range of mill amperes.
Gate Current IG
As the gate current is more, earlier will be the turn ON of the SCR and vice-versa. However,
safety limits must be provided for gate by specifying maximum and minimum gate currents.
For controlling the SCR, gate current is applied to the gate terminal. This gate current is divided
into two types; minimum gate current IGmin and maximum gate current IGmax.

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The minimum gate current IGmin is the current required by the gate terminal to turn ON the
SCR where as IGmax is the maximum current that can be applied safely to the gate. Between
these two limits the conduction angle of the SCR is controlled.
Temperature Rating of SCR
The forward and reverse blocking capability of the SCR is determined by junction temperature
Tj. If the maximum junction temperature is exceeded, the SCR will be driven to conduction
state even without any gate signal. This upper limit of Tj is imposed by considering the
temperature dependence on break over voltage, thermal stability and turn OFF time.
And also an upper storage temperature limit Ts is also required to limit thermal stresses on
silicon crystal, lead attachments and encapsulating epoxy. Excess of these two temperature
limits may cause unreliable operation of an SCR. In some cases, upper storage temperature
limit is higher than the operating temperature limit of an SCR.
Power Ratings of SCR
The power dissipation in the SCR produces a temperature rise in the junction regions. The
dissipation of power in the SCR includes forward power dissipation; turn ON and OFF losses
and gate power dissipation.
Average Power Dissipation Pav
It is the multiplication of the average anode current and forward voltage drop across the SCR.
This is the major source of junction heating in an SCR for normal duty cycle operations. The
peak power from a given source must not exceed the average power dissipation rating to
maintain the safety of the device. This rating is specified for different conduction angles as a
function of average forward current as shown in figure.

Gate Power Dissipation PG

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This rating defines both forward or reverse peak power and the average power applied to the
gate. If these ratings are exceeded, considerable damage occurs to the gate. Therefore, while
calculating the voltage and currents applied, the width of gate pulses has to be considered
(because the peak power is the function of time). For pulse type triggering, gate losses are
negligible whereas gate signals with a high duty cycle, the gate losses becomes more
significant.
Other power losses include ON state losses, OFF state losses, forward blocking losses and
reverse blocking losses. Turn ON and OFF losses have to be taken into consideration while
selecting the SCR rating since these constitute a significant portion of the total losses. And also
forward and reverse blocking losses are very small compared to the conduction losses since a
small leakage current and negligible voltage drop in blocking states.
Turn ON and Turn OFF Time Ratings
The turn ON time is the time interval between the instant at which the gate signal is applied
and the instant at which the ON-state current reaches 90 percent of its final value. Shorter will
be the turn ON time if the gate drive is increased. This turn ON time is valid only for resistive
load because the rate of rise of anode current is slow in inductive load.
Therefore, the turn ON time does not indicate the time in which the device stays ON if the gate
signal is removed. And if the load is resistive, turn ON time surely, indicates the time interval
in which the SCR stays ON even the gate is removed.
Turn OFF time is the time interval between the instant at which the anode current goes zero
or negative and the instant positive voltage is reapplied to the SCR. For fast switching SCRs
both turn ON and OFF time values are very low.

1.2. SCR Turn ON Methods (SCR Triggering)

The SCR can be made to conduct or switched from blocking (non-conducting or OFF) state to
Conduction (ON) State by any one of the following methods.
Forward Voltage Triggering
Temperature Triggering
dv/dt Triggering
Light Triggering
Gate Triggering

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Forward Voltage Triggering

In forward voltage triggering method, the SCR is forward biased i.e., anode is more positive
than cathode but this voltage is increased significantly. The gate terminal is kept open.
As the voltage increases, junction J2‘s depletion layer width increases, which in turn increases
the accelerating-voltage of minority carriers at this junction. At a particular voltage, there will
be an Avalanche Breakdown at the inner junction J2 as a result of minority charge carriers
colliding with atoms and releasing even more minority charge carriers.
This voltage is known as Forward Breakover Voltage VBO. At this voltage, the junction
J2 becomes forward biased and the SCR turns into conduction state. A large current flows
through the SCR (from Anode to Cathode, which is limited by the load resistance) with a very
low voltage drop across it.

During the turn ON state, the forward voltage drop across the SCR is in the range of 1 to 1.5
volts and this may be increased with the load current.
In practice this method is not employed because it needs a very large anode to cathode voltage.
And also once the voltage is more than the VBO, the SCR turns on and a very high current flows
through it instantly, which may cause damage to the SCR. Therefore, most of the cases this
type of triggering is avoided.
Temperature Triggering

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This type of triggering is also known as Thermal Triggering as the SCR is turned by heating it.
The reverse leakage current depends on the temperature. If the temperature is increased to a
certain value, the number of hole-pairs also increases. This causes to increase the leakage
current and further it increases the current gains of the SCR. This starts the regenerative action
inside the SCR since the (α1 + α2) value approaches to unity (as the current gains increases).
By increasing the temperature at junction J2, the width of the depletion layer decreases. So,
when the forward bias voltage is near to VBO, we can turn ON the SCR by increasing the
junction temperature (J2). At a particular temperature, the reverse bias of the junction breaks
down an the device starts to conduct.
This triggering occur in some circumstances particularly when it the device temperature is
more (also called false triggering). This type of triggering is practically not employed because
it causes the thermal runaway and hence the device or SCR may be damaged.
dv/dt Triggering
In forward blocking state i.e., anode is more positive than cathode, the junctions J1 and J3 are
forward biased and the junction J2 is reverse biased. So, the junction J2 behaves as a capacitor
(J1 and J3 as conducting plates with a dielectric J2) due to the space charges in the depletion
region.
The charging current of the capacitor is given as:
IC = dQ / dt = d(Cj v) / dt
Using Product Rule of Differentiation, we get
= Cj dv / dt + v dCj / dt
As the junction Capacitance is always almost constant, we can ignore the rate of change of
junction Capacitance dCj / dt. So, the final Charging Current is:
IC = Cj dv/ dt
where, IC is the Charging Current
Cj is the Junction Capacitance
Q is the charge
v is the voltage applied across the device
dCj / dt is the rate of change of junction Capacitance
dv / dt is the rate of change of applied voltage

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From the above equation, if the rate of change of the applied voltage is large (i.e., it is applied
suddenly), then the flow of charging current will increase, which causes the SCR to turn on
without any gate voltage.
It is clear that we can turn SCR just by increasing the rate of change of voltage across the device
rather than applying a large forward bias voltage (as we did in the previous case). However,
this method is also practically avoided because it can cause a false turn ON process and also
this can produce very high voltage spikes across the SCR so there will be considerable damage
to it.
Light Triggering
An SCR turned ON by light radiation is also called as Light Activated SCR (LASCR). Hence, Light
Triggering is also known as Radiation Triggering. Generally, this type of triggering is employed
in phase controlled converters in HVDC transmission systems.
In this method, light rays with appropriate wavelength and intensity are allowed to strike the
junction J2. The bombarded energy particles from the light (neutrons or photons) causes to
break electron bonds as as result, new electron – hole pairs are formed in the device.
As the number of charge carriers are increased, there is an instantaneous increase in the flow
of current, causing the SCR to turn ON.
NOTE: For successfully turning ON the SCR with the help of light radiation, the rate of change
of applied voltage (dv / dt) must be high.

Gate Triggering
This is most common and most efficient method to turn ON the SCR. When the SCR is forward
biased, a sufficient positive voltage at the gate terminal injects some electrons into the junction

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J2. This results in an increase in the reverse leakage current and hence the breakdown of
junction J2 occurs even at a voltage lower than the VBO.
Depending on the size of the SCR, the gate current varies from a few milli-amps to 250 milli-
amps or more. If the gate current applied is more, then more electrons are injected into the
junction J2 and results to come into the conduction state at much lower applied voltage.
In gate triggering method, a positive voltage applied between the gate and the cathode
terminals. We can use three types of gate signals to turn On the SCR. Those are DC signal, AC
signal and pulse signal.
DC Gate Triggering
In this triggering, a sufficient DC voltage is applied between the gate and cathode terminals in
such a way that the gate is made positive with respect to the cathode. The gate current drives
the SCR into conduction mode.
In this method, a continuous gate signal (DC Voltage) is applied at the gate and hence it causes
internal power dissipation (or more power loss). Another important drawback is there is no
isolation between the power and control circuits (as they both are DC).
AC Triggering
This is the most commonly used method of turning on the SCR, especially in AC applications.
With proper isolation between the power and control circuits (using transformers), the SCR is
triggered by the phase-shift AC voltage derived from the main supply. The firing angle is
controlled by changing the phase angle of the gate signal.

However, only one half of the cycle is available for the gate drive to control the firing angle and
for the next half of the cycle, a reverse voltage is applied between the gate and cathode. This

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is one of the limitation of AC triggering and the other is need for separate step down or pulse
transformer to supply the voltage to gate drive from the main supply.
Pulse Triggering
The most popular method of triggering the SCR is the pulse triggering. In this method, gate is
supplied with single pulse or a train of high frequency pulses.
The main advantage of this method is that gate drive is discontinuous or doesn’t need
continuous pulses to turn the SCR and hence gate losses are reduced in greater amount by
applying single or periodically appearing pulses. For isolating the gate drive from the main
supply, a pulse transformer is used.

1.2.1 SCR Firing Circuits

As we have seen in above that out of various triggering methods to turn the SCR, gate triggering
is the most efficient and reliable method. Most of the control applications use this type of
triggering because the desired instant of SCR turning is possible with gate triggering method.
Let us look on various firing circuits of SCR.

1.2.2 Resistance Firing Circuit

The circuit below shows the resistance triggering of SCR where it is employed to drive the load
from the input AC supply. Resistance and diode combination circuit acts as a gate control
circuitry to switch the SCR in the desired condition.
As the positive voltage applied, the SCR is forward biased and doesn’t conduct until its gate
current is more than minimum gate current of the SCR.
When the gate current is applied by varying the resistance R2 such that the gate current should
be more than the minimum value of gate current, the SCR is turned ON. And hence the load
current starts flowing through the SCR.
The SCR remains ON until the anode current is equal to the holding current of the SCR. And it
will switch OFF when the voltage applied is zero. So the load current is zero as the SCR acts as
open switch.
The diode protects the gate drive circuit from reverse gate voltage during the negative half
cycle of the input. And Resistance R1 limits the current flowing through the gate terminal and
its value is such that the gate current should not exceed the maximum gate current.
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It is the simplest and economical type of triggering but limited for few applications due to its
disadvantages.
In this, the triggering angle is limited to 90 degrees only. Because the applied voltage is
maximum at 90 degrees so the gate current has to reach minimum gate current value
somewhere between zero to 90 degrees.

1.2.3 Resistance – Capacitance (RC) Firing Circuit

The limitation of resistance firing circuit can be overcome by the RC triggering circuit which
provides the firing angle control from 0 to 180 degrees. By changing the phase and amplitude
of the gate current, a large variation of firing angle is obtained using this circuit.
Below figure shows the RC triggering circuit consisting of two diodes with an RC network
connected to turn the SCR.
By varying the variable resistance, triggering or firing angle is controlled in a full positive half
cycle of the input signal.
During the negative half cycle of the input signal, capacitor charges with lower plate positive
through diode D2 up to the maximum supply voltage Vmax. This voltage remains at -Vmax
across the capacitor till supply voltage attains zero crossing.
During the positive half cycle of the input, the SCR becomes forward biased and the capacitor
starts charging through variable resistance to the triggering voltage value of the SCR.
When the capacitor charging voltage is equal to the gate trigger voltage, SCR is turned ON and
the capacitor holds a small voltage. Therefore the capacitor voltage is helpful for triggering the
SCR even after 90 degrees of the input waveform.
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In this, diode D1 prevents the negative voltage between the gate and cathode during the
negative half cycle of the input through diode D2.

1.2.4 UJT Firing Circuit

It is the most common method of triggering the SCR because the prolonged pulses at the gate
using R and RC triggering methods cause more power dissipation at the gate so by using UJT
(Uni Junction Transistor) as triggering device the power loss is limited as it produce a train of
pulses.
The RC network is connected to the emitter terminal of the UJT which forms the timing circuit.
The capacitor is fixed while the resistance is variable and hence the charging rate of the
capacitor depends on the variable resistance means that the controlling of the RC time
constant.
When the voltage is applied, the capacitor starts charging through the variable resistance. By
varying the resistance value voltage across the capacitor get varied. Once the capacitor voltage
is equal to the peak value of the UJT, it starts conducting and hence produce a pulse output till
the voltage across the capacitor equal to the valley voltage Vv of the UJT. This process repeats
and produces a train of pulses at base terminal 1.
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The pulse output at the base terminal 1 is used to turn ON the SCR at predetermined time
intervals.

1.3 Commutation Circuit of SCR

An SCR is said to be ‘turned OFF’ if there is no flow of forward current and even if the SCR is
once again forward biased (positive voltage at anode), the SCR will not conduct without any
Gate Signal (using one of the SCR Turn ON Methods).
The reverse voltage, which causes to commutate the SCR, is called the Commutation Voltage.
Depending on the type of switching of SCR (Cyclic or Sequential), the commutation methods
are classified into two major types. They are:
Natural Commutation
Forced Commutation
Before discussing about different types of ACR Turn OFF Methods, there is an important
quantity known as the Turn OFF Time of SCR which we have to understand.
Turn OFF Time tOFF of an SCR is the time between the moment anode current becomes zero
and the moment SCR starts to block the forward voltage.
Natural Commutation
In natural commutation, the source of commutation voltage is the supply source itself. If the
SCR is connected to an AC supply, at every end of the positive half cycle, the anode current
naturally becomes zero (due to the alternating nature of the AC Supply). As the current in the
circuit goes through the natural zero, a reverse voltage is applied immediately across the SCR
(due to the negative half cycle). These conditions turn OFF the SCR.

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This method of commutation is also called as Source Commutation or AC Line Commutation or

Class F Commutation. This commutation is possible with line commutated inverters, controlled
rectifiers, cyclo converters and AC voltage regulators because the supply is the AC source in all
these converters.

During the positive half cycle of the AC Supply, the load current flows normally. But, during the
negative cycle, the SCR will turn OFF (due to momentary zero current and immediate negative
polarity). For successful natural commutation, the turn OFF time tOFF must be less than the
duration of half cycle of the supply.
Forced Commutation
In case of DC circuits, there is no natural current zero to turn OFF the SCR. In such circuits,
forward current must be forced to zero with an external circuit (known as Commutating Circuit)
to commutate the SCR. Hence the name, Forced Commutation.
This commutating circuit consist of components like inductors and capacitors and they are
called Commutating Components. These commutating components cause to apply a reverse
voltage across the SCR that immediately bring the current in the SCR to zero.
Depending on the process for achieving zero current in the SCR and the arrangement of the
commutating components, Forced Commutation is classified into different types. They are:
Class A – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
Class B – Self Commutation by Resonating the Load
Class C – Complementary Commutation
Class D – Auxiliary Commutation
Class E – Pulse Commutation

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Class A Commutation
This is also known as Self Commutation by Resonating the Load or simply the Resonant
Commutation. In this commutation, the source of commutation voltage is in the load. The
commutating components are L and C and the Capacitor can be connected either in parallel or
in series with the load resistance RL as shown below.
There are also waveforms of SCR current, voltage and capacitor voltage.

The value of load resistance and the commutating components are selected in such a way that
they form an under-damped RLC resonant circuit. When the circuit is applied with a DC Source,
the forward currents starts flowing through the SCR and during this period, the capacitor is
charged up to the value of Vdc. The current in the circuit will be either of the two waveforms
shown below, depending on how the load is connected to the capacitor (parallel or series).

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When conducting, the current in the SCR is the charging current of the capacitor. From the
waveforms, it is clear that the current becomes zero at the point ‘K’. At this point, the SCR turns
OFF.
The resonant frequency of the circuit, which depends on the Commutation Components L and
C and also on the load resistance, determines the time for switching OFF the SCR.
Class A Commutation method is simple and reliable and is usually used in high frequency
operations i.e., frequencies in the range of 1000 Hz and above due to the high values of L and
C components (as they carry the full load current). This type of commutation is generally used
in Series Inverters.
Class B Commutation
This is also a self-commutation circuit in which commutation of SCR is achieved by a resonating
LC Circuit. But the main difference between Class A and Class B Commutation is that the LC
resonant circuit is connected across the SCR but not in series with the load as in case of Class
A Commutation. As a result, the commutating circuit and the L and C components in it doesn’t
carry the load current.
The following image shows the Commutating Circuit and also the waveforms associated with
Class B Commutation.

When a DC supply is applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges up to Vdc, with an upper plate
positive and lower plate negative. When the SCR is triggered, the current flows in two

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directions: one is through Vdc+ – SCR – R – Vdc– and the another one is the commutating
current (IC) through L and C components.
When the SCR is turned ON, the capacitor starts discharging in the path C+ – L – SCR – C–.
When the capacitor is fully discharged, it starts charging with a reverse polarity. As a result of
the reverse voltage, a commutating current IC, will flow in the opposite direction of the load
current IL.
When the commutating current IC becomes higher than the load current, the SCR will
automatically turn OFF and the capacitor charges with its original polarity (through Inductor
and Load).
From the above explanation, we can understand that the SCR is turned ON for some time and
then automatically turned OFF for some time. This is a continuously repeating process. The
frequency of ON/OFF state depends on the values of L and C in the commutating circuit. This
type of commutation is mostly used in chopper circuits.

1.3.1 Class C Commutation

In this commutation method, the main SCR (which is to be commutated) is connected in series
with the load and an additional or complementary SCR is connected in parallel with the main
SCR. Hence, this method is also called as Complementary Commutation.
In this, SCR turns OFF with a reverse voltage of a charged capacitor. The figure below shows
the complementary commutation with appropriate waveforms.

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Initially, both SCRs are in OFF state so the capacitor voltage is also zero. When the SCR1 or
main SCR is triggered (by applying a pulse to its gate), current starts flowing in two paths: one
is the load current IL through Vdc+ – RL – SCR1 – Vdc– and the other is the charging current of
the capacitor IC through Vdc+ – R1 – C+ – C– – SCR1 – Vdc–. Therefore, the capacitor starts
charging up to the value of Vdc, with the polarity as shown in the above image.
When the SCR2 is triggered (by applying a pulse to its gate), it is turned ON. As a result, the
negative polarity of the Capacitor is applied across the anode of SCR1 and the positive polarity
is applied to cathode of SCR1.
This will cause a reverse bias across the main SCR (SCR1) and hence, it turns OFF. Now, the
capacitor charges through the load and the path is Vdc+ – RL – C+ – C– – SCR2 – Vdc–. The
polarity of the capacitor is now reversed.
If the SCR 1 is triggered once again, the discharging current of the capacitor turns OFF the SCR2
and the process repeats.
This commutation is mainly used in single phase inverters with a center tapped transformers.
The McMurray Bedford inverter is the best example of this commutation circuit. This is a very
reliable method of commutation and it is also useful even at frequencies below 1000 Hz.

1.3.1 Class D Commutation

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This is also called as auxiliary commutation because it uses an auxiliary SCR to switch the
charged capacitor. In this, the main SCR is commutated by the auxiliary SCR. The main SCR with
load resistance forms the power circuit while the diode D, inductor L and SCR2 forms the
commutation circuit.

When the supply voltage Vdc is applied, both SCRs are in OFF state and hence the capacitor
voltage is zero. In order to charge the capacitor, SCR2 must be triggered first and the capacitor
charges through the path Vdc+ – C+ – C– – SCR2 – RL – Vdc–.
When the capacitor is fully charged, the current flow decreases and since the SCR2 is in series
with the capacitor, it turns OFF. If the SCR1 is triggered, the current flows in two directions:
one is the load current IL through Vdc+ – SCR1 – RL – Vdc– and another one is commutation
current (due to capacitor discharge) through C+ – SCR1 – L – D – C–.
As soon as the capacitor discharges completely, its polarities will be reversed but the presence
of diode prevents the reverse discharge. When the SCR2 is triggered, capacitor starts
discharging through C+ – SCR2 – SCR1 – C–. When this discharging current is more than the
load current, the SCR1 gets turned OFF.
Again, the capacitor starts charging through the SCR2 to a supply voltage Vdc and then the
SCR2 is turned OFF (after capacitor is fully charged). Both the SCRs are now turned OFF and the
above process is repeated.

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This commutation method is mainly used in inverters and also used in the Jone’s Chopper
Circuit.
Class E Commutation
This type of Commutation is also known as External Pulse Commutation. In this, an external
pulse source is used to produce the reverse voltage across the SCR. The circuit below shows
the Class E commutation circuit, which uses a pulse transformer to produce the commutating
pulse. The transformer is designed with tight coupling between the primary and secondary and
also there is a small air gap in the transformer so that it doesn’t get saturated when the pulse
is applied.

If the SCR needs to be commutated, pulse is applied whose duration is equal to or greater than
the turn OFF time of the SCR. If the SCR is triggered, load current flows through the pulse
transformer. If a pulse (of potential VP) is applied to the primary of the pulse transformer, a
voltage is induced in the secondary of the pulse transformer. This induced voltage is applied
across the SCR with a reverse polarity (–VP) and hence the SCR is turned OFF. The capacitor
offers a very low or zero impedance to the high frequency pulse.

1.4 Protection of SCR

For satisfactory and reliable operation, the specified ratings of an SCR should not be exceeded
due to overload, voltage transients and other abnormal conditions. If the ratings are exceeded,
there is a chance of damage permanently to the SCR. Due to the reverse recovery process
during the turn OFF the SCR, the voltage overshoots occur in the SCR.
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Also, during turn ON, switching action produces over voltages in the presence of inductance.
In the event of a short circuit, a large current flows through the SCR which is very larger than
the rated current. Therefore, to avoid the undesirable effects on the SCR due to these
abnormal conditions, SCR must be provided with suitable protection circuits.
Some of the protection techniques employed for an SCR include over voltage protection, over
current protection, dv/dt protection and di/dt protection. Also, to operate the SCR in
permissible temperature limits, heat produced at the junctions must be dissipated. This can be
accomplished by using heat sinks. Let us discuss in brief on these protection methods.

Overvoltage
Over voltages are the greatest causes of failure of SCRs. These transient over voltages often
lead to unscheduled turn ON of the SCR. Also, may lead to the permanent destruction of the
SCR if the reverse transient voltage is more than the VBR across the SCR.
There are several causes of appearing these over voltages like commutation , chopping ,
lightening , etc. Depends on these sources , over voltages are divided into two types internal
and external over voltages.
Internal Overvoltages
Internal over voltages arise while the SCR is in operation. During the turn OFF of an SCR, a
reverse current continues to flow through the SCR after the anode current decreased to zero
to sweep away the earlier stored charge. This reverse current decay at a faster rate at the end
of reverse recover interval.
Due to the inductance of the circuit, this high di/dt produces a high voltage. This voltage value
may be much higher than the rated value of the SCR and hence the SCR may be damaged.

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External Overvoltages
These voltages are arises from the supply source or load. Some of these are
If SCRs are in blocking mode in a converter circuit which is supplied with transformer, a small
magnetizing current flow through the primary of the transformer. If the primary side switch is
suddenly removed, a high voltage transient is produced in the secondary of the transformer
and hence it is applied across the SCR. This voltage is several times that of the break over
voltage of the SCR.
Lightning surges on the HVDC systems to which SCR converters are connected causes a very
high magnitude of over voltages.
If the SCR converter circuit is connected to a high inductive load, the sudden interruption of
current generates a high voltage across the SCRs.
If the switches are provided on DC side, a sudden operation of these switches produces arc
voltages. This also gives rise the over voltage across the SCR.
Protection Against Over voltages
To protect the SCR against the transient over voltages, a parallel R-C snubber network is
provided for each SCR in a converter circuit. This snubber network protects the SCR against
internal over voltages that are caused during the reverse recovery process. After the SCR is
turned OFF or commutated, the reverse recover current is diverted to the snubber circuit
which consists of energy storing elements.
The lightning and switching surges at the input side may damage the converter or the
transformer. And the effect of these voltages is minimised by using voltage clamping devices
across the SCR. Therefore, voltage clamping devices like metal oxide varistors, selenium
thyrector diodes and avalanche diode suppressors are most commonly employed.
These devices have falling resistance characteristics with an increase in voltage. Therefore,
these devices provide a low resistance path across the SCR when a surge voltage appears across
the device. The figure below shows the protection of SCR against over voltages using thyrector
diode and snubber network.

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Overcurrent
During the short circuit conditions, over current flows through the SCR. These short circuits are
either internal or external. The internal short circuits are caused by the reasons like failure of
SCRs to block forward or reverse voltages, misalignment of firing pulses, short circuit of
converter output terminals due to fault in connecting cables or the load, etc. The external short
circuits are caused by sustained overloads and short circuit in the load.
In the event of a short circuit, the fault current depends on the source impedance. If the source
impedance is sufficient during the short circuit, then the fault current is limited below the
multi-cycle surge rating of the SCR. In case of AC circuits, the fault occurs at the instant of peak
voltages if the source resistance is neglected.
In case of DC circuits, fault current is limited by the source resistance. Therefore, the fault
current is very large if the source impedance is very low. The rapid rise of this current increase
the junction temperature and hence the SCR may get damaged. Hence the fault must be
cleared before occurrence of its first peak in other words fault current must be interrupted
before the current zero position.
Protection Against Overcurrent
The SCRs can be protected against the over currents using conventional over current
protection devices like ordinary fuses (HRC fuse, rewirable fuse, semiconductor fuse, etc,),
contractors, relays and circuit breakers. Generally for continuous overloads and surge currents
of long duration, a circuit breaker is employed to protect the SCR due to its long tripping time.

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For an effective tripping of the circuit breaker, tripping time must be properly coordinated with
SCR rating. Also, the large surge currents with short duration (are also called as sub-cycle surge
currents) are limited by connecting the fast acting fuse in series with an SCR.
So the proper coordination of fusing time and the sub-cycle rating must be selected for a
reliable protection against over currents. Therefore, the proper coordination of fuse and circuit
breaker is essential with the rating of the SCR.

The selection of fuse for protecting the SCR must satisfy the following conditions.
Fuse must be rated to carry the full load current continuously plus a marginal overload current
for a small period.
I2t rating of the fuse must be less than the I2t rating of the SCR
During arcing period, fuse voltage must be high in order to force down the current value.
After interrupting the current, fuse must withstand for any restricted voltage.
di/dt Protection of SCR
The anode current starts flowing through the SCR when it is turned ON by the application of
gate signal. This anode current takes some finite time to spread across the junctions of an SCR.
For a good working of SCR, this current must spread uniformly over the surface of the junction.
If the rate of rise of anode current (di/dt) is high results a non-uniform spreading of current
over the junction. Due to the high current density, this further leads to form local hot spots
near the gate-cathode junction. This effect may damage the SCR due to overheating. Hence,
during turn ON process of SCR, the di/dt must be kept below the specified limits.

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To prevent the high rate of change of current, an inductor is connected in series with thyristor.
Typical SCR di/dt ratings are in range between 20- 500 ampere per microseconds.
dv/dt Protection of SCR
When the SCR is forward biased, junctions J1 and J3 forward biased and junction J2 is reverse
biased. This reverse biased junction J2 exhibits the characteristics of a capacitor. Therefore, if
the rate of forward voltage applied is very high across the SCR, charging current flows through
the junction J2 is high enough to turn ON the SCR even without any gate signal.
This is called as dv/dt triggering of the SCR which is generally not employed as it is false
triggering process. Hence, the rate of rise of anode to cathode voltage, dv/dt must be in
specified limit to protect the SCR against false triggering. This can be achieved by using RC
snubber network across the SCR.

1.4.1 Working of Snubber Circuit

As we discussed above, the protection against high voltage reverse recovery transients and
dv/dt is achieved by using an RC snubber circuit. This snubber circuit consists of a series
combination of capacitor and resistor which is connected across the SCR. This also consist an
inductance in series with the SCR to prevent the high di/dt. The resistance value is of few
hundred ohms. The snubber network used for the protection of SCR is shown below.

When the switch closed, a sudden voltage appears across the SCR which is bypassed to the RC
network. This is because the capacitor acts as a short circuit which reduces the voltage across
the SCR to zero. As the time increases, voltage across the capacitor builds up at slow rate such
that dv/dt across the capacitor is too small to turn ON the SCR. Therefore, the dv/dt across the
SCR and the capacitor is less than the maximum dv/dt rating of the SCR.
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Normally, the capacitor is charged to a voltage equal the maximum supply voltage which is the
forward blocking voltage of the SCR. If the SCR is turned ON, the capacitor starts discharging
which causes a high current to flow through the SCR.
This produces a high di/dt that leads to damage the SCR. And hence, to limit the high di/dt and
peak discharge current, a small resistance is placed in series with the capacitor as shown in
above. These snubber circuits can also be connected to any switching circuit to limit the high
surge or transient voltages.

Thermal Protection
The temperature of the SCR may exceed the allowable temperature rating of the SCR due to
above losses and SCR may get damaged. Hence SCR needs protection against this situation. To
protect SCR from high temperature, SCR's are assembled on heat sinks.
With the increase in the temperature of the junction, insulation may get failed. So we have to
take proper measures to limit the temperature rise.

Protective Measure: We can achieve this by mounting the thyristor on heat sink which is mainly
made by high thermal conductivity metals like aluminum (Al), Copper (Cu) etc. Mainly
aluminum (Al) is used due to its low cost. There are several types of mounting techniques for
SCR such as – Lead-mounting, stud-mounting, Bolt-down mounting, press-fit mounting, press-
pack mounting etc.

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1.5 Gate Turn Off Thyristor

Although the thyristor is extensively used in high power applications, it always suffered from
being a semi-controlled device. Even though it could be switched ON by applying a gate signal,
it has to be turned OFF by interrupting the main current using a commutation circuit.
In case of DC to DC and DC to AC conversion circuits, this becomes a serious deficiency with
thyristor due to the absence of natural current zero (as in case of AC circuits). Hence, the
development of Gate Turn off Thyristor (GTO) addresses the major problem of the thyristor by
ensuring the turn OFF mechanism through the gate terminal.

1.5.1 Basics of Gate Turn-Off Thyristor

A Gate Turn off Thyristor or GTO is a three terminal, bipolar (current controlled minority
carrier) semiconductor switching device. Similar to conventional thyristor, the terminals are
anode, cathode and gate as shown in figure below. As the name indicates, it has gate turn off
capability.
These are capable not only to turn ON the main current with a gate drive circuit, but also to
turn it OFF. A small positive gate current triggers the GTO into conduction mode and also by a
negative pulse on the gate, it is capable of being turned off. Observe in below figure that the
gate has double arrows on it which distinguish the GTO from normal thyristor. This indicates
the bidirectional current flow through the gate terminal.

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The gate current required to turn off the GTO is relatively high. For example, a GTO rated with
4000V and 3000A may need -750A gate current to switch it off. So the typical turn off gain of
GTO is low and is in the range of 4 to 5. Due to this large negative current, GTOs are used in
low power applications.
On the other hand, during the conduction state GTO behaves just like a thyristor with a small
ON state voltage drop. The GTO has faster switching speed than the thyristor and has higher
voltage and current ratings than the power transistors.
Several varieties of GTOs are available in today’s market with asymmetric and symmetric
voltage capabilities. GTOs with identical forward and reverse blocking capabilities are called as
symmetric GTOs (S-GTOs). These are used in current source inverters, but these are somewhat
slower. Mostly asymmetric GTOs (A-GTOs) are used due to its lower ON state voltage drop and
stable temperature characteristics.
These asymmetrical GTOs have an appreciable reverse voltage capability (typically 20 to 25 V).
These are used where either the reverse voltage across it would never occur or a reverse
conducting diode is connected across the circuit. This article describes only about asymmetric
GTOs.

1.5.2 Construction

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Consider the below structure of GTO, which is almost similar to the thyristor. It is also a four
layer, three junction P-N-P-N device like a standard thyristor. In this, the n+ layer at the cathode
end is highly doped to obtain high emitter efficiency. This result the breakdown voltage of the
junction J3 is low which is typically in the range of 20 to 40 volts.
The doping level of the p type gate is highly graded because the doping level should be low to
maintain high emitter efficiency, whereas for having a good turn OFF properties, doping of this
region should be high. In addition, gate and cathodes should be highly interdigited with various
geometric forms to optimize the current turn off capability.

The junction between the P+ anode and N base is called anode junction. A heavily doped P+
anode region is required to obtain the higher efficiency anode junction so that a good turn ON
property is achieved. However, the turn OFF capabilities are affected with such GTOs.
This problem can be solved by introducing heavily doped N+ layers at regular intervals in P+
anode layer as shown in figure. So this N+ layer makes a direct contact with N layer at junction
J1. This cause the electrons to travel from base N region directly to anode metal contact
without causing hole injection from P+ anode. This is called as a anode shorted GTO structure.
Due to these anode shorts, the reverse blocking capacity of the GTO is reduced to the reverse
breakdown voltage of junction j3 and hence speeds up the turn OFF mechanism.

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However, with a large number of anode shorts, the efficiency of the anode junction reduces
and hence the turn ON performance of the GTO degrades. Therefore, careful considerations
have to be taken about the density of these anode shorts for a good turn ON and OFF
performance.

1.5.3 Principle of Operation

The turn ON operation of GTO is similar to a conventional thyristor. When the anode terminal
is made positive with respect to cathode by applying a positive gate current, the hole current
injection from gate forward bias the cathode p-base junction.
This results in the emission of electrons from the cathode towards the anode terminal. This
induces the hole injection from the anode terminal into the base region. This injection of holes
and electrons continuous till the GTO comes into the conduction state.
In case of thyristor, the conduction starts initially by turning ON the area of cathode adjacent
to the gate terminal. And thus, by plasma spreading the remaining area comes into the
conduction.
Unlike a thyristor, GTO consists of narrow cathode elements which are heavily interdigitated
with gate terminal, thereby initial turned ON area is very large and plasma spreading is small.
Hence the GTO comes into the conduction state very quickly.

To turn OFF a conducting GTO, a reverse bias is applied at the gate by making the gate negative
with respect to cathode. A part of the holes from the P base layer is extracted through the gate
which suppress the injection of electrons from the cathode.
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In response to this, more hole current is extracted through the gate results more suppression
of electrons from the cathode. Eventually, the voltage drop across the p base junction causes
to reverse bias the gate cathode junction and hence the GTO is turned OFF.
During the hole extraction process, the p-base region is gradually depleted so that the
conduction area squeezed. As this process continuous, the anode current flows through
remote areas forming high current density filaments. This causes local hot spots which can
damage the device unless these filaments are extinguished quickly.
By the application of high negative gate voltage these filaments are extinguished rapidly. Due
to the N base region stored charge, the anode to gate current continues to flow even though
the cathode current is ceased. This is called a tail current which decays exponentially as the
excess charge carriers are reduced by the recombination process. Once the tail current reduced
to a leakage current level, the device retains its forward blocking characteristics.

1.5.4 V-I Characteristics

During the turn ON, GTO is similar to thyristor in its operates. So the first quadrant
characteristics are similar to the thyristor. When the anode is made positive with respect to
cathode, the device operates in forward blocking mode. By the application of positive gate
signal triggers, the GTO into conduction state.
The latching current and forward leakage currents are considerably higher in GTO compared
to the thyristor as shown in figure. The gate drive can be removed if the anode current is above
the holding current level.
But it is recommended not to remove the positive gate drive during conduction and to hold at
value more than the maximum critical gate current. This is because the cathode is subdivided
into small finger elements as discussed above to assist the turn OFF process.
This causes the anode current dips below the holding current level transiently, which forces a
high anode current at a high rate back into the GTO. This can be potentially destructive.
Therefore, some manufacturers recommend the continuous gate signal during the conduction
state.

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The GTO can be turned OFF by the application of reverse gate current which can be either step
or ramp drive. The GTO can be turned OFF without reversing anode voltage. The dashed line
in the figure shows i-v trajectory during the turn OFF for an inductive load. It should be noted
that during the turn OFF, GTO can block a rated forward voltage only.
To avoid dv/dt triggering and protect the device during turn OFF, either a recommended value
of resistance must be connected between the gate and cathode or a small reverse bias voltage
(typically -2V) must be maintained on the gate terminal. This prevents the gate cathode
junction to become forward biased and hence the GTO sustains during the turn OFF state.
In reverse biased condition of GTO, the blocking capability is depends on the type of GTO. A
symmetric GTO has a high reverse blocking capability while asymmetric GTO has a small
reverse blocking capability as shown in figure.
It is observed that, during reverse biased condition, after a small reverse voltage (20 to 30 V)
GTO starts conducting in reverse direction due to the anode short structure. This mode of
operation does not destroy the device provided that the gate is negatively biased and the time
of this operation should be small.

1.5.5 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor Applications

Due to the advantages like excellent switching characteristics, no need of commutation circuit,
maintenance-free operation, etc makes the GTO usage predominant over thyristor in many

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applications. It is used as a main control device in choppers and inverters. Some of these
applications are
AC drives
DC drives or DC choppers
AC stabilizing power supplies
DC circuit breakers
Induction heating
And other low power applications

1.6 TRIAC
As we know that the SCR as a unidirectional device and has a reverse blocking characteristics
that prevents the current flow in reverse biased condition. But for many applications,
bidirectional control of current is required, particularly in AC circuits. To achieve this with SCRs,
two SCRs must be connected in anti-parallel to control over both positive and negative half
cycles of the input.
However, this structure can be replaced by special semiconductor device known as a TRIAC to
accomplish the bidirectional control. The TRIAC is a bidirectional switching device that can
control the AC power efficiently and accurately. These are often used in motor speed
controllers, AC circuits, pressure control systems, light dimmers and other AC control
equipments.

1.6.1 TRIAC Basics

The triac is an important member of the thyristor family of devices. It is a bidirectional device
that can pass the current in both forward and reverse biased conditions and hence it is an AC
control device. The triac is equivalent to two back to back SCRs connected with one gate
terminal as shown in figure.
TRIAC is an abbreviation for a TRIode AC switch. TRI means that the device consisting of three
terminals and AC means that it controls the AC power or it can conduct in both directions of
alternating current.

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The triac has three terminals namely Main Terminal 1(MT1), Main Terminal 2 (MT2) and Gate
(G) as shown in figure. If MT1 is forward biased with respect to MT2, then the current flows
from MT1 to MT2. Similarly, if the MT2 is forward biased with respect to MT1, then the current
flows from MT2 to MT1.
The above two conditions are achieved whenever the gate is triggered with an appropriate
gate pulse. Similar to the SCR, triac is also turned by injecting appropriate current pulses into
the gate terminal. Once it is turned ON, it looses its gate control over its conduction. So traic
can be turned OFF by reducing the current to zero through the main terminals.

1.6.2 Construction of TRIAC

A triac is a five layer, three terminal semiconductor device. The terminals are marked as MT1,
MT2 as anode and cathode terminals in case of SCR. And the gate is represented as G similar
to the thyristor. The gate terminal is connected to both N4 and P2 regions by a metallic contact
and it is near to the MT1 terminal.
The terminal MT1 is connected to both N2 and P2 regions, while MT2 is connected to both N3
and P1 regions. Hence, the terminals MT1 and MT2 connected to both P and N regions of the
device and thus the polarity of applied voltage between these two terminals decides the
current flow through the layers of the device.

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With the gate open, MT2 is made positive with respect to MT1 for a forward biased traic. Hence
traic operates in forward blocking mode until the voltage across the triac is less than the
forward breakover voltage. Similarly for a reverse biased triac, MT2 is made negative with
respect to MT1 with gate open.
Until the voltage across the triac is less than the reverse breakover voltage, device operates in
a reverse blocking mode. A traic can be made conductive by either positive or negative voltage
at the gate terminal.

1.6.3 Working and Operation of TRIAC

It is possible to connect various combinations of negative and positive voltages to the triac
terminals because it is a bidirectional device. The four possible electrode potential
combinations which make the triac to operate four different operating quadrants or modes
are given as.
MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1.
MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to MT1.
MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to MT1.
MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1.
In general, latching current is higher in second quadrant or mode whilst gate trigger current is
higher in the fourth mode compared with other modes for any triac.

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Most of the applications, negative triggering current circuit is used that means 2 and 3
quadrants are used for a reliable triggering in bidirectional control and also when the gate
sensitivity is critical. The gate sensitivity is highest with modes 1 and 4 are generally employed.
Mode 1: MT2 is Positive, Positive Gate Current
When the gate terminal is made positive with respect to MT1, gate current flows through the
P2 and N2 junction. When this current flows, the P2 layer is flooded with electrons and further
these electrons are diffused to the edge of junction J2 (or P2-N1 junction).

These electrons collected by the N1 layer builds a space charge on the N1 layer. Therefore,
more holes from the P1 region are diffused into the N1 region to neutralize the negative space
charges. These holes arrive at the junction J2 and produce the positive space charge in the P2
region, which causes more electrons to inject into P2 from N2.

This results a positive regeneration and finally the main current flows from MT2 to MT1
through the regions P1- N1 – P2 – N2.
Mode 2: MT2 is Positive, Negative Gate Current
When MT2 is positive and the gate terminal is negative with respect to MT1, gate current flows
through the P2-N4 junction. This gate current forward biases the P2-N4 junction for auxiliary
P1N1P2N4 structure. This results the triac to conduct initially through the P1N1P2N4 layers.

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This further raises the potential between P2N2 towards the potential of MT2. This causes the
current to establish from left to right in the P2 layer which forward biases the junction P2N2.
And hence the main structure P1N1P2N2 begins to conduct.
Initially conducted auxiliary structure P1N1P2N4 is considered as a pilot SCR while later
conducted structure P1N1P2N2 is considered as main SCR. Hence the anode current of pilot
SCR serves as gate current to the main SCR. The sensitivity to gate current is less in this mode
and hence more gate current is required to turn the triac.

Mode 3: MT2 is Negative, Positive Gate Current

In this mode, MT2 is made negative with respect to MT1 and the device is turned ON by
applying a positive voltage between the gate and MT1 terminal. The turn ON is initiated by N2
which acts as a remote gate control and the structure leads to turn ON the triac is P2N1P1N3.
The external gate current forward biases the junction P2-N2. N2 layer injects the electrons into
the P2 layer which are then collected by junction P2N1. This result to increases the current
flow through P2N1 junction.

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The holes injected from layer P2 diffuse through the N1 region. This builds a positive space
charge in the P region. Therefore, more electrons from N3 are diffused into P1 to neutralize
the positive space charges.
Hence, these electrons arrive at junction J2 and produce a negative space charge in the
N1region which results to inject more holes from the P2 into the region N1. This regenerative
process continues till the structure P2N1P1N3 turns ON the triac and conducts the external
current.
As the triac is turned ON by the remote gate N2, the device is less sensitive to the positive gate
current in this mode.
Mode 4: MT2 is Negative, Negative Gate Current
In this mode N4 acts as a remote gate and injects the electrons into the P2 region. The external
gate current forward biases the junction P2N4. The electrons from the N4 region are collected
by the P2N1 junction increase the current across P1N1 junction.
Hence the structure P2N1P1N3 turns ON by the regenerative action. The triac is more sensitive
in this mode compared with positive gate current in mode 3.

From the above discussion, it is concluded that the modes 2 and 3 are less sensitive
configuration which needs more gate current to trigger the triac, whereas more common
triggering modes of triac are 1 and 4 which have greater sensitivity. In practice the more

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sensitive mode of operation is selected such that the polarity of the gate is to match with the
polarity of the terminal MT2.

1.6.4 V-I Characteristics of TRIAC

The traic function like a two thyristors connected in anti-parallel and hence the VI
characteristics of triac in the 1st and 3rd quadrants will be similar to the VI characteristics of a
thyristors. When the terminal MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 terminal, the traic is said to
be in forward blocking mode.

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A small leakage current flows through the device provided that voltage across the device is
lower than the breakover voltage. Once the breakover voltage of the device is reached, then
the triac turns ON as shown in below figure.
However, it is also possible to turn ON the triac below the VBO by applying a gate pulse in such
that the current through the device should be more than the latching current of the triac.
Similarly, when the terminal MT2 is made negative with respect to MT1, the traic is in reverse
blocking mode. A small leakage current flows through the device until it is triggered by
breakover voltage or gate triggering method. Hence the positive or negative pulse to the gate
triggers the triac in both directions.
The supply voltage at which the triac starts conducting depends on the gate current. If the gate
is current is being greater, lesser will be the supply voltage at which the triac is turned ON.
Above discussed mode -1 triggering is used in the first quadrant whereas mode-3 triggering is
used in 3rd quadrant.
Due to the internal structure of the triac, the actual values of latching current, gate trigger
current and holding current may be slightly different in different operating modes. Therefore,
the ratings of the traics considerably lower than the thyristors.
Advantages
Triac can be triggered by both positive and negative polarity voltages applied at the gate.
It can operate and switch both half cycles of an AC waveform.
As compared with the anti-parallel thyristor configuration which requires two heat sinks of
slightly smaller size, a triac needs a single heat sink of slightly larger size. Hence the triac saves
both space and cost in AC power applications.
In DC applications, SCRs are required to be connected with a parallel diode to protect against
reverse voltage. But the triac may work without a diode, a safe breakdown is possible in either
direction.
Disadvantages
These are available in lower ratings as compared with thyristors.
A careful consideration is required while selecting a gate trigger circuit since a triac can be
triggered in both forward and reverse biased conditions.
These have low dv/dt rating as compared with thyristors.

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These have very small switching frequencies.

Triacs are less reliable than thyristors.
Applications
Due to the bidirectional control of AC, triacs are used as AC power controllers, fan controllers,
heater controllers, triggering devices for SCRs, three position static switch, light dimmers, etc.

1.7 Triggering of TRIAC using DIAC,

The DIAC is designed specifically to trigger TRIAC or an SCR. As discussed above, the DIAC
goes into avalanche conduction at the breakover voltage. Due to this, the device exhibits
negative resistance characteristics and the voltage drop across it dramatically decreases,
typically to about 5 Volts. This creates a break over current which is sufficient to turn on or
trigger a TRIAC or an SCR.
The DIAC is also applicable for symmetrical triggering applications, as the DIAC conducts
in both directions.
Now the most important question is, why we need DIAC to trigger a TRIAC?
TRIAC do not fire symmetrically and because of this, TRIAC do not trigger at the same gate
voltage level for one polarity as for the other one. This leads to an undesirable result. The
unsymmetrical firing results in a current waveform which has a greater variety of harmonic
frequencies leads to uncertain possibilities inside the Power circuit. To recover from this
situation and to reduce the harmonic contents in a power system, DIAC is placed in series with
the gate of a TRIAC.

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Basic DIAC application is shown in the below image where the DIAC is being used as a triggering
device of the TRIAC.
The DIAC is connected in series with the gate of a TRIAC. The DIAC do not allow any gate current
until the triggering voltage has reached to a certain repeatable level in both directions. In this
case, the firing point of the TRIAC from one-half cycle to the next half cycle tends to be more
consistent and it reduces the total harmonic content of the system.

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1.8 Light Dimmer Circuit

The figure below shows the light dimmer circuit. By using this, power fed to the lamp is
controlled smoothly. The variable gate voltage is produced by RC arrangement at the gate
terminal of triac. When the device is switched OFF, the rate of rise of voltage is limited by the
series R4-C1 network across the triac.

As the input voltage is applied to the circuit, c1 and c2 starts charging at a rate determined by
the resistance R2. Whenever the voltage across the capacitor c3 exceeds the breakover voltage
of the diac, diac triggered and starts conducting. Then, the capacitor C3 starts discharging
through the conducting diac into the gate of the triac.
Therefore, the triac is turned ON and passes the current to the lamp. By varying the resistance
R2, rate of charge in the capacitor is varied and hence the voltage at which the triac is triggered
in both positive and negative half cycles of the input is controlled.
In above figure both supply and load voltages are shown. The firing angle of the triac can be
varied up to the 180 degrees. And hence load voltage is controlled from zero value to full RMS
value.

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