Journal of

Marine Science
and Engineering

Article
Design and Thermodynamic Analysis of Waste Heat-Driven
Liquid Metal–Water Binary Vapor Power Plant Onboard Ship
Haydar Kepekci 1, * and Cuneyt Ezgi 2

1 Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Istanbul Gelişim University, Istanbul 34310, Turkey

2 Department of Marine Engineering, Piri Reis University, Istanbul 34940, Turkey; cezgi@[Link]
* Correspondence: hikepekci@[Link]; Tel.: +90-5394538347

Abstract: Day after day, stricter environmental regulations and rising operating costs and fuel prices
are forcing the shipping industry to find more effective ways of designing and operating energy-
efficient ships. One of the ways to produce electricity efficiently is to create a waste heat-driven liquid
metal–water binary vapor power plant. The liquid metal Rankine cycle systems could be considered
topping cycles. Liquid metal binary cycles share characteristics like those of the steam Rankine power
plants. They have the potential for high conversion efficiency, they will likely produce lower-cost
power in plants of large capacity rather than small, and they will operate more efficiently at design
capacity rather than at partial load. As a result, liquid metal topping cycles may find application
primarily as base-load plants onboard ships. In this study, a waste heat-driven liquid metal–water
binary vapor power plant onboard a ship is designed and thermodynamically analyzed. The waste
heat onboard the vessel is the exhaust gas of the LM2500 marine gas turbine. Mercury and Cesium
are selected as liquid metals in the topping cycle, while water is used in the bottoming cycle in binary
power plants. Engineering Equation Solver (EES) software (V11.898) is used to perform analyses.
For the turbine inlet temperature of 550 ◦ C, while the total net work output of the binary cycle
system is calculated to be 104.84 kJ/kg liquid metal and 1740.29 kJ/kg liquid metal for mercury and
cesium, respectively, the efficiency of the binary cycle system is calculated to be 31.9% and 26.3%
for mercury and cesium as liquid metal, respectively. This study shows that the binary cycle has a
thermal efficiency of 26.32% and 31.91% for cesium and mercury, respectively, depending on liquid
metal condensing pressure, and a binary cycle thermal efficiency of 25.9% and 30.9% for cesium and
Citation: Kepekci, H.; Ezgi, C. Design
mercury, respectively, depending on liquid metal turbine inlet temperature, and these are possible
and Thermodynamic Analysis of
with marine engine waste heat-driven liquid metal–water binary vapor cycles.
Waste Heat-Driven Liquid
Metal–Water Binary Vapor Power
Plant Onboard Ship. J. Mar. Sci. Eng.
Keywords: binary cycle; liquid metal; waste heat; ship; marine engine
2024, 12, 1400. [Link]
10.3390/jmse12081400

Academic Editor: Decheng Wan

1. Introduction
Received: 19 July 2024 With the increasing world population, global trade volume has also expanded. The first
Revised: 6 August 2024 step of trade is manufacturing. Since countries with a population above the world average
Accepted: 14 August 2024 are seen as cheap labor, many large companies have manufacturing centers in Southeast
Published: 15 August 2024 Asian countries. After manufacturing electronic, automotive, and textile products, they
are sent to different parts of the world. A large part of the logistics network of global
trade uses maritime vehicles [1]. This is because the cheapest commercial transportation
is by sea [2]. The dimensions of cargo ships used at sea vary depending on the materials
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
they carry. As the size of ships increases, the amount of fuel they consume also increases.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
The economic instability experienced after the COVID-19 pandemic also impacted fuel
distributed under the terms and
prices [3]. Growing costs are reflected directly on consumers. This situation sometimes
conditions of the Creative Commons causes trade disruptions. This chain reaction is one of the leading causes of inflation.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Fuel oil, used as an energy source in ships, helps to move on water and operate the elec-
[Link]/licenses/by/ tronic circuits on the ship. There are many electronic systems on ships. An uninterrupted
4.0/). energy source is required for all of these to work. Since this needed energy is provided

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400. [Link] [Link]

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 2 of 14

from fossil fuels, both economic and environmental damages occur. In recent years, there
have been many projects with different approaches to reduce the fuel consumed to obtain
the energy used on ships [4].
This study also offers suggestions on energy efficiency for ships with a different ap-
proach. This approach is a liquid metal–water binary steam power plant. This system’s
energy is obtained using evaporation reactions between liquid metal and water. Liquid
metals can be used in steam production because they have efficient high-temperature
heat-transport fluids [5]. This steam power plant aims to provide economical and environ-
mentally friendly energy production by replacing traditional fuels. The interest in such
sustainable energy solutions in the maritime industry is aligned with achieving energy
independence and increasing environmental sustainability. Additionally, such innovative
power systems could significantly benefit the marine industry by allowing ships to be more
efficient and environmentally friendly during long-distance voyages.
Liquid metal–water steam power plants consist of two cycles. These are the liquid
metal cycle and the water cycle. The reason for using liquid metal is its high temperature
resistance and conductivity properties. The liquid metal heats up when it encounters
the high-temperature exhaust gas in the waste heat boiler. Energy is produced from
high-temperature liquid metal through a turbine and generator. The liquid metal passing
through the turbine transfers its remaining energy to the water through a heat exchanger
without encountering the water. In this system, a heat exchanger located between the
two fluids serves as both a condenser for the fluid with high temperature and low vapor
pressure and as a boiler for the fluid at low temperature with high vapor pressure. Metals
such as sodium, mercury, potassium, or cesium can be used in this cycle. The second part of
the power plant is the water cycle. Using the high-temperature energy that it receives from
the liquid metal, the evaporated water produces energy through a turbine or generator.
Thus, energy is made twice in this power plant [6].
The first facility of this type was established in 1917. In the facility where mercury
was used as the liquid metal, the maximum steam temperature was 315.5 ◦ C and the steam
absolute pressure was 3.1 MPa. In this facility, built in 1923, mercury was used as liquid
metal. The 20 tons of mercury were heated at 241.3 kPa pressure and 433.3 ◦ C. The mercury
in the cycle is concentrated at 10.3 kPa and 251.6 ◦ C. More than 1.3 MPa of steam was
produced to drive the steam turbine. Following this facility, only mercury was used as
liquid metal in all other power stations established between 1928 and 1947. However, the
mercury temperature was never raised above 510 ◦ C in any facility established in those
years. The danger of corrosion of the pipes and the release of mercury vapor into the
environment have always been considered. In the following years, with composite pipe
materials with high thermal resistance, systems operating at higher temperatures began
to be used [7]. The number of studies on this subject is not satisfactory. The subject of a
small number of academic research has been facilities that produce large amounts of power.
Some of the following examples include those.
Pesar analyzed the potassium-steam binary cycle thermodynamically. In his study
using numerical methods, he determined the potassium turbine inlet temperature and
condensation pressure as variable parameters. As a result, it was determined that the most
important parameter for potassium-steam binary cycles is the turbine inlet temperature [5].
Simmons’ research aimed to determine the high-efficiency potential of the cascade Rankine
cycle systems. In his work, he used mercury as the liquid metal for the high-temperature
stages and water for the low-temperature stages. As a result, it was determined that the
maximum system efficiency was at peak temperatures between 482.2 ◦ C and 1648.8 ◦ C [7].
Gutstein and his colleagues thought that using liquid metal Rankine cycles at high tem-
peratures along with traditional steam cycles at low temperatures would increase the
efficiency of the systems. They made separate calculations for mercury and potassium and
examined the conditions under which these liquid metals should be used. As a result, they
determined that the use of potassium at high temperatures is more advantageous [8]. Barak
and his colleagues used six different power conversion systems in their studies to measure
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 3 of 14

the energy efficiency of the systems. As a result, they found that the most efficient system
was the liquid metal–water binary steam cycle. They stated that in the binary steam cycles
in which they used sodium as the liquid metal, they achieved 15% more efficiency than the
Rankine cycle [9]. Prisnyakov and his colleagues investigated parallel feed evaporators
of alkali metals in space power systems, which used solar power conversion according to
the Rankine cycle as their source. They determined the conditions for creating the highly
efficient evaporators of space power systems under consideration [10]. Angelino and Inv-
ernizzi considered that the temperature potential of solar energy was much greater than the
amount obtained from standard conversion cycles. For this reason, they examined liquid
metal–vapor cycles. During their investigations, they made calculations using potassium
and rubidium as liquid metals. As a result of the different analyses they made, they found
that the efficiency obtained from the liquid metal–steam binary cycle they had designed
using potassium was higher than others. They stated that if the turbine inlet temperature
is 800 ◦ C, the efficiency of the system increases up to 57% [11]. Bombarda and Invernizzi
stated that adding a liquid metal cycle to the organic Rankine cycle increased the total
thermal efficiency. The alkali metal and steam binary cycles, however, are only suitable
within a convenient power range. In the small power range, their suitability is restricted
by the steam’s intrinsic thermodynamic properties (high enthalpy drops, high maximum
pressures). In contrast, in the very high power range, their suitability is limited by the
extremely low condensation pressure typical of alkali metals (0.017 bar at 450 ◦ C for potas-
sium) [12]. Lorenzin and Abanades stated that liquid metals should be used to increase
the efficiency of Concentrated Solar Energy (CSP) systems, which they think will play an
important role in future energy scenarios. In their studies, where they calculated structural
compatibility and thermal efficiency using CFD software (Fluent V.12), they accepted the
ideal operating temperature as 1000 ◦ C. As a result, the best liquid metals that can be used
in CSP systems are identified as tin, gallium, lithium, sodium, and lead-bismuth [13].
The immense contribution of mercury and cesium binary cycles to thermodynamics
is the increase in energy conversion efficiency. Increasing energy efficiency reduces fuel
consumption, waste heat emissions, and pollutants. Apart from the advantages of this type
of cycle, they also have some disadvantages. Examples of these include higher capital and
increased maintenance costs. Before the designed systems are installed, the efficiency of
their essential components should be examined in detail. In recent years, binary conversion
has been studied in different branches of industry. However, there is no history of using
liquid metal topping cycles in utility onboard ships. This article aims to fill this gap in
the literature.
In this study, numerical calculations have been made using different parameters for
liquid metal–water steam power plants. Mercury and cesium have been chosen as liquid
metals in the binary cycle. Calculations have been made under the same conditions for each
liquid metal. In cases where the condensing pressure and turbine inlet temperature are
changed, the efficiency of the power plant and the total network output are calculated. The
resulting values have been compared with each other. The study aims to see the difference
in the parameters affecting the efficiency obtained from liquid metal–water steam power
plants onboard ship.

Working Fluids
Liquid metals are used primarily in specific industrial applications and environments
requiring high heat conduction. Liquid metals have higher heat conduction coefficients
than other fluids. Thanks to these properties, liquid metals can conduct heat faster. Liquid
metals can generally operate stably over a wide range of temperatures. This means they can
be used in high-temperature applications that are unsuitable for many fluids [14]. Liquid
metals have low viscosity due to their physical state. This allows liquid metals to lose
energy due to less friction while circulating in the system [15]. The thermal expansion
coefficient of liquid metals provides an advantage for their use in thermodynamic systems.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 4 of 14

Especially at high temperatures, materials’ expansion can be controlled. These advantages

mean liquid metals can be preferred for industrial applications [16].
Mercury and cesium have been chosen as the liquid metals for this study. Mercury is
a metal element, but its liquid form differs from most other metals because it is liquid at
room temperature [17]. Cesium is a chemical element found in the alkali metal group in the
periodic table. Alkali metals are generally reactive, soft, and low melting point elements [18].
In this study, mercury and cesium are preferred because the boiling temperature of liquid
metals is lower than the maximum gas temperature of the LM2500 gas turbine onboard the
ship. Table 1 compares the properties of mercury, cesium, and water because water is so
widely used as a working fluid.

Table 1. Properties of working fluids.

Working Fluids
Properties
Mercury Cesium Water
Molecular weight 201 132.9 18
Critical temperature (◦ C) ~1540 ~1770 ~374.2
Critical pressure (MPa) 105.82 13.37 22.11
Latent heat (MJ/kg) 0.294 0.491 2.438
Specific volume of vapor (m3 /kg) 1.30 0.55 39.52
Melting point (◦ C) −38.83 28.4 0
Density (g/cm3 ) 13.55 1.93 1
Specific heat of liquid (J/kg·K) 138 239 4187
Thermal conductivity of liquid (W/m·K) 13.3 18.5 0.606

Figure 1 plots the vapor pressure of liquid metals and water as a function of tempera-
ture. From these and other data, specific generalizations about mercury and cesium may
be made. The latent heat of vaporization of mercury is roughly one-tenth that of water.
The vapor pressure of mercury at 500 ◦ C is about 823.6 kPa. At about 200 ◦ C, the vapor
pressure of mercury falls to about 2.325 kPa, and the vapor-specific volume at this condition
is nearly 7.36 m3 /kg. This represents the lower limit on practical mercury condensing
temperature. Due to its high molecular weight, mercury exhibits a low sonic velocity. This
property imposes low turbine tip speeds that might result in the need for multiple-flow
turbines. The vapor pressure of cesium is relatively low; at 500 ◦ C, it is 14.98 kPa, and at
about 200 ◦ C, the vapor pressure of cesium falls to about 0.01805 kPa. As a result, over this
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEERtemperature
REVIEW 5 of 14
range, the wall thickness of the cesium boiler tubes will likely be determined
by consideration of stresses other than those arising from internal pressure.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Vapor
Vapor pressure
pressure as
as aa function
function of
of temperature
temperaturefor
forworking
workingfluids.
fluids.

2. Governing Equations
Assumptions are as follows:
1. Steady operating exists.
2. Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
3. Pressure drops and heat losses in piping are negligible.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 5 of 14

2. Governing Equations
Assumptions are as follows:
1. Steady operating exists.
2. Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
3. Pressure drops and heat losses in piping are negligible.
The mass balance equation for a general steady flow system is expressed as follows:
Mass flow rate in kg/s
. .
∑in m = ∑out m (1)
The energy balance equation for a general steady flow system is expressed as
the following:
The rate of energy in W
. .
Ein = Eout (2)
The first law in W

V2 V2
   
. . . .
Q−W = ∑out m h +
2
+ gz − ∑out m h +
2
+ gz (3)

Mercury cycle:
Pump inlet work in kJ/kg

w pump,Hg = v1 ( P2 − P1 ) (4)

Inlet heat in kJ/kg

qin = h3 − h2 (5)
Turbine output work in kJ/kg

wturbine,Hg = h3 − h4 (6)

Net output work in kJ/kg

wnet,Hg = wturbine,Hg − w pump,Hg (7)

Steam cycle:
Pump inlet work in kJ/kg

w pump,w = v5 ( P6 − P5 ) (8)

Turbine output work in kJ/kg

wturbine,w = h7 − h8 (9)

Net output work in kJ/kg

wnet,w = wturbine,w − w pump,w (10)

Heat exchanger:
The ratio of mass flow rates is determined from an energy balance on heat exchanger.
The ratio of energy in W
. .
Ein = Eout (11)
. .
m Hg (h4 − h1 ) = mw (h7 − h6 ) (12)
The ratio of mass flow rates .
mw
. =y (13)
m Hg
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 6 of 14

Binary cycle:
The total net work output per kilogram of Mercury becomes the following:

wnet = wnet,Hg + ywnet,steam (kJ/ kg) (14)

Thermal efficiency of the binary cycle is determined from the following:

wnet
ηth = (15)
qin

Exergy balance for a general steady flow system is expressed as follows:

. . .
X in − X out − X destroyed = 0 (W) (16)

The rate of heat transfer from the exhaust gas is expressed as follows:
. .
Qexh = mexh (hexh1 − hexh2 ) (W) (17)

The flow exergy of a flowing fluid is expressed as follows:

ψ = (h − h0 ) − T0 (s − s0 ) (kJ/ kg) (18)

For steady-flow system, the reversible power is expressed as the following:

. . .
W rev = ∑ mi ψi − ∑ me ψe (W) (19)
. .
W rev = mexh [(hexh1 − hexh2 ) − T0 (sexh1 − sexh2 )] (W) (20)
The exergy efficiency of system is expressed as follows:
.
W net
ηex = . (21)
W rev

3. Case Study
The liquid metal in the cycle is vaporized by utilizing the heat of the high-temperature
exhaust gas of the LM2500 gas turbine onboard the ship. A system to be designed can
use this high-temperature fluid in energy production. One of these systems is the liquid
metal–water vapor binary cycle. The schematic and T-s diagram for a liquid metal–water
binary vapor power plant is shown in Figures 2 and 3.
This system consists of two cycles, as shown in Figures 2 and 3. The fluid of the
topping cycle is liquid metal, and the fluid of the bottoming cycle is water. There is no
boiler in liquid metal cycles. Instead, liquid metal waste heat boiler and heat exchanger are
used. It uses composite pipe materials with high thermal resistance in the topping cycle
to protect the pipes from the danger of corrosion and prevent the release of liquid metal
vapor into the environment.
Gases, high-temperature combustion products from ship engine exhaust, are directed
to the waste heat boiler. The liquid metal fluid passing through the heat exchanger absorbs
the heat of the high-temperature exhaust gases, and its temperature rises. Liquid metal
that reaches a high temperature enters the steam turbine and turns into mechanical energy.
The liquid metal fluid from the steam turbine gives its remaining energy to water, the fluid
of the lower cycle, through the other heat exchanger in the system. Water that reaches a
high temperature evaporates and enters the turbine. Mechanical energy is obtained from
the steam turbine. The water from the turbine gives its remaining heat to the seawater
through another cycle heat exchanger. Thus, the water becomes cold. The cooled water
is sent through the pump to the standard heat exchanger of the two cycles to receive heat
from the liquid metal again. In this way, circulation continues. Energy is continuously
 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 7 of 14

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEERproduced

REVIEW throughout the circulation from ship waste heat in two different cycles. The
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW energy obtained is converted into electricity through the generator. Thus, the
mechanical
energy efficiency of the system increases. The working principle of liquid metal–water
steam power plants can be explained in this way.

Figure
Figure [Link]
Liquid metal–water
metal–water binary
binary vaporplant
vapor power power plantship.
onboard onboard ship.
Figure 2. Liquid metal–water binary vapor power plant onboard ship.

Figure 3.3.T-s
Figure T-sdiagram of liquid
diagram metal–water
of liquid binary vapor
metal–water cycle.
binary vapor cycle.
Figure 3. T-s diagram of liquid metal–water binary vapor cycle.
The temperature of the liquid metal increases as it is subjected to compression by
This
a liquid system
metal pumpconsists
(1–2). The ofliquid
two cycles, as shown
metal passing in Figures
through (2–3) the 2heatandexchangers
3. The fluid of t
This
increase in system consists
temperature as it of two
absorbs cycles,
the heat as
of shown
ping cycle is liquid metal, and the fluid of the bottoming cycle is water.
the ship’s in Figures
exhaust gases.2 and 3. The
Liquid fluidisofno
There
metal,
ping
which
in cycle
liquid is liquid
hasmetal
reached [Link],
a high andliquid
enough
Instead, the fluid
temperature
metalof(3–4),
the
wastebottoming
loses
heatsome cycle
of
boiler its
and is heat
water.
energy and There
its
exchanger is ar
n
temperature
inuses
liquid decreases
metal cycles. as it enters the steam turbine to provide power. In the (4–1), the
It composite pipeInstead,
materials liquid
withmetal waste heat
high thermal boiler and
resistance heattopping
in the exchangercycle a
liquid metal passes through the standard heat exchanger of the two cycles and gives its
It
tectuses
thecomposite
remaining pipes
heat from
pipe
to the the
water.
materials
danger of with high thermal
corrosion
Next (5–6), the waterand
resistance
prevent
temperature
inasthe
the release
increases
topping
of
the
cycle
liquid meta
water
tect
into the environment.
is subjectedpipes from the danger
to compression of corrosion
by the water pump. Asand prevent
the water the through
passing release theof liquid
heat meta
into the
exchanger environment.
Gases, high-temperature combustion products from ship engine its
(6–7) and takes the remaining heat of the liquid metal from the steam turbine, exhaust,
temperature increases. As the water reaches a high temperature (7–8), itship
entersengine
the steam
rected to the waste heat boiler. The liquid metal fluid passing through theexhaust,
Gases, high-temperature combustion products from heat exc
turbine and provides power, after which it loses some of its energy thus decreasing its
rected
absorbs to the waste
the Finally heat
heat of(8–1), boiler. The
the high-temperature liquid metal fluid passing through the heat exc
temperature. the temperature of theexhaust gases, as
water decreases and
it isits temperature
passed through rises.
absorbs
metal thereaches
that heat ofathe
highhigh-temperature
temperature entersexhaust gases,turbine
the steam and itsand
temperature
turns intorises
mec
metal that
energy. Thereaches a highfluid
liquid metal temperature
from theenters
steam the steam
turbine turbine
gives and turnsenergy
its remaining into mecto
energy.
the fluidThe liquid
of the metal
lower fluid
cycle, from the
through steam
the otherturbine gives its remaining
heat exchanger energy
in the system. Wato
the fluid of the lower cycle, through the other heat exchanger in the
reaches a high temperature evaporates and enters the turbine. Mechanical energ system. Wa
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 8 of 14

the heat exchanger, where it gives its remaining heat to the seawater. This process is also
shown graphically in Figure 3.
In this study, the exhaust gas of an LM2500 marine gas turbine [19] vaporizes liquid
metal via a waste heat boiler in a binary cycle onboard a ship. The maximum power
performance of the LM2500 gas turbine is given in Table 2.

Table 2. Maximum power performance for LM2500 gas turbine.

Output 25,060 kW
SFC 226.9 g/kWh
Heat rate 9705 kJ/kWh
Inlet air flow 69.4 kg/s
Exhaust gas flow 70.3 kg/s
Exhaust gas temperature 566 ◦ C
Power turbine speed 3600 rpm

4. Results and Discussion

Engineering Equation Solver (EES) software was used to determine the thermophysical
properties and perform analyses. It was used to calculate the binary cycle efficiency, total net
work output, energy supplied to the liquid metal, and binary exergy efficiency depending
on liquid metal turbine inlet temperature and condensing pressure. In this study, the
condensation temperature in the binary cycle onboard a ship was chosen to be 40 ◦ C since
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14
the maximum seawater temperature should be 32 ◦ C, according to Turk Loydu’s rules [20].
Figure 4 illustrates the binary cycle efficiency versus liquid metal turbine inlet temperature.

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Binary
Binary cycle
cycle efficiency
efficiency versus
versus liquid
liquid metal
metal turbine
turbine inlet
inlet temperature.
temperature.

As
As seen
seenininFigure
Figure4,4,the
theefficiency
efficiency ofofthethe
binary cycle
binary using
cycle mercury
using mercuryis higher
is higherthanthan
the
system using cesium at every value of the turbine inlet temperature. As
the system using cesium at every value of the turbine inlet temperature. As the turbine the turbine inlet
temperature of theof
inlet temperature liquid metal metal
the liquid increases, the cycle
increases, theefficiency also increases.
cycle efficiency The efficiency
also increases. The ef-
increase is higherisathigher
ficiency increase higherattemperatures. For the turbine
higher temperatures. For the inlet
turbinetemperature of 500 ◦ C,
inlet temperature of the
500
efficiency of the binary
°C, the efficiency of the cycle
binaryfor cesium
cycle and mercury
for cesium as liquid
and mercury metal metal
as liquid is calculated to be
is calculated
25.9% and 30.9%, respectively. For the turbine inlet temperature of 550of◦ C, the efficiency
to be 25.9% and 30.9%, respectively. For the turbine inlet temperature 550 °C, the effi-
of the binary
ciency cycle for
of the binary cesium
cycle and mercury
for cesium and mercuryas liquid metalmetal
as liquid is calculated to be to
is calculated 26.3% and
be 26.3%
31.9%, respectively.
and 31.9%, respectively.
The
The binary
binary cycle
cycle efficiency
efficiency versus
versus liquid
liquid metal
metal condensing
condensing pressure
pressure is is illustrated
illustrated inin
Figure 5.
Figure 5.
 °C, the efficiency of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury as liquid metal is calculated
to be 25.9% and 30.9%, respectively. For the turbine inlet temperature of 550 °C, the effi-
ciency of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury as liquid metal is calculated to be 26.3%
and 31.9%, respectively.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 The binary cycle efficiency versus liquid metal condensing pressure is illustrated in
9 of 14
Figure 5.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Binary
Binary cycle
cycle efficiency
efficiency versus
versus liquid
liquid metal
metal condensing
condensing pressure.
pressure.

As
As seen
seen in
in Figure
Figure 5,
5, the
the efficiency
efficiency of of the
the binary
binary cycle
cycle using
using mercury
mercury is is higher
higher than
than
the
the system
system using
using cesium
cesium atat every
every value
value ofof the
thecondensing
condensing pressure.
pressure. As
As the
the condensation
condensation
pressure
pressureofofthe theliquid metal
liquid metal increases, thethe
increases, cycle efficiency
cycle decreases.
efficiency The efficiency
decreases. The efficiency decrease
de-
is higher at a higher condensation pressure. For the condensation pressure
crease is higher at a higher condensation pressure. For the condensation pressure of 7 kPa, of 7 kPa, the
efficiency
the efficiency of the
of binary cycle
the binary for cesium
cycle for cesiumandandmercury as liquid
mercury metal
as liquid is calculated
metal is calculated to be
to
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14
26.32% and 31.91%, respectively. For the condensation pressure of 11 kPa,
be 26.32% and 31.91%, respectively. For the condensation pressure of 11 kPa, the efficiency the efficiency
of
of the
the binary
binary cycle
cycle for
for cesium
cesium and and mercury
mercury as as liquid
liquid metal
metal is
is calculated
calculated to
to be
be 26.07%
26.07% andand
31.52%, respectively. There is not much of a difference between the
31.52%, respectively. There is not much of a difference between the binary cycle binary cycle efficiencies
efficien-
of systems
produced
cies at different
for
of systemstheat wastecondensate
heat of
different pressures.
ships,
condensate However,
the difference
pressures. since this
between
However, binary
thesince cycle
efficiency
this is produced
of the
binary cycles
cycle is
is
for
[Link] waste heat of ships, the difference between the efficiency of the cycles is small.
The total net work output versus liquid metal turbine inlet temperature is illustrated
in Figure 6.

Total net
Figure 6. Total net work
work output
output versus
versus liquid
liquid metal
metal inlet
inlet temperature.
temperature.

As seen
seenininFigure
Figure6, 6,
thethe
total netnet
total work output
work outputof the
ofbinary cycle using
the binary cycle cesium is higher
using cesium is
than
higherthe system
than using mercury
the system using mercuryat every value value
at every of theofturbine inlet inlet
the turbine temperature.
temperature. As the
As
liquid metal
the liquid turbine
metal inlet inlet
turbine temperature increases,
temperature the total
increases, the net work
total net output also increases.
work output also in-
For the liquid metal turbine inlet temperature of 500 ◦ C, the total net work output of the
creases. For the liquid metal turbine inlet temperature of 500 °C, the total net work output
binary cycle for
of the binary cesium
cycle and mercury
for cesium as liquid
and mercury metalmetal
as liquid is calculated to be to
is calculated 1705.65 kJ/kgkJ/kg
be 1705.65 and
100.22 kJ/kg, respectively. For the liquid metal turbine inlet temperature of 550 ◦ C, the total
and 100.22 kJ/kg, respectively. For the liquid metal turbine inlet temperature of 550 °C,
net
the work output
total net work of the binary
output cycle
of the for cesium
binary cycle and mercuryand
for cesium as liquid
mercurymetal
as is calculated
liquid metal to
is
calculated to be 1740.29 kJ/kg and 104.84 kJ/kg, respectively. There is not much of a differ-
ence between the total net work output of systems at different liquid metal turbine inlet
temperatures.
The total net work output versus liquid metal condensing pressure is illustrated in
Figure 7.
 higher than the system using mercury at every value of the turbine inlet temperature. As
the liquid metal turbine inlet temperature increases, the total net work output also in-
creases. For the liquid metal turbine inlet temperature of 500 °C, the total net work output
of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury as liquid metal is calculated to be 1705.65 kJ/kg
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 and 100.22 kJ/kg, respectively. For the liquid metal turbine inlet temperature of 550 10 of°C,
14
the total net work output of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury as liquid metal is
calculated to be 1740.29 kJ/kg and 104.84 kJ/kg, respectively. There is not much of a differ-
be 1740.29
ence kJ/kg
between theand 104.84
total kJ/kg,output
net work respectively. There
of systems atisdifferent
not much of a difference
liquid metal turbinebetween
inlet
the total net work output of systems at different liquid metal turbine inlet temperatures.
temperatures.
The
The total
total net
net work
work output
output versus
versus liquid
liquid metal
metal condensing
condensing pressure
pressure isis illustrated
illustrated in
in
Figure 7.
Figure 7.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Total
Totalnet
network
workoutput
outputversus
versusliquid
liquidmetal
metalcondensing
condensingpressure.
pressure.

As
As seen
seen in
in Figure
Figure 7,7, the
the total
total net
net work
work output
output of of the
the binary
binary cycle
cycle using
using cesium
cesium is is
condensation
higher
higher than
than the
thepressure
system of
system the mercury
using
using liquid
mercury metal
at increases,
at every
every valuethe
value of total
of the net work output
thecondensing
condensing decreases.
pressure.
pressure. As
As the
the
For the liquidpressure
condensation metal condensing
of the liquid pressure of 7 kPa,the
metal increases, thetotal
totalnet network
workoutput
outputdecreases.
of the binary
For
cycle
the is for
liquid cesium
metal and mercury
condensing as liquid
pressure metal
of 7 kPa, thecalculated
total net work to beoutput
1740.29 ofkJ/kg and 104.84
the binary cycle
kJ/kg,
is respectively.
for cesium For theasliquid
and mercury liquidmetal
metalcondensing
calculated to pressure
be 1740.29 of 11kJ/kg
kPa, the
andtotal
104.84netkJ/kg,
work
output of the
respectively. Forbinary cyclemetal
the liquid for cesium and mercury
condensing pressure of as 11
liquid metal
kPa, the is net
total calculated
work outputto be
1721.90
of kJ/kgcycle
the binary andfor102.64
cesiumkJ/kg,
andrespectively.
mercury as liquidTheremetal
is not much difference
is calculated between
to be 1721.90 the
kJ/kg
total102.64
and net work output
kJ/kg, of systemsThere
respectively. at different liquiddifference
is not much metal condensing
betweenpressure.
the total However,
net work
output of systems
the difference at different
between liquid
the total netmetal
work condensing
output obtained [Link],
the liquid the difference
metal fluids
between
used in the total
cycles net
is work
very output
large. Ifobtained
higher netfrompower
the liquid metal fluids
is desired, cesium used in thebecycles
should used
is very large.
instead If higher net power is desired, cesium should be used instead of mercury.
of mercury.
The
Theenergy
energysupplied
suppliedto tothe
the liquid
liquid metal
metal versus
versus liquid
liquid metal
metal turbine
turbine inlet
inlet temperature
temperature
is illustrated in Figure
is illustrated in Figure 8. 8.

Figure8.
Figure 8. Energy
Energy supplied
suppliedto
tothe
theliquid
liquidmetal
metalversus
versusliquid
liquidmetal
metalturbine
turbineinlet
inlettemperature.
temperature.

As seen in Figure 8, the energy supplied to the liquid metal using cesium is higher
than the system using mercury at every value of the turbine inlet temperature. As the
turbine inlet temperature of the liquid metal increases, the energy supplied to the liquid
metal also increases. For the liquid metal turbine inlet temperature of 500 °C, the energy
supplied to the liquid metal of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury is calculated to be
 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 11 of 14

As seen in Figure 8, the energy supplied to the liquid metal using cesium is higher than
the system using mercury at every value of the turbine inlet temperature. As the turbine
inlet temperature of the liquid metal increases, the energy supplied to the liquid metal also
increases. For the liquid metal turbine inlet temperature of 500 ◦ C, the energy supplied to
the liquid metal of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury is calculated to be 6570.97 kJ/kg
and 323.34 kJ/kg, respectively. For the liquid metal turbine inlet temperature of 550 ◦ C,
the energy supplied to the liquid metal of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury is
calculated to be 6609.97 kJ/kg and 328.54 kJ/kg, respectively. There is not much difference
between the energy supplied to the liquid metal systems at different liquid metal turbine
inlet temperatures.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14
The energy supplied to the liquid metal versus liquid metal condensing pressure is
illustrated in Figure 9.

[Link]
Figure Energysupplied
suppliedto to
thethe liquid
liquid metal
metal versus
versus liquid
liquid metal
metal condensing
condensing pressure.
pressure.

As
Asseen
seeninin
Figure
Figure9, the energy
9, the supplied
energy to the to
supplied liquid
the metal
liquidusing
metalcesium
usingiscesium
higher than
is higher
the system using mercury at every value of the condensing pressure. As
than the system using mercury at every value of the condensing pressure. As the conden- the condensation
pressure of the liquid metal increases, the energy supplied to the liquid metal decreases. For
sation pressure of the liquid metal increases, the energy supplied to the liquid metal de-
the liquid metal condensing pressure of 7 kPa, the energy supplied to the liquid metal of
creases. For the liquid metal condensing pressure of 7 kPa, the energy supplied to the
the binary cycle for cesium and mercury is calculated to be 6609.97 kJ/kg and 328.55 kJ/kg,
liquid metalFor
respectively. of the
theliquid
binarymetal
cyclecondensing
for cesium and mercury
pressure of 11 kPa,is calculated to be 6609.97
the energy supplied to the kJ/kg
and 328.55 kJ/kg, respectively. For the liquid metal condensing pressure
liquid metal of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury is calculated to be 6602.66 kJ/kg and of 11 kPa, the
energykJ/kg,
325.58 supplied to the liquid
respectively. Theremetal
is not of the of
much binary cycle for
a difference cesium
between theand mercury
energy suppliedis calcu-
lated to be 6602.66 kJ/kg and 325.58 kJ/kg, respectively. There is not
to the liquid metal systems at different liquid metal condensing pressures. However, the much of a difference
between the
difference energythe
between supplied
energiestoobtained
the liquid metal
from systems
different at different
liquid liquidused
metal fluids metalincondens-
the
ing pressures.
cycles However, the difference between the energies obtained from different liq-
is very large.
The binary
uid metal fluidsexergy
used efficiency versus
in the cycles liquid
is very metal condensing pressure is illustrated in
large.
FigureThe10. binary exergy efficiency versus liquid metal condensing pressure is illustrated in
As 10.
Figure seen in Figure 10, the exergy efficiency of the binary cycle using mercury is higher
than the cycle using cesium at every value of liquid metal condensation pressure. As the
condensation pressure of the liquid metal increased, the exergy efficiency of the binary
cycle decreased. For the liquid metal condensing pressure of 7 kPa, the exergy efficiency
of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury is calculated to be 47.96%, and the exergy
efficiency of cesium is 39.57%. For the liquid metal condensing pressure of 11 kPa, the
exergy efficiency of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury is calculated to be 47.38% and
39.19%, respectively.
 between the energy supplied to the liquid metal systems at different liquid metal cond
ing pressures. However, the difference between the energies obtained from different
uid metal fluids used in the cycles is very large.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 The binary exergy efficiency versus liquid metal condensing pressure is illustrate
12 of 14
Figure 10.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 14

cycle decreased. For the liquid metal condensing pressure of 7 kPa, the exergy efficiency
of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury is calculated to be 47.96%, and the exergy effi-
ciency of cesium is 39.57%. For the liquid metal condensing pressure of 11 kPa, the exergy
efficiency
Figure10.
Figure of theexergy
[Link]
Binary binary
exergy cycle for
efficiency
efficiency cesium
liquidand
versus
versus mercury
liquid
metal is calculated
metal condensing
condensing to be 47.38% and
pressure. pressure.
39.19%, respectively.
The binary
binaryexergy efficiency versus liquid metal turbine inletinlet
temperature is illustrated
As seen inexergy
Figureefficiency versus
10, the exergy liquid metal
efficiency ofturbine
the binary temperature
cycle usingismercury
illus-
is hi
in Figure
trated 11.
in Figure 11.
than the cycle using cesium at every value of liquid metal condensation pressure. As
condensation pressure of the liquid metal increased, the exergy efficiency of the bi

Figure 11. Binary exergy efficiency

efficiency versus liquid metal turbine inlet temperature.
temperature.

As seen in Figure 11, the exergy efficiency

efficiency of the binary cycle using mercury is higher
than the
the cycle
cycleusing
usingcesium
cesiumatatevery
everyvalue
valueof of
liquid metal
liquid metalturbine inlet
turbine temperature.
inlet As the
temperature. As
turbine
the turbineinletinlet
temperature of theofliquid
temperature metalmetal
the liquid increased, the exergy
increased, efficiency
the exergy of the binary
efficiency of the
cycle
binaryalso increased.
cycle For theFor
also increased. liquid
themetal
liquidturbine inlet temperature
metal turbine of 500 ◦of
inlet temperature C, 500
the °C,
exergy
the
efficiency of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury is calculated
exergy efficiency of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury is calculated to be 46.58% to be 46.58% and the
exergy
and theefficiency of cesium
exergy efficiency is 39.01%.
of cesium For theFor
is 39.01%. liquid
the metal
liquid turbine inlet temperature
metal turbine inlet tempera-of
550 ◦ C, the exergy efficiency of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury system is calculated
ture of 550 °C, the exergy efficiency of the binary cycle for cesium and mercury system is
to be 47.96%
calculated to and 39.57%,and
be 47.96% respectively.
39.57%, respectively.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
In this study, a waste heat-driven liquid metal–water binary vapor power plant on-
In this study, a waste heat-driven liquid metal–water binary vapor power plant
board a ship is designed and thermodynamically analyzed. The waste heat onboard the
onboard a ship is designed and thermodynamically analyzed. The waste heat onboard the
ship is the exhaust gas of the LM2500 marine gas turbine. Mercury and cesium are selected
as liquid metals in the topping cycle while water is used in the bottoming cycle in binary
power plants.
This study shows the following:
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2024, 12, 1400 13 of 14

ship is the exhaust gas of the LM2500 marine gas turbine. Mercury and cesium are selected
as liquid metals in the topping cycle while water is used in the bottoming cycle in binary
power plants.
This study shows the following:
(1) binary cycle thermal efficiency of 26.32% and 31.91% for cesium and mercury, respec-
tively, depending on liquid metal condensing pressure, and
(2) binary cycle thermal efficiency of 25.9% and 30.9% for cesium and mercury, respec-
tively, depending on liquid metal turbine inlet temperature are possible with marine
engine waste heat-driven liquid metal–water binary vapor cycles.

Author Contributions: Investigation, H.K.; Formal analysis, C.E.; Methodology, H.K. and C.E.; Project
administration, H.K.; Resources, C.E.; Validation, C.E.; Writing—Original Draft, H.K.; Writing—Review
and Editing, C.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this
published article.
Conflicts of Interest: No conflicts of interest exist in the submission of this manuscript, and the
manuscript has been approved by all authors for publication. The authors declare no conflict
of interest.

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