UNIT 2: SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DISCIPLINE SOCIOLOGY

Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
a) explain the history regarding the origin of sociology;
b) define sociology; and
c) mention the names of at least four prominent sociologists
Historical Overview of Sociology
Sociology and other social sciences emerged from a common tradition of reflection of social phenomena;
interest in the nature of human social behaviour and society has probably always existed. However, most
people in most past societies saw their culture as a fixed and God-given entity. This view gradually was
replaced by more rational explanations beginning from the 17th century especially in Western Europe
(Rosenberg, 1987). The sociological issues, questions and problems had been raised and discussed by the
forerunners starting from the ancient Greek and Roman philosophers’ and Hebrew prophets’ times.
Sociology as an academic science was thus born in 19th century (its formal establishment year being 1837)
in Great Britain and Western Europe, especially in France and Germany, and it greatly advanced throughout
19th and 20th centuries. The development of sociology and its current contexts have to be grasped in the
contexts of the major changes that have created the modern world (Giddens, 1996). Further, sociology
originated in 18th century philosophy, political economy and cultural history.
The major conditions, societal changes, upheavals and social ferments that gave rise to the emergence
and development of sociology as an academic science include the Industrial Revolution which began in
Great Britain, the French Political Revolution of 1789, the Enlightenment and advances in natural sciences
and technology. These revolutions had brought about significant societal changes and disorders in the way
society lived in the aforementioned countries. Since sociology was born amidst the great socio-political,
economic as well as technological changes of the western world, it is considered to be the science of
modern society

What is Sociology?
As coined by Comte, the term sociology is a combination of two words. The first part of the term is a Latin,
socius - that may variously mean society, association, togetherness or companionship. The other word,
logos, is of Greek origin. It literally means to speak about or word. However, the term is generally
understood as study or science. Thus, the etymological, literal definition of sociology is that it is the word
or speaking about society. A simple definition here is that it is the scientific study of society. Some Prominent
Sociologists The pioneering sociologists were very much concerned about the great changes that were
taking place and they felt that the exciting sciences could not help understand, explain, analyse and
interpret the fundamental laws that govern the social phenomena. Thus sociology was born out of these
revolutionary contexts. The founders or the pioneering sociologists include:

Auguste Comte, French Social Philosopher (1798 – 1857):

Comte was the first social philosopher to coin and use the term sociology. He was also the first to regard
himself as a sociologist. He defined sociology as the scientific study of social dynamics and social static. He
argued that sociology can and should study society and social phenomena following the pattern and
procedures of the natural sciences. Comte’s main theme of his thesis was that one can understand society
by studying it. One can study society as we can study an organism. An organism is made up of component
parts; hence to study the organism we must study its component parts. This means to understand an
organism vividly we should know the component parts and the function of each part. This applies to the
study of society.

Karl Marx (German, 1818 – 1883):

Marx was a world-renowned social philosopher, sociologist and economic historian. He contributed greatly
to sociological ideas. He introduced key concepts in sociology like social class, social class conflict, social
oppression, alienation, etc. According to Marx, economic forces are the keys to understanding society and
social change. He believed that the history of human society has been that of class conflict. He dreamed
of, and worked hard towards realising, a classless society. Marx introduced one of the major perspectives
in sociology, called social conflict theory (Charon & Vigilant, 2009).

Harriet Martineau, British Sociologist (1802 – 1876):

At a time when women were greatly stereotyped and denied access to influential socio-political and
academic arena, it is interesting to have a female academic to be numbered among the pioneering
sociologists. She was an active advocate of the abolition of slavery and she wrote on many crosscutting
issues such as gender relations, and she travelled widely. She helped popularise the ideas and writings of
Comte. Herbert Spencer, British Social Philosopher (1820 – 1903): Spencer was a prominent social
philosopher of the 19th century. He was famous for the organic analogy of human society. He viewed
society as an organic system, having its own structure and functioning in ways analogous to the biological
system. Spencer’s ideas of the evolution of human society from the lowest ("barbarism") to highest form
("civilized") according to fixed laws were famous. It was called “Social Darwinism, which is analogous to
the biological evolutionary model.

Emile Durkheim, French Sociologist (1858 – 1917):

Durkheim was the most influential scholar in the academic and theoretical development of sociology. He
laid down some of the fundamental principles, methods, concepts and theories of sociology; he defined
sociology as the study of social facts. According to him, there are social facts, which are distinct from
biological and psychological facts. By social facts, he meant the patterns of behavior that characterise a
social group in a given society. They should be studied objectively. The job of a sociologist, therefore, is to
uncover social facts and then to explain them using other social facts. Some regard Durkheim as the first
sociologist to apply statistical methods to the study of social phenomena (Macionis, 1997).

Max Weber, German Sociologist (1864 – 1920):

Weber was another prominent social scientist. According to him, sociology is the scientific study of human
social action. He emphasised on the interpretive understanding of human social action and the meaning
people attach to their own actions and behaviours and those of others. He agreed with Marxian theses but
did not accept his idea that economic forces are central to social change. Weber argues that we cannot
understand human behaviour by just looking at statistics. Every activity and behaviour of people needs to
be interpreted. He argued that a sociologist must aim at what is called subjective meaning, the ways in
which people interpret their own behaviour or the meanings they give to it.

MEANING, SCOPE AND GOAL OF SOCIOLOGY

OF EDUCATION
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
a) state the meaning of Sociology of Education;
b) explain the scope of Sociology of Education; and
c) discuss the goal of Sociology of Education.

Meaning of Sociology of Education

Sociology as a discipline has several branches and no one sociologist can claim knowledge of all the
branches. Examples are sociology of education, sociology of religion, sociology of the family, urban
sociology, rural sociology, sociology of technology etc. Since we are in education our focus is on
education. In education we have educational sociology which is made up of sociology in education and
sociology of education. Educational sociology focuses on what education does for society as well
as what society does for education and the school. In educational sociology, the focus is on educational
problems and issues that are social in character.
Sociology of education is the study of education using sociological theory, principles and methods. Here
education is studied as a social institution. Research in sociology of education yields or produces ideas
that enable us to understand education better. The ultimate goal of sociology of education is to enhance
understanding of social institutions and how they relate to education. It is the basic aspect of educational
sociology. It involves the studying of sociology using educational variables. Example: using the
sociometry and sociogram to study various groups in the class and school in

Sociology in education refers to the applied aspects of educational sociology. It is the study of
educational phenomenon using sociological ideas, concepts, tools and theories. Its purpose is to generate
ideas that will enhance our understanding of education both in the classroom and in the school. It is not
interested in whether it will inform sociological theory or not. The focus is on education or issues on
education. That is, studying education wearing the spectacles of a sociologist. For example, we may learn
from sociology that when people are oppressed they revolt hence, student demonstration.

Scope of Sociology of Education

The scope of Sociology of Education is the study of the inter relationship of education and the social
system. It should be noted that the scope and type of interactions between educators and education
today are becoming more complex and changing fast. This requires an occasional review by the
sociologists of education. The following are some of the specific scope of it:
• The analysis of the forms and functions of education and different types of education in time and in
space.
• The social behaviors of members of educational institutions such as the school
• The effects of other social institutions such as the family, the kinship groups, peer groups on the
educational processes, attitudes to knowledge and, vice versa.
• It is concerned with such general concepts such as society itself, culture, community, class,
environment, socialisation, internalisation, accommodation, assimilation, cultural lag, subculture, status,
role and so forth.
• It is further involved in cases of education and state, and the micro society of the school such as
authority, selection, and the organisation of learning, curriculum and so forth.
• It helps us to understand the effectiveness of different educational methods in teaching students with
different kinds of intelligence.
• It studies the effect of economy upon the type of education provided to the students. Example,
education provided in public, private and international schools.
• It helps us to understand the effect of various social agencies like the family, the school on the
students.
• It studies the relationship between social class, culture, language, parental education, occupation and
the achievement of the students.
• It studies the role and structure of school, peer group on the personality and in the socialisation of the
students.
• It promotes research studies related to planning, organisation and application of various theories in
education.

Goal of Sociology of Education

The ultimate goal of sociology of education, according to Agyeman (1986), is to develop scientific
generalisations about inter-human relations in the educational process and systems. The goal of sociology
of education is also to objectively consider educational practices, sometimes controversial topics, and
even unpopular beliefs to gain understanding of a system that affects us all. The goal is also to enhance
our understanding of the educational institution and the social world, increase our motivation and interest
in studying education scientifically and creating individual and societal benefits of education in the long
run. It thus furnishes the educational policy maker and practitioner with the basic tools needed for the
proper handling of social facts and social problems which are inherent in education.
 MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN
SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
a) structural-functionalist theory,
b) conflict theory, and
c) symbolic interactionist theory.

Structural-Functionalist Theory
This theory is sometimes called functionalism. In relation to education, the theory tries to explain how the
relationships among the parts of the school (teachers, students, curriculum, government etc.) are created
and how these parts are functional and dysfunctional. The theory views schooling and the educational
system as important social institution; and it focuses on the functions and roles played by the institution
in maintaining order and stability in society. Generally, the theory sees society as a complex system
whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. It states that our social lives are guided by
social structures, which are relatively stable patterns of social behaviour. All social structures or
institutions contribute to the operation of society. One of such institution is education.

According to Durkheim (as cited in Agyeman, 1986), society can survive only if there exists among its
members a sufficient degree of homogeneity, i.e., common identity, language etc. Education is the
institution in this modern world that perpetuate and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the child
from the beginning the essential similarities that collective life demands. This preparation is only possible
through socialisation. Education can therefore be seen as the means through which society prepares the
individual the essential conditions of its very existence. Durkheim saw the business of education to that of
transforming the individual from a purely biological being into a social being. We became social beings
when we internalised with socially approved way of life in our society through social interaction. To
internalise something is to consider it appropriate, learn it, live by it and get used to it so that it becomes
part of your personality. Looking at education from the functionalist point of view, Durkheim made three
important calls. These are:
• Education must be studied scientifically: That is, to understand education and what it does or
supposed to do in our society then we must study it from sociological perspectives.
• Education must be studied from historical perspectives: That is, knowing the history or
development of any society enables us to understand the educational system in place. to study education
from historical perspectives is to study it diachronically.
• Education must be studied from comparative perspectives: That is, due to differences in our
historical experiences, culture and aspirations, different countries have different aims, content and
method of education. By studying education comparatively, we are able to understand the how’s and
whys of other peoples’ education. To study education from comparative perspectives is to study it
synchronically.

Conflict Theory
This theory is also called Marxism; to indicate that the main impetus to the theory was derived from the
writings of Karl Marx. Conflict theory sees society in a framework of class conflicts and focuses on the
struggle for scarce resources by different groups in a given society. It asks such questions as what pulls
society apart. How does society change? The theory holds that the most important aspect of social order
is the domination of some group by others, that actual or potential conflicts are always present in society.
The theory is useful in explaining how the dominant groups use their power to exploit the less powerful
groups in the school and the society at large. Although this theory gained fame in recent decades, it
came under sharp criticism, for its overemphasis on inequality and division, for neglecting the fact of how
shared values and interdependence generate unity among members of society. Individuals, groups,
communities and even nations thus tend to have unbalanced share of educational resources; and these
often leads to the unequal distribution of education among a given society; those in power and
dominance enjoy better education and the marginalised groups suffer from the burden of illiteracy.

Louis Althusser (as cited in Cosin, 1972) also said that there is an alliance between the capitalist class
and education. That is, education should produce appropriate manpower for the capitalist economy while
the capitalist class supports education. They support education through the building of schools, library,
capitation grants etc. Appropriate person in capitalist class possesses certain qualities that education
equips him/her with at appropriate educational level. These qualities include faithfulness, diligence,
loyalty, punctuality, regularity, resourceful, initiative and drive, respectful, independent, sense
of care for public property etc. Thus, education prepares students with certain qualities to equip them to
fit into the capitalist world of work.

Symbolic Interactionism Theory

The symbolic interactionism theory examines the micro-level of social reality. The theory views symbols
as the basis of social life. Symbols are things to which we attach meanings. The theory stresses the
analysis of how our behaviours depend on how we define others and ourselves. It concentrates on
process, rather than structure, and keeps the individual actor at the center. According to symbolic
interactionism, the essence of social life and social reality is the active human being trying to make sense
of social situations. Symbolic interactionism theory in education examines social interaction in the
classroom, on the playground, and in other school venues to understand what happens in the society.
Some studies, for example, show how children’s playground activities reinforce gender-role socialisation.
Girls tend to play more cooperative games, while boys play more competitive sports. Table 3.1 presents a
summary of the three major theoretical perspectives.

Summary of Major Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology of Education

Theory What does it state? Its weaknesses
Structural Sees the school as a complex Emphasis on stability and order
Functionalism system while neglecting conflict and
whose parts work together to changes which so vital in any
promote school
solidarity and stability
Conflict Sees the school in a framework For its overemphasis on
theory of class inequality
conflicts and focuses on the and division, for neglecting the
struggle fact
for scarce educational resources of how shared values and
by interdependence generate unity
different groups in a given among members of the school
society
Symbolic Stresses the analysis of how us Too much emphasis on micro
interactionism behaviours depend on how we level
define analysis; neglect of larger social
others and ourselves. It processes
concentrates on
process, rather than structure,
and
keeps the individual actor at the
center
 SOCIALISATION
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
a) define the term “socialisation”;
b) demonstrate an understanding of social roles;
c) identify at least four goals of socialisation; and
d) describe four agents/agencies of socialisation.

The Concept of Socialisation

Socialisation is a process of making a person a full member of a society. It means the learning of the
values of the group to which one belongs. Socialisation is the process by which the individuals come to
learn to conform to certain patterns of behaviour expected of them by society. It is the conscious effort
made by the older generation to pass on the culture and values of the society to the individual. It is a
learning process that makes the individual develops a sense of awareness. It can also be seen as the
business of adjusting people to the way of life of the community, usually by way of initiation into its
customs, beliefs, rituals conventions, expectation and demands combined with instructions and the
setting of examples. The human child has remarkable capacity to imitate others to develop according to
the tenets of the environment. Being a social animal, he/she tries to win the appreciation of the group in
which he/she lives and hence, he/she naturally tries to imitate the culture of the group. It is through
socialisation that he/she is transformed from the biological being into the social being, and it is
socialisation which gives him/her a balanced personality. Socialisation is a lifelong process.

According to Giddens et al. (2000), socialisation occurs through social learning and interaction. That is,
the human infant is capable of learning any culture or subculture in which he/she finds himself since
he/she can observe, imitate, identify himself/herself with the observe behaviour or activity and participate
in it. Through this learning process, an individual born to a Muslim family and also reared by them will
learn the general culture of the family and also learn the particular customs and values of Islam.

It must be pointed out that one aspect of socialisation is ‘housebreaking’. This means that at any given
time socialisation is a matter of controlling, restricting or hindering the child’s behaviour. It has also got
its active and constructive aspects because it produces growth, it encourages, nurtures, stimulates and
motivates. Socialisation is also considered as a molding and a creating process in which the culture of the
group is brought to bear on the infant. Therefore, the individual’s thought, feeling and behaviour
gradually develop in accordance with the values set by the social group to which he/she is a member.

Social Roles
According to Harvighurst and Neugarten (as cited in Baafi-Frimpong et al., 2016), social roles are
coherent patterns of behaviour common to all persons who fill the same position or place in society and a
pattern of behaviour expected by the other members of society. For example, all women behave in
certain patterned ways when they fill the role of mother, so we speak of the social role of a mother. All
teachers are expected to behave in certain ways within the school.

The Goals of Socialisation

In terms of individual persons, the goal of socialisation is to equip him/her with the basic values, norms,
skills, etc., so that he/she can behave and act properly in the social group to which he/she belongs.
Socialisation has the following specific goals:
• To inculcate basic disciplines by restraining a child or even an adult from immediate gratification; a child
who is toilet-trained will delay relieving himself/ herself until the proper environment is created;
• To instill aspirations;
• To teach social roles;
• To teach skills;
• To teach conformity to norms; and
• To create acceptable and constructive personal identities.
Agents/Agencies of Socialisation
The survival of any society depends solidly on the sufficient degree of homogeneity amongst its
members. Socialisation perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the child from the
beginning the essential similarities that collective life demands. These essential life ingredients are
transmitted through the various agencies of socialisation: the family, school, religious houses
(mosque/church), peer group, mass media, community and so forth.

The Home/Family
The institution of the family is generally regarded as the most important agent of socialisation. The family
is expected to satisfy “sex needs” (reproduction), economic needs: feeding, clothing, shelter, medical
provision, and so on. It is also expected to transmit the cultural values and norms to the young
generation in order to be fully integrated into the society. The family is indeed the foundation of
socialisation because that is the first contact of the child. The home assists in laying the foundation for
personality and character development of a child. The success or failure of an individual depends on the
type of social take-off acquired in the family setting. The child is trained in language, positive character
traits, fundamental intellectual knowledge, vocational skills and so on, through the initiation by the adult
members of the family like father, mother and other siblings at home. These people are expected to be
role models worthy of emulation in all ramifications as the younger generation look up to them as
examples for moral standard. Psycho-analysts believe that the impressions made upon the child’s mind at
home determine largely the child’s personality. This is because the child’s mind is very flexible and
susceptible to any influence. The parents love for the child makes a deep impression on him/her. Also,
the cordial relationship between both parents and their display of high level of moral maturity to each
other has significant influence on the personality development of the child.

The School
Besides the child’s parents, there are other agents of socialisation (in modern societies) such as day-care-
centers, nurseries and kindergarten, as well as primary and secondary schools and universities. It seems
that these various agents of socialisation have partially taken over the function of parents, particularly in
modern societies, where women are increasingly leaving their traditional home-based responsibilities by
engaging in employment outside home. The school represents a formal and conscious effort by a society
to socialize its young ones. It stands beside the family in importance. It socializes the child, gives him/her
the opportunity to manifest his/her qualities, potentialities, capabilities, instincts, drives and motives and
helps to develop his/her personality. For the child, the teacher’s personality and character provide a
mode which he/she strives to copy, thereby consciously molding his/her personality. This is true only of
those teachers who succeed in arousing in the child’s mind an attachment and love of themselves. Every
little action, speech made by the teacher impresses itself on the child’s mind. Apart from the teacher, the
child is also influenced by his/her school mates or groups. These mates or groups play a significant role
in determining the status and role the child will occupy in the society later in life. During the process of
education, the child’s personality develops under the impact of the other personalities with whom he/she
comes in contact. In the school, the child is disciplined; he/she is aware that disobedience brings
immediate punishment but too strict a system of discipline restricts the child’s mental growth and may
even drive him/her into criminal activity. On the other hand, complete absence of control may either
make him/her liberal, free and independent. The school is also expected to transmit knowledge and skills
into the learners to be able to face life challenges and for sustenance.

The Peer Group

Other than parents and schools, peer groups play very significant roles in the socialisation process. The
peer group is the child’s own friends and equals with similar drives, motives and interests. Sometimes,
the influence of the peer group, be it negative or positive, can be as powerful as that of parents. The
peer group may transmit prevailing societal values or develop new and distinct cultures of its own with
peculiar values. Examples of peer groups are play groups (siblings, neighbours children, schoolmates) the
cliques and age mates. In later years, however they become more formally organized groups like clubs,
societies, fighting gangs, character-building agencies like Boys Scouts, Girls Guides and so on. In short,
peer groups are social groups that influence the behaviour of their members. The peer group helps the
child to form his/her own social personality. That is his/her way of getting along with other people, of
being friendly or reserve, brash or timid. A child has to exercise care in the choice of the peer groups to
belong, since the group can have either negative or positive impact on his/her life. The principal
contributions of the peer group to the social and personal development of the child are:
(1) they offer opportunity for language training,
(2) they give support to individuals to become independent,
(3) they teach gender roles i.e. masculine or feminine social roles,
(4) they provide emotional needs such as affection and acceptance and
(5) they provide skill training and entertainment.

Religious Houses
Religious organisations such as the church and the mosque help in the socialisation process of its
members. These organisations assist in changing people’s attitude. In the process of putting across their
beliefs, religious bodies succeed in reforming people. They act through people who train the child by the
usual methods of social learning. The religious leaders like Pastors or Imams are expected to
demonstrate a high level of morality to serve as role models to their followers. It is also worthwhile to
preach the authentic facts in their written liturgies and not the manipulations to suit their personal
interest and desires. The various ways by which the religious organisations contribute to the education of
the child include the following:
• They provide moral education through its formal and informal teaching.
• They help in molding the child’s personality through inculcating desirable virtues such as honesty,
respect and patriotism.
• Through the various groups within the organisation, the child is trained for leadership and other
responsible positions. E.g. Boy’s brigade, Girls’ Fellowship.
• They provide models for imitation. For example, the young imitate the adult’s ways of worship and their
being devout Christian, Muslim, Hindu etc.

The Media
The mass media, both print and electronic is referred to as non-personal agents of socialisation. The
mass media carry information to a large number of people and influence the individual’s attitude and
perception on many issues. The mass media such as television, radio, movies, videos, tapes, books,
magazines and newspapers are also important agents of socialisation. The mass media are used to
entertain people, provide educative programmes as well as information on social and political events
which make people become aware of their civic rights and responsibilities and the problem of
ignorance is reduced. The most crucial effect on children comes from television, as studies show. The
effects are both negative and positive. Negative impact seems to be greater that parents and other
concerned bodies worry about the way television is socializing children. For example, studies show that
watching violence on television can encourage aggressive behaviour in children. Children need to be
guided in the usage of their leisure hours in the patronage and utilization of mass media to discourage
cultivation and learning of negative ideas.

The Community
The community inculcates in the individual its culture, values and social attitudes. The influence is so
great that it sets the social climate in which the home and the school function. The child in the course of
his/her development is influenced by the habits of the community, hence the difference in the behaviour
of children of different nationalities and from children of rural areas and from children of urban areas.
The influence of the community can be either good or bad. The community through its various youth
associations contributes to the education of the Ghanaian child in the following ways: they help in
personality development by shaping the child’s attitudes, way of thinking and values, they provide models
for imitation and avenue for the interaction with peers, they help in the cultural transmission, they help
train children for leadership and other roles, and they provide avenue for leaning vocational and technical
skills.
EDUCATION, COMMUNITY AND SOCIETY
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
a) differentiate between education, society and community;
b) establish the relationship between education and society;
c) describe the types of education in the various societies;
d) demonstrate an understanding of the school being a micro society; and
e) demonstrate an understanding of the AGIL paradigm and the
school.
The Differences between Education, Society and Community
Since sociology is the scientific study of society, it is important to understand what society is. Sometimes
society and community are used interchangeably. Both imply a group of people having something in
common such as a geographical territory and feeling that they belong together. Community however, is
more general. It includes both children, adults, social and non-social persons. The use of the term
‘society’ refers to a definite population living together.

Society can be defined as a group of people living together for the purpose of survival. It can also be
seen as an organisation to which people who share similar interest, purpose and activity can belong.
Many societies come together to form a community. Thus community can be seen as a group of
societies with common background, values, identity and share interest coming together for the purpose
of survival. Communities often share a sense of place that is situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a
country, village, town or neighborhood) or in virtual space through communication platforms.

In education we are interested in the individual in society and community. We are interested in how
children or the non-social members learn and master the way their society functions, as well as their
roles, responsibilities, rights, and privileges. Children are potential members of society and must be
prepared for this membership. The young belong to the non-social community because they do not
know the laws, the norms, the values and the customs of the community in which they live. Through
education they begin to know the culture of the people, which is usually the content of education, so that
they can be considered as responsible and competent members of their society. Furthermore, education
can be explained as the nourishment of an individual to attain the natural capacity in life. This could be
done through the training, rearing and upbringing of such individuals in the traditional and modern ways
to become acceptable members of the society in which they live.

Education and Society

The responsibility of training individuals in the society is primarily vested in the parents at home and the
teachers in schools. The beneficiaries are nurtured to acquire requisite skills and knowledge to live
successfully in the society. In the modern times, the school has assumed very great importance in the
training of individuals because of the complexities of life in the modern times (Ball, 2004). In modern
world, the school is a place where children develop socially desirable behaviours and also acquire the
necessary skills and knowledge which enable them to contribute their quota to the overall development
of the society and to make progress in the society in an acceptable manner. Owing to the constant
changes in the society, many of the old media of education, such as the home and the church/mosque
had lost their educational function to the school. This is so because it is the school that prepares the child
in modern society for life. Therefore, the school is the intermediate stage between the child’s
domestic life and the larger society. The school and the home help in the transmission of the cultural
heritage of the people because the content of education in modern society is the culture of the people.
For example, in Ghanaian schools, a “we-feeling” is created and the “we-feeling” forces everybody in the
micro-society (school) to look for his/her place in it, to find his/her rights and duties and to learn good
manners. The child learns the importance of cooperation, tolerance, selflessness, brotherhood, faith in
man, responsibility and so on.
Types of Education in the Various Societies
Simple society is the one with less specialized and diversified knowledge and skills to transmit from
generation to generation. The members in this society share similar knowledge and interests and are
familiar with the thoughts, attitudes and activities of the entire community. Therefore, in simple societies,
there is no need to create separate bodies like the modern school to train and instruct its members
particularly the young ones. In view of that the young generations are educated through the direct
observation, imitation, identification and participation by adults through activities such as rituals,
hunting, festivals, cultivation, harvesting and house holding.

On the other hand, in a complex society where there is high level of specialized and diversified
knowledge and skills to transmit from generation to generation, the education of the younger generations
take place in a specialized place called the school. In a complex society, education is a formal activity;
however, the transmission of culture is not only carried out by the school alone. Other organisations and
institutions take part in educating the young ones. These institutions include the family, the religious
house, the peer group, the mass media and many others. In the complex society, the formally organized
school tends to separate the children from their parents during the period of their education, while in the
simple society, where there is no formal school; children are not separated from their parents during their
education. We can say that in a complex society, the gamut of knowledge, skills and ideas that the
individual needs to master in other to survive is so great and wide that the family and clan will not be
well equipped enough to teach them to the young ones. Therefore, education of children is given to
specially trained people called teachers in a special place called school following the guidance of specially
prepared content called curriculum.

The School as a Micro Society

The school is a formally organized body of people with a specific structure and functions. It is also a
social institution within which a number of social activities take place. Sociologists therefore see the
school as a social system, a micro society or a miniature society. A social system is a unit made up of
interactive actors. In the social system members play different roles but these roles are interlinked such
that the survival of the unit is determined by the strength of the interrelationships and interactions. It
means the school is a small society within a larger society. The school has certain characteristics which it
shares with the macro society. The School is a place where educators and educants (learners) meet for
the purpose of given and receiving instruction based on a structured curriculum and laid down rules and
regulations. The modern school has certain characteristics; however, the boarding schools especially
universities and colleges of education exhibit these characteristics more elaborately than day schools.
These characteristics include: a definite population, a network of social relationships, we feeling
of solidarity, a culture of its own, an authority structure, threats from pressure groups etc.

AGIL Paradigm and the School

The AGIL paradigm is a sociological scheme created by American sociologist Talcott Parsons in the
1950s. It is a systematic depiction of certain societal functions, which every micro society such as the
school must meet to be able to maintain stable social life among citizens. According to Parsons (as cited
in Andersen & Taylor, 2004), the basic unit of a social system such as the school was the status-role
bundle or complex. A status is a structural position within the social system while role is what the
individual who has that status does. Parsons is of the view that social systems arose to solve four
particular problems. That is, in order to survive, a system must perform these four functions: Adaptation
(A), Goal Attainment (A), Integration (I) and Latency (L). Therefore, for the school and education as a
whole to survive it must perform these functions.
Adaptation: It is the capacity of the school to interact with its immediate environment. Every school
should be able to adapt itself to its internal as well as the external environment to its needs. This is
because the internal and the external environments pose a threat to the school’s survival. We have the
physical environment and the social environment. Any school that does not have mechanisms for dealing
with such environmental challenges cannot survive.
Goal Attainment: It is the capability to set goals for the future and make decisions accordingly, Political
resolutions and societal objectives are part of this necessity. Any school or educational system that has
no vision cannot survive and also, any school that does not have an ideal condition of existence is not
likely to survive. Also, any school that does not have any idea as to how and where it wants to go is not
likely to survive. University of Cape Coast for example had a goal of positioning itself strongly with
world-wide acclaim. As a result, the assign task of the University is to be a University of Choice. It must
be noted that to get proper set of goals, every school or educational system needs competent leaders to
foresee the future and envision the ideals that the school wants to attain. The vision of the leaders must
be shared with members of the school. Goal attainment also entails mobilization of resources i.e., both
human and material resources within and outside the school.

Integration: It is the harmonization of the entire micro society. This requires, for example, the social
system to be fairly consistent, and even in a more basic level, a common language. It means keeping the
school together or welding the whole school together so that no one part will feel neglected with regard
to students, teachers, management, parents, government and sympathisers. All the structures of the
school must be coordinated so that it can work in harmony to achieve the set goals. No student, teacher
or group should feel neglected in the development programme and activities of the school.

Latency: It means that every social system has a patterned way of life that must be maintained to a
large extent. Unless the patterned way of life is maintained, there will be conflict. The patterned way of
life is based on the culture that is, the cherished values, customs and traditions of the school. The school
culture is the patterned ways of life that must be maintained because as soon as the school changes its
patterned way of life it loses its identity as the school.

THE SOCIOLOGY OF TEACHING

Objectives
By the end of mastering this session, you should be able to:
a) identify at least five social roles of the teacher;
b) demonstrate an understanding of the social structure of the classroom; and
c) State and explain three reasons why the teacher trainee needs to study Sociology
of Education.
The Social Roles of a Teacher
A social role is the pattern of behaviour that is expected of all people who fill a certain position in society.
The role of a teacher is made up of a cluster of sub-roles, some that refer primarily to the teacher’s
behaviour in relation to the wider community, the school and pupils. In real life, the sub-roles are neither
separate nor distinct.

The Teacher’s Role in Relation to the Community

The teacher’s role in modern community is professional in nature and involves a number of different sub-
roles which include the following:

The participant in community affairs: Since the teacher is an educated person and possesses certain
skills that are useful in conducting the affairs of the community, teachers have been in demand for
church work (teaching and singing), other volunteer jobs with the Red Cross, other welfare organisations,
and for other useful community services such as community secretary.

The teacher is the surrogate of middle class morality: Parents often expect the teacher to be a
better model of behaviour for their children than they are themselves. Although parents may smoke,
drink and gamble, they want the teacher to avoid any behaviour that they think might be bad for children
to imitate. As a result, the teacher is expected to practice the personal virtues of the middle class: correct
speech, good manners, modesty, prudence, honesty, responsibility, friendliness, and so on. The teacher
is also expected to be a person of culture, with more refined tastes than the general population, and to
be sophisticated in outlook. Also, he/she is a pioneer in the world of ideas, the seeker for truth.
They should work for the continual improvement of the society.

The Teacher’s Role in Relation to the School System

In the school system, the roles of the teacher are seen as an employee in relation to the school board, as
a subordinate to the principal or headmaster, as an advisee to the supervisor, as a colleague to his/her
fellow-teachers, and in some respect he/she plays the role of a follower, leader or innovator.

The Teacher’s Role in Relation to Pupils

The professional teacher plays vital roles in the lives of the pupils in their classrooms. Teachers are best
known for the role of educating the students that are placed in their care. Beyond that, teachers serve
many other roles in the classroom. Teachers set the tone of their classrooms, build a warm environment,
mentor and nurture students, become role models, and listen and look for signs of trouble. Other roles of
the teacher are as follows:
Disciplinarian: To succeed in facilitating learning, teachers must dominate the class situation. For
example, he/she must make the students learn, make them pay attention and must know how to quell
rebellion. The teacher must keep some kind of order in the classroom if he/she is to teach effectively.
This means the teacher should ensure that there is discipline in the classroom.
Judge: The teacher acts in the role of judge. He/she has authority, gives out grades and promotes or
does not promote the child. Also, the teacher decides what is right and what is wrong, what is good and
what is bad in social interaction between the child and the teacher and between pupils.
Confidant: Somewhat opposed to the roles of disciplinarian and judge is the role of friend and
confidant. Teachers are expected to be friends of children; to be so supportive that children will place
trust and affection in them; to be so sympathetic that children will confide in them.
Parent substitute: Teachers, especially those in kindergarten and lower primary, help pupils with
regard to their clothing. Also, they comfort, praise, and show affection to them. Also, the male teacher
probably acts much often in the role of a father as does the female teacher in the role of a mother. In
addition, students expect teachers to be surrogate of middle-class morality that is why most pupils
consider teachers as their role models.

The Social Structure of the Classroom

The classroom as a social system is made up of formal and informal groups. The formal groups are those
that are officially known and the informal are those that are not known officially. The classroom is a
formal group because it is officially known to the school authorities. However, it is important for the
teacher to know about the existence of both the formal and informal groups within the classroom. The
class consists of a teacher and varying number of children like any other social system from difference
socioeconomic backgrounds. Some informal groups are based on this factor which makes it necessary for
the classroom teacher to know the attractions and repulsions in the class. If the teacher wishes to see
the class objectively as it is and not subjectively as he/she thinks, then he/she need to use sociometric
techniques to understand the various constituents within the class. To use sociometric techniques, the
teacher must first obtain a sociogram.

Reasons Why the Teacher Trainee Needs to Study Sociology of Education

The teacher trainee needs to study Sociology of Education in order to understand the sociological
implications and dynamics in education. The following are some of the reasons for that:
• To see education as a social institution which forms a component within the entire system and must
therefore relate to the other institutions and also work hand-in-hand with them to develop the country. If
any of the social institutions is weak it seriously affects the development of education in the country.
• It allows the teacher trainee to appreciate and understand that the content of education is the culture
of the society; and also education is the means of socialisation.
• It equips the teacher trainee to be effective since he/she is able to study education sociologically,
diachronically and synchronically. Also, it boosts the teacher trainee’s appreciation of the need for
technical and vocational education in the country.
• It enhances the trainee’s understanding such that he/she will see education as an instrument of social
change, which must bring about desired change without disrupting the total social system. Eg. change in
life style such as dressing, food, housing and architectural designs.
• It enhances the teacher trainee’s ability to appreciate that the educational system of any nation must
reflect the philosophy of the society. The student should understand that every society has goals and
objectives of which education is supposed to help achieve. If the educational system does not reflect the
philosophy of that society the products of the schools will not fit into that society. They will become aliens
in their own society and they will not be able to help the society to develop as expected.
• To understand that education has a social function and it must be functional. It should always meet the
needs, aspirations and ambitions of the society since it was put in place to address the needs of the
society.