Ø<ß2 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses
Ø=ÜÚ 3.1 Concept of an Ecosystem
• Ecosystem
: A geographical and climatic-based region, recognizable by its landscape (forest, grassland,
desert, wetland, coastal area). It is categorized by:
• Abiotic Component
: Non-living elements such as geographical features (hills, plains), climatic factors (sunlight,
rainfall), and soil characteristics.
• Biotic Component
: Living entities including a community of plants and animals adapted to the conditions
provided by the abiotic factors.
• Major Ecosystems
:
• Terrestrial (land-based) Ecosystems
• Aquatic Ecosystems (water-based)
• Biosphere
: The thin layer where life exists, divided into biogeographical realms.
• Biogeographical Realms
:
• Eurasia
: Palaearctic realm
• South & Southeast Asia
: Oriental realm
• North America
: Nearctic realm
• South America
: Neotropical realm
• Africa
: Ethiopian realm
• Australia
: Australian realm
• National/State Level
:
• Biogeographic regions such as the Himalayas, Gangetic Plains, Deccan Plateau, Coastal
Belts, etc.
• Local Level
: Specific ecosystems identifiable, e.g., forests, mangrove swamps, river catchments.
• Ecosystem Definition
: The combined living (plants and animals) and non-living (soil, air, water) components of the
environment.
• Robust vs. Fragile Ecosystems
:
• Robust
: Less affected by human disturbances.
• Fragile
: Easily degraded by human activities (e.g., mountain, island ecosystems, evergreen
forests, coral reefs).
Ø=ÜÖ 3.1.1 Understanding Ecosystems
• Natural Ecosystems
: Examples include forests, grasslands, deserts, ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea.
• Man-modified Ecosystems
: Include agricultural and urban/industrial land use.
• Key Features to Observe
:
• Appearance
: Describing features of the ecosystems based on field observations.
• Structure
: Differentiating between forests, water bodies, areas with vegetation.
• Plant and Animal Composition
: Listing common, uncommon, rare species and abundance.
• Functioning
: Understanding biogeochemical cycles, interaction between abiotic and biotic components,
food chains, and energy flow.
Ø=Ü€ 3.1.2 Ecosystem Degradation
• Human Disruption
: Leads to species extinction, especially affecting keystone species.
• Causes
: Deforestation, land-use changes, pollution.
• Resource Exploitation
: Unsustainable usage due to overpopulation and consumerism, leading to ecosystem
degradation.
Ø<ß 3.1.3 Resource Utilization
• Traditional Societies
: Utilized resources sustainably.
• Modern Times
: Increased inequality and unsustainable resource extraction.
• Need for Equitable Distribution
: To reduce pressure on natural ecosystems.
Ø<ßÞþ 3.2 Structure and Functions of an Ecosystem
Structural Aspects:
1. Inorganic Components
: Elements like Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N), Carbon Dioxide (CO ‚), and Water (H ‚O).
2. Organic Compounds
: Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids.
3. Climatic Regimes
: Temperature, Moisture, Light, Topography.
4. Producers
: Plants.
5. Macro Consumers
: Large animals (Phagotrophs).
6. Micro Consumers
: Fungi, absorbers (Saprotrophs).
Functional Aspects:
1. Energy Cycles
.
2. Food Chains
.
3. Diversity-Interlinkages
between organisms.
4. Nutrient Cycles
(Biogeochemical cycles).
5. Evolution
.
Ø<ß1 3.3 Producers, Consumers and Decomposers
• Producers
: Plants that manufacture food using solar energy.
• Primary Consumers (Herbivores)
: Animals feeding on producers (e.g., deer, insects).
• Carnivores (Secondary Consumers)
: Predators feeding on herbivores.
• Decomposers/Detrivores
: Organisms (worms, bacteria, fungi) breaking down dead material, recycling nutrients.
Ø=Ý 3.4 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem
Biogeochemical Cycles:
1. Water Cycle
: Rainwater percolates, is absorbed by plants, transpired, forms clouds, and precipitates again.
2. Carbon Cycle
: Plants absorb CO ‚, used in photosynthesis, release oxygen; herbivores and carnivores return
carbon to soil.
3. Oxygen Cycle
: Interconnected with carbon cycle; plants release oxygen, animals use it for respiration.
4. Nitrogen Cycle
: Soil bacteria fix nitrogen, plants absorb it, transferred to herbivores and further to carnivores.
5. Energy Cycle
: Sunlight energy converted by plants, transferred through food chains, decomposers recycle
nutrients.
Energy Pyramid:
• A hierarchical structure showing energy distribution from producers (plants) to herbivores
(primary consumers) to carnivores (secondary consumers).
Ø<ß? 3.5 Ecological Succession
• Process of Change
: Ecosystems change over time through stages (pioneer, seral, climax).
• Seasonal and Long-term Changes
: Fluctuations depending on environmental conditions, e.g., forest clearing leading to grassland,
shrubland, woodland, and forest.
Ø<ß 3.6 Food Chains, Food Webs, and Ecological Pyramids
• Food Chain
: Transfer of energy from plants to animals.
• Food Web
: Interconnected food chains forming a complex network.
• Ecological Pyramid
: Trophic levels depicting energy flow from producers to various levels of consumers.
Ø<ß; 3.7 Introduction, Types, Characteristic Features, Structure, and Funct
Types of Ecosystems:
• Terrestrial Ecosystems
:
• Forest
• Grassland
• Semi-arid areas
• Deserts
• Mountains
• Islands
• Aquatic Ecosystems
:
• Pond
• Lake
• Wetland
• River
• Delta
• Marine
Key Issues to Understand:
1. Nature of the Ecosystem
: Structure and function.
2. Usage
: Who uses it and for what purpose.
3. Degradation
: How ecosystems are degraded.
4. Conservation
: Protecting and conserving the ecosystem.
Ecosystem Goods and Services:
Direct Values:
• Consumptive Use Value
: Non-market value.
• Productive Use Value
: Commercial value.
Indirect Values:
• Non-consumptive Use Value
: Scientific, recreational.
• Option Value
: Future economic benefits.
• Existence Value
: Ethical and emotional significance.
Terrestrial Ecosystems:
• Found in natural states (forests, grasslands), or modified (agriculture, urban areas).
• Natural Utilization
: Carefully used for sustainable resource extraction, forestry roles in climate control, water
regulation.
• Resource Exploitation
: Lead to degradation if exploited unrestrainedly.
Forest Ecosystem:
• Components
:
• Abiotic
: Non-living elements (climate, soil).
• Biotic
: Living community (plants, animals).
• Types of Forests
:
• Coniferous Forests
: Cones, needle-like leaves (e.g., Himalayan region).
• Broadleaved Forests
: Various subtypes (evergreen, deciduous, thorn, and mangrove).
Forest Utilization:
• Products
: Food, medicine, fuelwood, timber, fibers.
• Forest Services
: Climate control, water flow regulation, soil erosion prevention.
Threats to Forest Ecosystems:
• Overexploitation
: Beyond regenerative capacity.
• Habitat Changes
: Affect sensitive species, reduced biodiversity.
Forest Types in India:
• Himalayan Coniferous
: Pine, Deodar; Wild goats, sheep.
• Evergreen Forests (North-East, Western Ghats, Andamans)
: Rich in species; Tiger, Rhino.
• Deciduous
: Teak, Sal; Varied fauna.
• Thorn/Scrub (Semiarid)
: Babul, Ber; Blackbuck, Chinkara.
• Mangrove
: Avicennia; Adapted species.
Forest Products:
• Direct
: Fruits, medicinal plants, small timber, bamboo.
• Indirect
: Industrial raw materials, paper, chemicals.
Forest Services:
• Water Flow Control
: Surface runoff reduction, groundwater storage.
• Erosion Prevention
: Protecting soil.
• Temperature Regulation
: Cooler, moist environments.
• Carbon Sequestration
: Absorbing CO ‚, releasing oxygen.
Example Tables:
Forest Type Plant Examples Common Animal Examples Rare Animal Examples
Himalayan Coniferous Pine, Deodar Wild goats, sheep Snow leopard, Hangul
Evergreen (North-East) Jamun, Ficus Tiger, Leopard Pigmy Hog, Rhino
Deciduous Teak, Sal Chital, Blackbuck, Birds Bustard, Florican
Thorn/Scrub Babul, Neem Blackbuck, Chinkara Wolf, Monitor Lizard
Mangrove Avicenia Crocodile, Shorebirds Water Monitor Lizard
Forest Utilization:
• Individual Usage
: Fuelwood, food, fodder.
• Aggregate Usage
:
• Urban/Town: Construction material, medicines.
• Rural: Agricultural support (ash for fertilization).
• Threats
:
• Over-harvesting
: Exceeding replenishment rate.
• Habitat Disturbance
: Impacts sensitive fauna.
Note
: Detailed content is essential for academic understanding and examination preparation, enabling
comprehensive knowledge on ecosystems, their structure, function, and significance.
