Major Functions of the Respiratory System

The functions of the respiratory system include the intake of oxygen and the removal of CO2 .
Cells need oxygen to break down nutrients to release energy and produce adenosine
triphosphate. CO2 results from this process and it must be excreted.

The respiratory system includes tubes that filter incoming air while transporting it into and
out of the lungs.

Gases are exchanged in microscopic air sacs.

Respiratory organs
● entrap incoming air particles
● control temperature and water (H2O) content in the air
● produce vocal sounds
● regulate blood pH
● essential for the sense of smell.

Respiration is the process of gas exchange between the atmosphere and cells.

Function of the Nose

● The only externally visible part of the respiratory system that functions by Providing an
airway for respiration

● Moistening (humidifying) & warming the entering air

● Filtering inspired air & changing it of foreign matter.

● Serving as a resonating chamber for speech Housing the olfactory receptors

● The nose is divided into 2 regions

➔ The external nose
➔ The internal nasal cavity.

Philtrum - a shallow vertical groove inferior to the apex.

Nasal Cavity
Superior, medial and inferior conchae
Protrude medley from the lateral walls
https://youtu.be/iwwFPQk7SJU?feature=shared nose structure

Functions of the Nasal Mucosa and Conchae

During inhalation the conchae and nasal mucosa.

- Filter heat and moisten air.

During exhalation these structures:

- Reclaim heat and moisture
- Minimize heat and moisture loss.

Paranasal Sinuses
- Sinuses in bones that surround the nasal cavity.
- Sinuses lighten the skull and help to warm and moisten the air.

Pharynx
- Funnel shaped tube of skeletal muscle that connects to the
Nasal cavity and mouth superiorly.

- Extends from the base of the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebrae.
It is divided into 3 regions
- Nasopharynx
- Hypopharynx/ Laryngopharynx
- Oropharynx

Nasopharynx

- Lies posterior to the nasal cavity, inferior to the sphenoid and superior to the level of the
soft palate.
- Strictly an air passageway.
- Lined with pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
- Closes during swallowing to prevent food from entering the nasal cavity.
- The pharyngeal tonsil lies high on the posterior wall.
- Pharyngotympanic( auditory) tubes open into the lateral walls.

Oropharynx

- Extends inferiorly from the level of the soft palate to the epiglottis.
- Opens to the oral cavity via an archway called the fauces.
- Serves as a common passageway for food and air.
- The epithelial lining is protective stratified squamous epithelium.
- Palatine tonsils lie in the lateral walls of the fauces.
- Lingual tonsil covers the base of the tongue.

Laryngopharynx

- Serves as a common passageway for food and air.

- Lies posterior to the upright epiglottis.
- Extends to the larynx, where the respiratory and digestive pathways diverge.

Larynx
- Attaches to the hyoid bone and opens into the laryngopharynx superiorly
- Continuous with the trachea posteriorly
- The three functions of larynx are:
- To provide a patient airway.
- To act as a switching mechanism to route air and food into the proper channels
- To function in voice production.
Framework of the Larynx

Cartilages of the larynx

 - Shield shaped anterior superior thyroid cartilage with a midline laryngeal prominence
(Adam’s apple)
- Signet ring shaped anterior inferior cricoid cartilage.
- Three pairs of small arytenoid, cuneiform, and corniculate cartilages

Epiglottis- elastic cartilage that covers the laryngeal inlet during swallowing,

Vocal Ligaments

- Under the laryngeal mucosa, on each side, are the highly elastic vocal ligaments that
attach the arytenoid cartilages to the thyroid cartilage
- Composed of elastic fibers that form mucosal folds called true vocal cords
- The medial opening between them is the glottis.
- They vibrate to produce sound as air rushes up from the lungs.

False Vocal Cords

- Mucosal folds superior to true vocal cords.
- Have no part in sound production

Vocal Production

- Speech- intermittent release of expired air while opening and closing the glottis.
- Pitch- Determined by the length and tension of the vocal cords.
- Loudness- Depends upon the force at which the air rushes across the vocal cords
- The pharynx resonates, amplifies and enhances sound quality
- Sound is shaped into language by action of the pharynx, tongue, soft palate, and lips.
Trachea

● Flexible and mobile tube extending from the larynx into the mediastinum.
● Composed of three layers
● Mucosa- made up of goblet cells and ciliated epithelium.
○ Submucosa- connective tissue deep to the mucosa.
○ Adventitia- outermost layer made of C shaped rings of hyaline cartilage.

Conducting Zone: Bronchi

- The carina of the last tracheal cartilage marks the end of the trachea and the beginning
of the right and left bronchi
- Air reaching the bronchi is:
● Warm and cleansed of impurities
● Saturated with water vapor

- Bronchi subdivide into secondary bronchi, each supplying a lobe of the lungs.
- Air passages undergo 23 orders of branching in the lungs.

Conducting Zone: Bronchial Tree

- Tissue walls of bronchi mimic that of trachea.

- As conducting tubes become smaller, structural changes occur.
● Cartilage support structures change
● Epithelium types change
● Amount of smooth muscle increases.
Conducting Zone: Bronchial Trees

Bronchioles
● Consists of cuboidal epithelium.
● Have a complete layer of circular smooth muscle.
● Lack cartilage support and mucus producing cells.

Respiratory Zone

● Defined by the presence of alveoli, begins as terminal bronchioles feed into respiratory
bronchioles.
● Respiratory bronchioles lead to alveolar ducts, then to terminal clusters of alveolar sacs
composed of alveoli.
● Approximately 300 million alveoli:
● Account for most of the lungs’ volume.
● Provide tremendous surface area for gas exchange.

Bronchi

● Structure: The bronchi are the main air passages that branch from the trachea
(windpipe). There are two primary bronchi: the right and the left, each leading to a lung.
● Function: They help transport air to the lungs and are lined with mucous membranes
and cilia, which help trap particles and move mucus out of the airways.

Bronchial Tree

● Structure: The bronchial tree is a system of branching airways that includes the
primary bronchi, secondary (lobar) bronchi, and tertiary (segmental) bronchi. The
branching continues into smaller bronchi and ultimately leads to the bronchioles.
● Function: This branching structure increases the surface area for air distribution,
ensuring efficient airflow throughout the lungs.

Bronchioles

● Structure: Bronchioles are smaller branches of the bronchi and do not contain cartilage
in their walls, making them more flexible. They can further divide into terminal and
respiratory bronchioles.
● Function: Bronchioles are responsible for directing air to the alveoli, where gas
exchange occurs. They also have smooth muscle in their walls, allowing for regulation
of airflow and resistance.
Respiratory Membrane

● This air blood barrier is composed of:

● Alveolar and capillary walls.
● Their fused basal laminae.

● Alveolar walls:
● Are a single layer of type I epithelial cells.
● Permit gas exchange by simple diffusion
● Secrete angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)

● Type II cells secrete surfactant (protects the surface from getting destroyed)

Alveoli

● Surrounded by fine elastic fibers.

● Contain open pores that:
1. Connect adjacent alveoli
2. Allow air pressure throughout the lung to be equalized
● House macrophages that kee alveolar surfaces sterile.

Gross Anatomy

● Lungs occupy all of the thoracic cavity

● Root- site of vascular and bronchial attachments.
○ Coastal surface- Anterior, lateral, and posterior surfaces in contact with the ribs
○ Apex- Narrow superior tip.
○ Base- Inferior surface that rests on the diaphragm.
○ Hilus- Indentation that contains pulmonary and systemic blood vessels.

● Base, apex (cupula), coastal surface, cardiac notch

● Oblique and Horizontal fissure in right lung results in 3 lobes
● Oblique fissure only in the left lung produces 2 lobes.

Lungs

- Cardiac notch( impression)- cavity that accommodates the heart

- Left lung- Separated into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure.
- RIght lung- Separated into three lobes by the oblique and horizontal fissures.
- There are 10 bronchopulmonary segments in each lung.
Blood supply to Lungs

● Lungs are perfused by two circulations- Pulmonary and bronchial

● Pulmonary arteries- Supply systemic venous blood to be oxygenated
1. Branch profusely, along with bronchi
2. Ultimately feed into the pulmonary capillary network surrounding the alveoli.
● Pulmonary veins- Carry oxygenated blood from respiratory zones to the heart.
● Bronchial arteries provide systemic blood to the lung tissue.
1. Arise from the aorta and enter the lungs at the hilus.
2. Supply all lung tissue except the alveoli.
● Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins.
● Pulmonary veins carry most venous blood back to the heart.

Pleaurae _ DONT

Breathing
- Breathing or pulmonary ventilation, consists of two phases
- Inspiration- air flows into the lungs
- Expiration- gases exist the lungs

Inspiration

● The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles (inspiratory muscles) contract and the
rib cage rises.
● The lungs are stretched and intrapulmonary volume increases.
● Intrapulmonary pressure drops below the atmospheric pressure (-1 mm Hg)
● Air flows into the lungs, down its pressure gradient, until intrapleural pressure =
atmospheric pressure.

Sequence of events

1. Inspiration muscles contract (diaphagram descends, rib cage rises)

2. Thoracic cavity volume increases
3. Lungs strecged intrapulmonary volume increases
4. Intrapulmonary pressure drops( to -1 mm Hg)
5. Air(gases) flows into lungs down its pressure gradient untile intrapulmonary pressure is 0
(equal to atmostpheric pressure)

Ribs and sternum depressed as external intercostals rela

Diaphgram moves superiorly as it relaxes
Change in lateral dimensions

Expiration

1. Inspiratory muscles relax and the rib cage descends due to gravity.
2. Thoracic cavity volume decreases.
3. Elastic lungs recoil passively and intrapulmonary volume decreases.
4. Intrapulmonary pressure rises above atmospheric pressure (+1 mm Hg)
5. Gases flow out of the lungs down the pressure gradient until intrapulmonary pressure is
0.

Airway Resistance
● As airway resistance rises, breathing movements become more strenous.
● Severly constricted or obstructed bronchioles:
● Can prevent life sustaining ventilation
● Can occue during acute asthma attacks which stop ventilation
● Epinephrine release via the sympathetic nervous system dilates bronchioles and
reduces air resistance.

Alveolar Surface Tension

- Surface tension- The attraction of liquid molecules to one another at a liquid gas
interface.
- The liquid coating the alveolar surface is always acting to reduce the alveoli to the
smallest possible size.
- Surfactant, a detergent like complex, reduces surface tension and helps keep the alveoli
from collapsing.

Lung Compliance

- The ease with which lungs can be expanded.

- Specifically, the measure of the change in lung volume that occurs with a given change
in transpulmonary pressure
- Determined by two factors
1. Distensibility of the lung tissue and surrounding thoracic cage
2. Surface tension of alveoli.
Factors that diminish Lung Compliance

- Scar tissue or fibrosis that reduces the natural resilence of the lungs
- Blockage of the smaller respiratory passages with mucus or fluid.
- Reduced production of surfactant
- Decreased flexibility of the thoracic cage or its decreased ability to expand.

Examples include-
Deformities of thorax
Paralysis of intercostal muscles