LL.

B PART-II
ENGLISH-II

LLB 5 Years Program

University of the Punjab
Rawalpindi Law College

By: Shaukat Zaman, RLC, Rawalpindi

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

➢ COURSE OUTLINE
➢ MODEL PAPER (PUNJAB UNIVERSITY)
2024
➢ SHORT STORIES
➢ GRAMMAR
• Conditional Sentences
• Common Errors in English
• Connectives
• Subject Verb Agreement
• Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
• Punctuation

➢ PRÉCIS WRITING
➢ TECHNICAL WRITING
• Application Writing
• Memo Writing
• Book Review
Writing

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 PAPER-I:ENGLISH-II
100 MARKS
COURSE CONTENTS

Content Detail Resource

1. Stories of The Moving Finger by Edith· 1.Cambridge University Press (Core text)
Ourselves (20)Wharton
2.http://siltingbec.com/
SredniVashtatby Saki (Hector
3.https://www.litcharts.com/
Hugh Munro)
(For Summaries and guides)
The Prison,by Bernard
Malamud BillenniumbyJ. G.
Ballard,
Elephant by Raymond Carver
2. Summary and Difference between a 1.https://academichelp.net/2.https://owl.purduc.edu/
Precis Writing summary In-class practice
with different passages is to (Section:Online Writing Lab Subsection: Research and
be ensured. Citation)3.General Certificate English by Alan Etherton.
Fourth edition.
4.Mastering English Language by S.H.Burton

3. Grammar Conditionals。 1. Practical English Grammar by A.J. Thompson and A.V.

Martinet.OUP,1997.
Common Errors ·
2.English for Undergraduates by D.H.Howe, T.A.
-Connectives。 Kirkpatrick and D.L.Kirkpatrick. OUP, 2005.
-Punctuation 。 3. Oxford Practice Grammar by John Eastwood. OUP,
Subject Verb Agreement 2005.

Transitive and Intransitive 4.https://owl.purdue.edu/

Verbso (Section: Online Writing Lab.Subsection: General
Writing.)5. Mastering English Grammar by S.H.Burton
4.Technical Application Writing。 1.General Certificate English by Alan Etherton. Fourth
edition.
Writing Memo Writing
2.https://academichelp.net/tools/
Book Review Writing
5. Unseen Comprehension
Comprehension practice. 1.General Certificate English by Alan Etherton. Fourth
edition.
2. Online resources and above-mentioned books by
OUP.3.Mastering English Language by S.H. Burton

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University Law College,
University of the Punjab,Lahore.

Model Paper LLB Part II (5 Year)- Annual Examination

2024
Subject:English-II(New Syllabus)
Q1-Writeshort answers to the following questions. Attempt any two questions. (10x2=20)

i- What does the candy store symbolize in Tommy's life in "The Prison" by Bernard Malamud?

ii- Write a note on the mysterious elements associated with the portrait of Mrs.Grancy in the short
story 'TheMovingFinger' by Edith Wharton.

iii- What is considered ironic in Saki's "SredniVashtar" and why?

iv- What is the symbolic significance of the title 'Elephant'by Raymond Carver?

Q2- Punctuate and rewrite the following sentences correctly. (05*2=10)

i- I didnt know who was behind it all.

ii- please could you fetch me two apples three pears a peach and a carton of orange juice.

iii- come back that's Benjamins bike she yelled.

 iv- Move along there is nothing to see the police officer said.

v- Welldocumented case notes are essential in court proceedings.

Q3-Correct the errors in the following sentences.(10)

i- The boy will get a prize which does best.

ii- He has returned back from Lahore.

iii- A cat and a dog was fighting in the street.

iv- I am one of those who was present there.

V- Neither he nor I are lucky.

vi- Only a few people leads a happy life.

vii- I am in this college since 1970.

viii- He replied the he will come soon.

ix- You can borrow my car. I am not needing it.

X- You have make me so happy today.

Q4-Identify the underlined words as transitive or intransitive verb.(10)

i- We would like to stay longer,but we mustleave.

ii- The audience attentivelywatchedthe latest production of The Trojan Women.

iii- The old man wasextremelyloveable.

iv-Charlottebought a phone for her mother.

V- The teapot brokeall of a sudden.

vi- The footballs and basketballs arekept in the third cupboard.

vii- Theypurchaseda new TV.

viii- Hira lost her favourite black bag.

ix- It wasraining until a few hours back.

X- There areexactly 150 juice packs.

Q5- Use the following sequence markers (connectives) and construct well-
structuredsentences.(𝟓∗ 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎)
 Subsequently, meanwhile, then, simultaneously, before.

Q6-Complete the following conditional sentences with your own words.(10)

i- If you don't water the plants,___________________________________________

ii-If you wash your wool clothes in hot

water,_______________________________________

iii-I would not have been cold right now if,

___________________________________________

iv-You should have more energy if,

_________________________________________________

v- I will read you a bedtime story if,

__________________________________________________

vi-IfI could speak Spanish,

__________________________________________________________

vii-If I had known you were arriving

today,________________________________________________

viii-You will be tired in the morning if

________________________________________________

ix-The boss will give him a raise if____________________________________________

x- If I won a lottery, I _____________________________________________________

Q7-Write a job application in response to the following advertisement.(20)

(SituationVacant: Electronic Engineer,

RequiredQualification: BS/MS Electronic/Telecom,

Salary Package:55500PKR+Allowances

Please send your application to: General Manager Pakistan Arab Refinery)

PAKISTAN ARAB REFIERY (LTD)(PARCO) MULTAN

Q8-Make a precis of the following text in your own English. (credit will be given to
yourown words, not just copying from the question paper). Also suggest a suitable
title. (8+2-10)
 It is physically impossible for a well-educated, intellectual, or brave man to make money
the chief object of his thoughts just as it is for him to make his dinner the principal object of
them. All healthy people like their dinners, but their dinner is not the main object of their lives.
So all healthy minded people like making money ought to like it and enjoy the sensation of
winning it; it is something better than money.

A good soldier, for instance, mainly wishes to do his fighting well. He is glad of his pay-
very properly so and justly grumbles when you keep him ten years without it-till, his main
mission of life is to win bates, not to be paid for winning them, so of clergymen. The
clergyman's object is essentially baptizing and preach not to be paid for preaching, so of
doctors. They like fees no doubt-ought to like them; yet if they are brave and well-educated
the entire object to their lives is not fees. They on the whole, desire to cure the sick; and if
they are good doctors and the choice were fairly to them, would rather cure their patient and
lose their fee than kill him and get it. And so with all the other brave and rightly trained men:
their work is first, their fee second-very important always; but still second.

---------------------------------------------------
 SHORT STORIES:

1-THE MOVING FINGER BY EDITH WHARTON

Edith Wharton was born in 1862 in New York City, America. She is Author of more than 40
volumes - novels, short stories, poetry, and non-fiction. Wharton had a long and remarkable life.
She was born during the Civil War, encouraged in her childhood literary endeavors by Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow, and devoted to such varied friends as Henry James and Theodore
Roosevelt; yet she had also read William Faulkner, James Joyce, and T. S. Eliot, and had actually
met Sinclair Lewis and F. Scott Fitzgerald.
Her upbringing provided her with insights on the upper class, while her sense of humor and
polished prose produced fiction that appealed to a large audience. Her friendship with renowned
writer Henry Jones guided her through her writing career. She wrote poems for various magazines
notably Harper's and Scribner's in the late 1800s. However, her first novel 'The Valley of Decision
was published in 1902. Recipient of the French Legion of Honor for her philanthropic work during
World War I and of the Pulitzer Prize for her novel The Age of Innocence (1920). In 1923 she
became the first woman to receive an honorary doctorate from Yale. Wharton was a member of
the National Institute of Arts and Letters and the American Academy of Arts and Letters.
A naturally gifted storyteller, Wharton wrote novels and short stories notable for their vividness,
satire, irony, and wit. Her complex characters and subtly delivered point of view make the reading
of Wharton's fiction both challenging and rewarding, while her own life illustrates the difficulties
that a woman of her era had to surmount to find self-realization.
In 1885, when she was twenty-three, she married Edward ("Teddy") Wharton. Although from a
similar social background, he lacked her artistic and intellectual interests and after nearly 30 years
of marriage, she divorced him. Wharton eventually settled permanently in France, thereafter
visiting the United States only rarely. In Paris in 1908 she began a briefly fulfilling but ultimately
disappointing affair with Morton Fullerton, a journalist on the London Times and a friend of Henry
James.
In Paris she found intellectual companionship in circles where artists and writers mingled with the
rich and well-born, and where women played a major role. She was the first woman to win the
Pulitzer Prize for Literature in 1921. She was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in
1996.
Considered one of the major American novelists and short story writers of the 20th century, Edith
Wharton died of a stroke attack in France in 1937.

Summary:
"The Moving Finger" is a compelling short story by Edith Wharton that delves into themes of guilt,
psychological torment, and the supernatural. The story centers around Mr. Ralph Grancy, his two
wives, and the artist Claydon, exploring their intertwined relationships and the strong influence of
a portrait that seems to alter with Grancy's life changes.

Important Characters:
1.Mr. Ralph Grancy: The central character, Mr. Grancy, is a widower who remarries after the
death of his first wife. He is depicted as a sensitive and reflective man who deeply loves his
second wife.
2. Mrs. Grancy (Second Wife): The second Mrs. Grancy is portrayed through her husband's
adoration and the portrait that becomes central to the story's plot. Her presence looms large
even after her death.
3. Claydon: A talented artist and close friend of Mr. Grancy, Claydon paints the portrait of Mrs.
Grancy. His complex feelings towards Mrs. Grancy and the portrait play a crucial role in the
story's unfolding.
4. Mrs. Grancy (First Wife): Although deceased, Mr. Grancy's first wife is mentioned briefly,
her death leaving a profound impact on him and shaping his subsequent life choices.

Plot Summary:
Mr. Ralph Grancy, after losing his first wife, remarries a much younger woman, whose portrait he
commissions from his friend, the artist Claydon. This second Mrs. Grancy becomes the center of
his life, and her portrait, painted by Claydon, captures her vibrant beauty and youthful spirit.
Grancy's love for his wife is deep and transformative; she becomes his anchor and muse.
However, tragedy strikes when Mrs. Grancy dies young, leaving Mr. Grancy devastated. In his
grief, Grancy finds solace in the portrait, which he believes continues to embody his wife's spirit.
As he ages and contemplates his own mortality, he asks Claydon to alter the portrait to reflect his
wife's imagined aging alongside him. This request stems from his desire to maintain the
connection and the illusion of their life together, even as he grows older without her.
Reluctantly, Claydon modifies the portrait, adding years to Mrs. Grancy's face, and this change
has a profound effect on Mr. Grancy. He feels comforted, as if his wife is still with him, sharing in
his life and aging gracefully by his side. However, the alteration also affects Claydon, who harbors
his own deep feelings for Mrs. Grancy and views the portrait as more than just a painting.
As time progresses, Mr. Grancy falls ill and becomes increasingly obsessed with the portrait. He
senses that his wife's image is trying to communicate with him, reflecting not just physical aging
but an ethereal connection that transcends her death. This belief grows into a haunting obsession,
blurring the lines between reality and imagination.
Eventually, Mr. Grancy passes away, and the true extent of the portrait's impact on his life and
psyche becomes apparent. After his death, Claydon visits the house and finds that the portrait
has been altered once again, this time to restore Mrs. Grancy's youthful appearance. It is implied
that Mr. Grancy, in his final moments, might have instructed someone to make this change,
seeking to preserve the idealized memory of his beloved wife.
Themes and Analysis:
"The Moving Finger" explores the themes of love, loss, and the passage of time. Mr. Grancy's
deep affection for his second wife and his struggle to cope with her absence highlight the
emotional turmoil that accompanies grief. The portrait serves as a symbol of memory and the
desire to hold onto the past, even as time inevitably moves forward.
The story also delves into the psychological impact of grief and the ways in which individuals cope
with loss. Mr. Grancy's request to age the portrait and then revert it back to its original form reflects
his internal conflict and his struggle to reconcile his love for his wife with the reality of her absence.
Claydon's role as the artist adds another layer of complexity to the narrative. His feelings for Mrs.
Grancy and his connection to the portrait suggest a deeper, unspoken bond that influences his
actions and emotions. The story raises questions about the nature of art, memory, and the ways
in which we immortalize those we love.
In conclusion, "The Moving Finger" is a haunting and thought-provoking story that explores the
intersection of love, loss, and the passage of time. Through the characters of Mr. Grancy, his
wives, and Claydon, Wharton weaves a narrative that examines the enduring power of memory
and the human desire to hold onto the past.

QUESTIONS AND THEIR ANSWERS

Q.1 Write a note on the character of Mr. Grancy in the story, ‘The Moving Figure'.
OR Mr. Grancy's love is spirtual as well as physical. Elaborate.
Ans. Mr. Ralph Grancy is the protagonist of the story. He is really a romantic person who even
loves the portrait of his dead wife. We come to know that his first wife was not so good. She was
arrogant and stupid. When he married second Mrs. Grancy, he is so happy because she is not
only beautiful, loving and caring but also younger than he is. She becomes a permanent life
partner of Mr. Grancy. Mr. Grancy thinks her as a part of his body. He takes much care of his wife.
He sees her as the part that completes him. He feels discomfort without her and seems almost
incapable of aging without her presence. He has a social circle and is highly-respected and liked
within his social group. When his second wife dies, he lives with her portrait. He thinks her alive
even after her death. He is so absorbed her portrait that he asks his friend Claydon to change her
prortrait according to his advancing age. This shows that Mr. Grancy is a true lover who believes
in spiritual love.

Q. 2. Write a note on the character of Mrs. Grancy in the story, The Moving Finger.
OR for Mr. Grancy, Mrs. Grancy is something more than wife. Elaborate.
Ans. Mrs. Grancy is second wife of Mr. Grancy. She is a young, beautiful and an ideal personality
who is not only loved in her life but also after her death. She dies as the story starts. Her character
has a major influence on the development of the plot of the story. Grancy marries second Mrs.
Grancy after the death of his first wife who was an arrogant woman. The second Mrs. Grancy is
so loving and caring. Thus, she becomes an ideal wife. But she dies soon. After her death, her
husband, Mr. Grancy becomes desperate. He thinks her as an essential part of his body. He
leaves his house but she is ways with him. She moves like a figure with him. Grancy asks his
friend Claydon to make a portrait of second Mrs. Grancy: Claydon who is Grancy's friend, makes
a good portrait of her.He falls in love with her. She lives like a living body even after her death.
Claydon remains in love with her. When Grancy returns from Europe, he stands with the Mrs.
Grancy's portrait. He thinks there is a lot of difference of ages. He asks Claydon to change portrait
according to the advancing age.
Claydon does it unwillingly as he wants her body and not the soul. Whereas Grancy loves her
spritually. In the end of the story. Grancy dies and Claydon takes Mrs. Grancy'sprotrait with him
and puts it in his gallery. Thus, Mrs. Grancy remains in custody of he another lover even after her
death.

Q.3 Write a note on the character of Claydon in the story, ‘The Moving Finger’.
OR Mr. Claydon's love is physical rather than spiritual? Explain
Ans.Claydon is a painter by profession. He is Mr. Grancy's friend. Though he is a true friend, yet
he becomes deceitful when he is inspired by the beauty of Mrs. Grancy. He is asked by his friend
make a portrait of Mrs. Grancy. He is stunned by the beauty of M Grancy. He falls in love with
her. In response, she also likes him.
After the death of Mrs. Grancy, not only Mr. Grancy is in lo with his wife but Claydon also loves
her portrait. He loves physical beauty whereas Grancy loves her spiritually. When Grancy asks
him to make changes in the portrait, Claydon opposes it strongly, Anyhow, he has to change it
unwillingly. In the end of the story, we come to know that Grancy dies and Claydon takes Mrs.
Grancy's portrait with him. It seems as if he had won his love at last.

Q. 4. Discuss themes in the story, The Moving Finger.

OR Which theme is prominent in the story "The Moving Finger”
Ans.In the story, The Moving Finger by Edith Wharton, we find we have the theme of control.
Mr. Grancy loves his wife so much wants to have her even after her death. So, he asks his friend
Claydon to make her portrait. Whenever, after the death of Mrs. Grand sees her portrait, he says
she is his prisoner. Claydon also wants take control over Mrs. Grancy's portrait. He argues that
changing portrait would result loss in its beauty. Actually he is love with wants to get it forever, he
takes its control when Mr. Grancy dies.
Theme of loneliness is also apparent in the story. Mr. Grancy becomes alone after the death of
his first wife. He is afraid of being alone again so he orders his friend Claydon to make a portrait
of his second wife Mrs. Grancy. He, actually wants to avoid loneliness after the death of his wife.
On the other hand, Claydon who is in love with this portrait, also feels alone without it. After the
death of Mr. Grancy, he takes this portrait in his studio and thus ends his loneliness.
There are some other themes like clash, passion, connectivity and dependency as well. Due
to a portrait two friends become rivals. Both have their own approach towards the portrait. Both
have passion either physically or spiritually. Both want to get portrait as well. They want to be in
contact with in a way or other. In the same way, Mr. Grancy is dependent on his friend Claydon
when he wants changes in the portrait of her second wife Mrs. Grancy.

Q.5 Describe the element of mystery in the story The Moving Finger. OR
Write a note on the mysterious elements associated with the portrait of Mrs.
Grancy in the short story, The Moving Finger by Edith Whartdon.
OR Discuss the title of the story, The Moving Finger.

Ans. The title of the story 'The Moving Finger' depicts the relationship of the love triangle of Mr.
Grancy, Mrs. Grancy and Claydon. In the story 'The Moving Finger' is Mrs. Grancy who plays an
active part in the story. She has died still her portraits plays an important role in the development
of the plot of the story. She is a dominant figure that rules even after her death. She lives in the
hearts of Claydon and Mr.Grancy. Though, they act freely but in reality, Mrs. Grancy is their boss
and orders them how to act.
The portrait of Mrs. Grancy is the other moving finger in the story. It is made by Claydon who
thinks it is her. On the other hand, Mr. Grancy thinks that in the form of portrait his wife remains
with him even after her death. Both are dominated by a portrait. They act what it reflects. Mr.
Grancy on his return from abroad, stands beside the portrait. The portrait mocks at his grey hair
and wrinkle face. In a sense the portrait tells him that he is no more fit for having so young and
beautiful wife. So Mr. Grancy asks his friend to make changes in the portrait. On the other hand,
Claydon is reluctant to make changes. The portrait seems asking him not to change its beauty.
After the death of Mr. Grancy the portrait urges Claydon to take it with him and get his desire to
adopt her portrait fulfilled.

Q.6 Why did Grancy have the portrait changed?

Ans.Grancy had the portrait changed because, after his wife died, when he came back to the
house, he thought that the portrait felt lonely and as if it were getting left behind, as MrGrancy
was aging and the portrait was not. So, Grancy sent for Claydon so he could change the painting,
as in his opinion, it's what MrsGrancy would have wanted.
Quote: “Then gradually I began to notice a look of sadness in the picture’s eyes; a look that
seemed to say: ‘Don’t you see that I am lonely too?’.And all at once it came over me how she
would have hated to be left behind!’

Q.7 Describe the element of mystery in the story "The Moving Finger.
OR Write a note on the mysterious elements associated with the portrait of Mrs.
Grancy the short story The Moving Finger by Edith Wharton.
OR Discuss the title of the story, "The Moving Finger"
Ans. The title of the story ‘The moving Finger’ depicts the relationship of the love triangle of Mr.
Grancy, Mrs.Grancy and Claydon. In the story ‘The moving Finger’ is Mrs. Grancy who plays an
active part in the story. She has died still her portrait plays an important role in the development
of the story. She is a dominant figure that rules ever death. She lives in the hearts of Claydon and
Mr. Grancy. Though, they act freely but in reality, MrsGrancy is their boss and orders them how
to act.
The portrait of Mrs. Grancy is the other moving figure in the story. It is made by Claydon who
thinks it is her. On the other hand, Mr. Grancy thinks that in the form of portrait his wife remains
with him even after her death. Both are dominated by a portrait. They act what it reflects Mr.
Grancy. on his return from aboard, stands beside the portrait. The portrait mocks at his grey hair
and wrinkle face. In a sense the portrait tells him that he is no more fit for having so young and
beautiful wife. So Mr. Grancy asks his friend to make changes in the portrait. On the other hand,
Claydon is reluctant to make changes. The portrait seems asking him not to change its beauty.
After the death of Mr. Gracy, the portrait urges Claydon to take it with him and get his desire to
adopt her portrait fulfilled.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2- SREDNIVASHTAR
By SAKI (Hector Hugh Munro)
A Few Words about the Author - A Biography Hector Hugh Munro generally known as Saki was
born in Burma on Dec. 18, 1870. He was a witty British author who published under the pen name
SAKI or H.H. Munro. As a writer, Munro (Saki) was a master of the short story form and is often
compared to O. Henry and Dorothy Parker. E.F. Benson shares his sardonic style.
He adopted the name Saki in 1900, and it's believed to have been taken from a character from
the works of the Persian poet, Omar Khayyam. Most famous for his short stories, Saki also wrote
novels and many articles of journalism. He remains an important figure in the tradition of Modern
English writers, although his politics and ideas may seem somewhat distant to us today.
When Saki's father retired from service, he returned to England from Burma and took Saki and
his siblings with him as he travelled through Europe. Saki made an attempt to follow in his father's
footsteps as a member of the Indian Imperial Police in Burma, but returned to England within a
year and a half because of frequent illness.
Saki moved to London to become a writer. He was a frequent contributor to many of Britain's
newspapers and magazines, where he published short stories and political sketches. As a writer,
he served as a foreign correspondent in Russia, the Balkans, and Paris.
Saki had a penchant for mocking popular customs and manners of Edwardian England. He often
did so by depicting characters in a setting and manner that would contrast their behavior with that
of the natural world often demonstrating that the simple and straightforward rules of nature would
always trump the vanities of men. This is demonstrated gently in The Toys of Peace where
parents from Edwardian England are taught a lesson that is still familiar to modern parents. He
demonstrates it with striking clarity in The Interlopers and The Open Window, both of which we
recommended as two of his best stories.
Saki (Munro) died in France during World War I on November 13 1916, by German sniper fire
during the Battle of Ancre. Though he was too old to enlist at 43, he had managed, to gain a post
in the 22nd Battalion of the Royal Fusilliers, where he was a lance-sergeant. According to several
sources, his last words were "Put that bloody cigarette out".

Summary
"SredniVashtar" is a darkly humorous and gripping short story by Saki (H.H. Munro). It revolves
around a young, sickly boy named Conradin, his domineering cousin Mrs. De Ropp, and his secret
worship of a ferret he names SredniVashtar.
Important Characters:
1. Conradin: A ten-year-old boy, frail and sickly, who feels oppressed by his guardian, Mrs. De
Ropp. He has a vivid imagination and creates a secret world where he finds solace and power.
2. Mrs. De Ropp: Conradin's guardian, a stern and controlling woman who believes she is doing
what is best for him, though she lacks warmth and empathy.
3. SredniVashtar: A ferret that Conradin secretly worships as a god, representing his rebellion
and desire for freedom.

Plot Summary:
Conradin is a young boy who lives with his cousin and guardian, Mrs. De Ropp. He is often ill and
expected to die within five years. Conradin's life is dreary and filled with strict rules enforced by
Mrs. De Ropp, who he views as a malevolent force in his life. Her oppressive care and lack of
affection only deepen Conradin's sense of isolation and misery.
To cope with his loneliness and bleak existence, Conradin retreats into his imagination. He
creates a hidden world in a shed at the bottom of the garden, where he keeps two pets: a Houdan
hen and a ferret. Conradin develops a secret, intense devotion to the ferret, whom he names
SredniVashtar. He turns the ferret into a deity, worshipping it with ritualistic offerings and prayers,
asking it to do his bidding.
Mrs. De Ropp, unaware of the ferret's presence, begins to suspect that Conradin is up to
something. She discovers his visits to the shed and decides to remove the Houdan hen, which
she believes is his main interest. This act devastates Conradin, but it only strengthens his devotion
to SredniVashtar, whom he now sees as his only ally against Mrs. De Ropp.
Conradin's prayers to SredniVashtar become darker. He wishes for the ferret to exact revenge on
Mrs. De Ropp. His prayers are filled with a desperate hope that SredniVashtar will free him from
her oppressive rule.
One day, Mrs. De Ropp decides to investigate the shed, determined to find out what Conradin is
hiding. Conradin watches nervously from a window as she enters the shed. After some time, he
hears a commotion and then silence. Eventually, the ferret emerges from the shed, its fur smeared
with blood.
Conradin understands that SredniVashtar has fulfilled his wish. He calmly makes himself some
toast, savoring the moment of his newfound freedom. Shortly after, a maid rushes into the house,
screaming that Mrs. De Ropp is dead, killed by the ferret.

Themes and Analysis:

"SredniVashtar" explores themes of rebellion, the power of imagination, and the darker aspects
of human nature. Conradin's creation of SredniVashtar as a deity symbolizes his desire for control
and autonomy in a life dominated by his oppressive guardian. The story delves into the idea of
finding power in unexpected places and the lengths to which someone will go to escape tyranny.
The story also highlights the psychological impact of strict, loveless guardianship on a child.
Conradin's only solace is his imagination, which he uses to create a sense of power and agency.
The ferret, SredniVashtar, becomes a symbol of Conradin's rebellion and ultimate deliverance.
Saki's use of dark humor and irony is evident in the way the story unfolds. Mrs. De Ropp's demise
is both shocking and satisfying, as it represents the triumph of the oppressed over the oppressor.
The story's conclusion, with Conradin calmly eating toast while chaos ensues around him,
underscores his inner victory and the stark contrast between his inner world and the external
reality.
In conclusion, "SredniVashtar" is a compelling tale of a boy's struggle for freedom and the power
of his imagination to overcome his bleak circumstances. Through Conradin's secret worship of
the ferret, Saki explores the themes of rebellion, the desire for control, and the dark side of human
nature, all wrapped in a narrative rich with irony and dark humor.

QUESTIONS AND THEIR ANSWERS

Q.1: Conradin, the central character in the story SredniVashtar, is a sensitive child
who uses his active imagination to deal with his painful situation.
OR Write a note on the character Conradin in the story "SredniVashtar".
Ans. The main character of the story is Conradin. He is a young boy of ten who suffers from a
mental disease. He lives Mrs. De Ropp who is his cousin and guardian. But the problem with him
is that his cousin never takes care of him. She tries to snatch everything that consoles him. So he
has to find means of entertainment. He takes refuge in a toolshed where he keeps two pet a hen
and a ferret. He thinks them his friends and spends his time with them. But unfortunately his
cousin comes to know about his activities.
So, one day, she goes to the shed and deprives Conradin from his hen by selling it. The boy
thinks ferret more than a friend. He thinks him his god and prays to it for several times. He gives
it a specific name, SredniVashtar. He prays to him to get rid of his cruel guardian.
At last, Conradin's prayers become fruitful and Mrs. De Ropp goes to shed to see with which her
cousin passes his time. She thinks there must be something other than hen she has already sold.
On the other hand, the boy takes breakfast and is sure to get his wish fulfilled. His joys knew no
bounds when he hears the shriek of his cousin. Then he sees ferret coming out of shed with a
bloody mouth. Soon the maid declares that his cousin is killed by ferret.

Q. 2: Write a note on the character of Mrs. DeRopp.

Ans: Mrs. De Ropp is the main character of the story. She is Conradin's cousin. She shows off
much but she never cares of her cousin. She knows that her cousin has only five years to live still
she tries to tease him in certain ways. She neglects him in many ways. She abandons him on
certain occasions. She even deprives of him from a hen. For this, she is considered short-sighted.
Mrs. DeRopp seems short sighted as she is unable to look at Conradin's facial expressions. She
does not know how her cousin looks toward her and how much he hates her. She thinks that she
ignores him that is all. She is short sighted when she sells Conradin's beloved hen. She is well
aware that her cousin spends more time with it. She is unaware of sensitive feelings of childhood.
After selling Conradin's hen, Mrs. De Ropp does stop. She finds her cousin still going to the store
room. So she goes there to see with which her cousin passes his time. This is time when she is
killed by ferret, SrediniVashtar. So the pit she digs for her cousin, she herself fails into it. In the
end of the story, she proves herself short-sighted.

Q. 3. In the story "SredniVashtar" evil of human nature is clearly defined. Do you

agree?
OR Describe the theme of the story "SredniVashtar".
Ans: In SredniVashtar by Saki we have the theme of escape. The main characters of the story
want to escape from one another. Mrs. DeRopp wants to escape from her cousin. She ignores
him all the time. On the other hand, Conradin also escapes from his cousin and spends his time
in an abandoned store with a hen and a ferret.
The other theme of the story is selfishness. We see that Mrs.DeRopp is so selfish. She knows
that her cousin has no more time to live in. She never takes care of him. Rather she ignores him
selfishly. On the other hand, Conradin also becomes selfish when he is continuously ignored.
When he hears her cousin's shriek, he enjoys it rather than sympathizing.
Revenge is other theme we find in the story. Both cousins are full of revenge. Mrs. DeRopp
deprives her cousin from his beloved hen. At this Conradin is full of revenge. He prays to ferret to
kill her. For that purpose, he consider ferret as his god. Finally, he succeeds in taking his revenge.
Control, independence and freedom are some other themes we find in the story. Mrs. DeRopp
wants her control over her cousin. She wants him to live him as she desires. On the other hand,
her cousin wants freedom and to have a life of independence. He wants to get rid of her at any
cost. Mrs. DeRopp also wants to get rid of her cousin sooner or later. In the end of the story we
see that Conradin gets freedom and independence when his cousin is killed by a ferret.

Q.4. Discuss Theme of Religion in “SredniVashter”.

Ans. It is interesting that Conradin chooses to worship the one thing in his life that he has fear
and respect for. The fierce ferret, which is locked in a cage, is not at all friendly. Conradin is afraid
of it. Luckily, it cannot get to him and keeps a great distance from it. This creature becomes his
object of obsession and admiration. So much so, that Conradin starts to worship it. He has rituals
and offerings for the ferret. Even though he is aware of what he is doing, using his imagination,
towards the end of the story, when his cousin hasn't come out of the shed, he actually wonders if
his 'prayers' have come true.
When he prays to SredniVashtar, he asks "Do one thing for me, SredniVashtar." He does not
mention what it is because if SredniVashtar were truly a god, it would know exactly what Conradin
was asking for. At some point; Conradin comes to truly believe in the legitimacy of his make-
believe god.
Conradin also assigns his friend, the hen, a religion called "Anabaptist". He has a very bad
impression of his cousin's religion. It's possible that he projected his hatred for her onto her
religion. We see this when he mentions that his own religion is the exact opposite of hers.

Q.5. Discuss the theme of Imagination in “SredniVashter”.

Ans. Conradin has a very unique and vivid imagination. Most children in desperate need of
company make up imaginary friends but Conradin went further than that and made up a God
named SredniVashtar. He bestowed this role onto the caged, violent ferret in the shed. Instead of
dealing with the reality of his life, Conradin chose to make up a new world using his imagination.
The author mentions that this is what keeps him from succumbing to his probable illness.
It is also possible that due to his loneliness, Conradin could be exaggerating how badly his cousin
treats him. The story describes her as a vile woman who enjoys mentally torturing him and
showing him absolutely no affection. The story's very first paragraph states "Without his
imagination, which was rampant under the spur of loneliness, he would have succumbed long
ago." It's possible that Mrs. De Ropp only has his health in mind, and being a rebellious mischief
maker, he made up the fact that she is evil to him. Is he even terminally ill? Does he really have
less than five years left to live?

Q.6. Discuss the theme of Revenge in “SrediniVashter”.

Ans. Saki is known for writing short stones with of aggressor getting what they deserve so to
speak. In this story Conradin's main prayer hints that he wanted something bad happen to his
cousin. While he never puts it into words, it is quite obvious that he gets exactly what he had
asked for. W see this when he prays and chants after realizing that h cousin has not returned
from the shed, hoping for good-in h mind- news. Then when he hears that she is dead reaction is
proof. He wanted (and indirectly received) revenge for all the cruel things she had done to him.
Conradin’s feelings reached their most negative after his cousin sold h friend, the hen.

Q.7. Write a note on the character of Mrs. De Ropp.

Ans. Mrs De Ropp is the main character of the story. She is Conradin's cousin. She shows off
much but she never cares of her cousin. She knows that her cousin has only five years to live still
she tries to tease him in certain ways. She neglects him in many ways. She abandons him on
certain occasion. She even deprives of him from a hen. For this, she is considered short-sighted.
Mrs. De Ropp seems short sighted as she is unable to look at Conradin's facial expressions. She
does not know how her cousin looks toward her and how much he hates her. She T thinks that
she ignores him that is all. She is sight sighted when she sells Conradin's beloved hen. She is
well aware that her cousin spends more time with it. She is unaware of sensitive feelings of
childhood.
After selling Conradin's hen, Mrs. De Ropp does stops. She finds her cousin still going to the store
room. So, she goes there to see with which her cousin passes his time. This is time when she is
killed by ferret, SrediniVashtar. So the pit she digs for her cousin, she herself falls into it. In the
end of the story, she proves herself short-sighted.
--------------------------------------------------------------

3-THE PRISON
 By Bernard Malamud
A Few Words about the Author- A Biography
Bernard Malamud was born on April 26, 1914, in Brooklyn, New York Malamud began writing
while still in school at Erasmus High, publishing his first story in the school literary magazine. He
attended the City College of New York, receiving a B.A. in 1936, following with a master's in
literature from Columbia University. He took a teaching position at Erasmus, and later on, at the
University of Oregon, where he remained for twelve years. It was there that Malamud published
his first four novels. Then in 1961, he became a professor at Bennington College and spent the
remainder of his teaching career there.
Maladmud is most renowned for his short stories, oblique allegories often set in a dreamlike urban
ghetto of immigrant Jews. H prose, like his settings, is an artful parody of Yiddish-English
locutions, punctuated by sudden lyricism. Malamud's first novel The Natural, published in 1952,
is about a superhumanly baseball play who goes on an exploration of the Grail myth which was
later adapt in a movie. The Magic Barrel (1958) won a National Book Award and, established him
as one of the best short-story writers. The Fixer, his best-known novel, won the National Book
Award in 1966 and The Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Among his other novels were The Assistant
(1957), set in a Jewish grocer in New York, and Dublin’s Lives (1979), a powerful evocation of
middle age which uses biography to re-create the narrative richness of its protagonists lives.
Malamund died on March 18, 1986.

Summary:
"The Prison" is a poignant short story by Bernard Malamud that explores themes of
confinement, disillusionment, and the longing for freedom through the life of Tommy Castelli, a
man trapped by his circumstances and poor life choices.
Important Characters:
1. Tommy Castelli (Tony): The protagonist, who feels trapped in his life and regrets the
choices that led him to where he is. Once a rebellious youth, he now runs a candy store and
feels imprisoned by his unfulfilled dreams.
2. Rosa Castelli: Tommy's wife, who is practical and resigned to their life. She represents the
reality that Tommy wants to escape but can't.
3. The Young Girl: A neighborhood girl who frequently steals candy from the store. She
becomes a symbol of the lost innocence and opportunities Tommy wishes to save.

Plot Summary:
Tommy Castelli, formerly known as Tony, is a man in his early thirties who feels deeply trapped
in his current life. His journey into this imprisonment began in his youth when he was a rebellious
teenager dreaming of a better life. However, poor choices and unfortunate circumstances led him
to his present situation.
Tommy runs a small, dingy candy store in a lower-middle-class neighborhood, a business that his
father-in-law helped him start. The store represents everything Tommy despises about his life:
the monotony, the lack of fulfillment, and the suffocating routine. He feels imprisoned by his
responsibilities and the drudgery of his daily existence.
His wife, Rosa, is practical and grounded, content with their life and the store. She has little
patience for Tommy's discontent and dreams of escape. Their marriage is strained, with little
affection or understanding between them. Rosa's pragmatic approach to life starkly contrasts with
Tommy's yearning for something more.
Tommy's sense of entrapment is further highlighted by his interactions with a young girl who
frequently visits the store. She often steals small items of candy, which Tommy notices but does
nothing about. The girl reminds him of his younger self, filled with rebellion and the desire to break
free from constraints. Tommy sees in her a chance to save someone else from a fate similar to
his own.
One day, Tommy decides to confront the girl. Instead of punishing her, he tries to talk to her and
understand her situation. He sees this as an opportunity to make a difference, to prevent someone
from making the same mistakes he did. However, the girl is unresponsive and indifferent to his
attempts to help her. She views his concern as intrusive and unwelcome.

Tommy's efforts to change the girl's path and, by extension, to find some meaning in his own life
ultimately fail. His attempt to save her only reinforces his sense of powerlessness and futility. He
realizes that, like him, she is likely to be trapped by her circumstances, and there is little he can
do to alter that.

In the end, Tommy returns to his store, resigned to his fate. The candy store, with its barred
windows and confined space, remains his prison. He continues his daily routine, feeling even
more acutely the weight of his unfulfilled dreams and the inescapable nature of his life.

Themes and Analysis:

"The Prison" explores themes of confinement, disillusionment, and the search for meaning.
Tommy's life is a reflection of his internal prison, shaped by his past choices and the subsequent
limitations they impose on him. His candy store is a physical manifestation of his entrapment, a
place where his dreams have come to die.
Tommy's interactions with the young girl symbolize his desperate desire to find redemption and
purpose. By attempting to save her, he hopes to save a part of himself. However, his failure to
connect with her highlights the story's grim reality: some forms of imprisonment are inescapable,
and some lives are predestined for disappointment.
Rosa's character represents acceptance and practicality, contrasting sharply with Tommy's
discontent and longing for escape. Her ability to make peace with their life underscores the futility
of Tommy's dreams of change, further deepening his sense of isolation and despair.
Malamud's story is a poignant commentary on the human condition, the consequences of our
choices, and the often-unbridgeable gap between our dreams and reality. "The Prison" serves as
a reminder of the importance of finding meaning within our circumstances, even when escape
seems impossible.

QUESTIONS AND THEIR ANSWERS

Q. 1. Give a brief introduction of the story, "The Prison" by Bernard Malamud.
OR What is the short story, "The Prison" about? OR Is this the story about a
disillusioned man Tommy?
OR Explain the title, The Prison in your own words? The Prison by Bernard
Malamud.
Ans. "The Prison" portrays the unadventurous and fatigued routine of a Youngman,
Tommy in his grocery shop. One fine morning, he notices a young girl of about ten who
is stealing two chocolate bars. The girl feels fear after being discovered with her act of
stealing, yet he doesn't say anything. One day, Rosa, Tommy's wife, catches the girl red-
handed. He slaps Rosa and tells the girl to go home. Her mother comes and takes the
girl home after scolding. The girl makes an ironical gesture at the end, which shatters
Tommy's sentimentalism. He has never ever expected such an experience in his life
which had left him disillusioned with his virtuous and righteous approach towards the
underprivileged youngsters.
Q.2 How does setting affect the plot of "The Prison" by Bernard Malamud?
OR The Post Second World War period influences the story to a greater extent.
Explain.
OR Life is but a piece of shocking events. Explain this statement in the light of the
short story "The Prison".Ans. The setting of the short story "The Prison" is a candy
shop which is run by a young man named Tommy Castelli. He feels stifled by his life and
his tedious routine. Tommy wants something more adventurous from life, but since people
have made his decisions for him since he was a child, he doesn't know what, or how to
go about it. The candy shop, which he hates, provides him both livelihood and security
but keeps him from moving or leaving. He is shocked at the ironical treatment of his life.
He isdisillusioned when a shop-lifter shatters his sentimentalism and rattlesthe spiritual
side of his life and leaves him shocked.
Q. 3. Describe briefly the various themes of the story "The Prison".
OR Write down the summary/synopsis of the short story "The Prison" by Bernard
Malamud.
OR How do the events and incidents come about in the short story, "The Prison"
by Bernard Malamud?
OR Tommy's life is replete with unexpected events and unasked for compromises.
Elaborate this statement briefly.
Ans. Tommy Castelli, the central character in this short story, is imprisoned in the candy
store in which he has worked for a decade Uncertain of a promising future he indulges
into immoral activities like indulging into revelries. But he has a sympathetic heart that's
why he lets the young shoplifter go from his shop even after he knows the reality that she
comes their often for the purpose of pilfering. He doesn't even blame her for her acts of
theft even after she is caught red-handed. It shows that Tommy might also have passed
through the same childhood of deprivation. But this incident also leaves indelible marks
on his life as he is sentimentally shattered and spiritually rattled.
Q.4: Write down the character of Tommy Castelli. OR Tommy is a sensitive and
sympathetic person. Explain.
OR Tommy's life is nothing but a blend of unasked for compromises. Discuss in
the light of the story "The Prison".
Ans. Tommy Castelli is a twenty-nine-year-old unwilling but soft-hearted and sensitive
owner of a candy store-Before his marriage, he was called Tony, "a kid of many dreams
and schemes." His life is, in fact, a blend of unasked for compromises and unexpected
events. He wants to rise in life. He is not only sentimental but also rebellious in nature
and wishes to bring a healthy change in his life. He thinks that marriage has fettered his
abilities to strive for a better life. He has a great sacrificing and forgiving spirit which can
well be seen through his attitude towards that little girl. He is still very optimistic and is
always ready to face all the daring challenges of his life.
Q. 5. What influence does Tommy's wife have on his life? OR Describe Rosa's role
in the short story, "The Prison."
OR Tommy seems to be uxorious but it is his compulsion to do so.Explain it in the
light of the "short story, "The Prison".
Ans. Her full name is Rosa [Agnello] Castelli: She is Tommy's wife. She is a woman "too
plain and lank" for Tommy's taste; he had to "beat it off to Texas" and "sat idly" for a while
before he decided to get married. She is a kind of domineering woman who wants her
husband to be completely under her control.
Tommy had to sing the praise of his wife quite often just because she is the real owner of
the store and she exercises her influence on him quite a lot. In fact, the idea of the store
is imbibed by her in her father's mind in order to make Tommy grind and toil over there
for the rest of his life.
Q. 6. Discuss the title of the short story The Prison' as a metaphor. OR Describe
the significance of the title in the story "The Prison."
OR in ‘The Prison' the title shows the failure in relationships. Explain your answer.
OR What is the symbolic significance of the title, "The Prison?"
OR "The Prison" serves for a wider interpretation in this short story. Explain.
OR The life becomes a prison when it is not bringing out the fruit. Discuss this
statement in the light of "The Prison." OR "The Prison" is a metaphor. Do you
agree? OR The Prison is a reality and a metaphor. Discuss. OR Explain the
significance of the title "The Prison."
Ans. The title of this short story, "The Prison" defines a limit for every character to act
within the social circle. For instance, Tommy, the main character has been running a
candy store for about a decade and this store has not only physically bound him but his
mental capabilities also seem to be enchained due to which he can never fulfill his aspiring
dreams. He is bound to live his life within this cell like candy store. The other character
like the red-tongued girl also seems to be imprisoned by her kleptomaniac acts. In the
same way, boundary, which explains the title of the story on a deeper and symbolic level.
Q. 7. "Life shows many a great ups and downs to a man." Is this statement true
with reference to "The Prison?"OR How is the plot of the short story, "The Prison"
built by Bernard? Does it create a sense of pity among the readers? OR Bernard
Malamud has skillfully approached the issues of thelower middle class in his short
story, "The Prison."
Ans. This story is about a man, Tommy who belongs to lower middle class who is trying
to survive through the odds of life He has been running a candy shop for more than a
decade to make an honest living. Bernard Malamud wants to exhibit the sense of
compassion and sympathy of the lower middle class people for the lower class. As a little
girl who steals some ordinary things like chocolate bars consecutively for six Mondays
from his shop but Tommy being a tender-hearted person at heart, doesn't let her feel
embarrassed even after he discovers her doing so. Seeing fear in her eyes, however, he
says anything. All this shows Tommy's deep compassion for the under privileged class.
Q. 8. "The Prison" explores the idea of confinement at various levels in our lives.
Discuss.
OR Discuss prison as a metaphor in "The Prison". OR "The Prison demonstrates
how hopelessly we get trapped by our own decisions. Prove or refute.
Ans. The story "The Prison" is about metaphorical confinement of man in this world or
the circumstance around him. The protagonist of the story is imprisoned in the bond of
marriage as he gets married to the lady whom he does not like much. He is also confined
in a shop from dawn to night. His life is a cell for him as he is not happy with his boring
routine. There is not merriment in his life.
Tony is not happy with his wife Rosa. He has not entertainment in his life except watching
movie on every Tuesday. His wife even does not take part in this activity which shows
that they do not have happy harmony with each other. The other characters of the story
too are imprisoned in their circumstances and fail to get liberty. Such Rosa she too seems
unhappy from her life and husband. On the other hand, the little girl who use to steal
chocolates from their shop also a sort of prisoner who also bound to steal. The little girl
he imprisoned in her economic circumstances and cannot afford chocolates for herself
that why she does steal. The story is retort on the modern man's life who is a prisoner of
his circumstances.
Q. 9. What makes the short story The Prison so sad? How does Bernard Malamud
strikingly portray Tommy's desire to escape? OR What kind of day to day
imprisonment is discussed in "The Prison"?
Ans. The story "The Prison" is about day to day challenges, complications and
responsibilities faced by man which make him feel as if he is a prisoner in this world. At
first the protagonist of the story thinks his marriage bond as hackle in which he has been
tied without his will. Then he does not like the boring routine of shop keeping for which he
is bound from day to night like a bull. The author also wants to shed light on this universal
phenomenon that a matrimonial life becomes a prison if it is devoid of love and
understanding. The little girl who steals candies from Tommy's shop is also seems to b
imprisoned in the shackles of poverty who could not afford the little desires and wishes of
her life. Tommy shop is a prison for him which he has been confined without his will. The
other character like the red tongued girl also seems to be imprisoned by her kleptomania
acts. Last but not least everyone in the world is imprisoned by some social boundaries.
-------------------------------------------------------------

4-BILLENNIUM
By J.G.Ballard
A Few Words about the Author - A Biography
The full name of J.G. Ballard is James Graham Ballard. He was born on 15th November, 1930 in
a Chinese city Shanghai, He died on 19th April, 2009 in London, England. He was the son of a
British business executive based in China. Ballard spent four years of his boyhood in a Japanese
prison camp near Shanghai during World War II. This experience is recounted in his largely
autobiographical novel "Empire of the Sun" (1984; film 1987)
The devastated city and nearby countryside also provided settings for several of his apocalyptic
novels. He attended King's College, Cambridge, but left without a degree. His first short stories
appeared in the 1950s. Beginning in the 1960s, Ballard wrote longer works, including The
Drowned World (1962), The Wind from Nowhere (1962), The Burning World (1964), and The
Crystal World (1966).
With the violent images of his short stories in The Atrocity Exhibition (1970; also published as
Love and Napalm; Export U.S.A: film 2000), Ballard began writing of dehumanized sect and
technology at their most extreme. His novels Crash (1973; film 1996), Concrete Island (1974),
and High Rise (1975; film 2015) depict 20th-century middle-class people devolving into savagery.
Contrasting with this apocalyptic vision of the future were his almost wistful short stories about
the decadent technological utopia Vermilion Sands; these were collected in Vermillion Sands
(1970)
His short-story collection War Fever (1990) contains humorously nihilistic meditations on such
topics as compulsory sex and the oblivious attitudes of a media-saturated society Ballard's stylistic
debts to Joseph Conrad are evident in his novel The Day of Creation (1987). The Kindness of
Women (1991) follows the alternately dissipated and transcendent later life of the protagonist of
Empire of the Sun and is written in the same semi-autobiographical vein as its predecessor.
Ballard infused later works with new variations on the dystopian themes of his earlier novels.
Rushing to Paradise (1994) concerns an environmentalist se rabidly committed to her cause that
she becomes homicidal, and Cocaine Nights (1996) centers on an island community whose
cultured lifestyle is supported by crime. Ballard deploys events of extraordinary violence in the
plots of Super-Cannes (2000), Millennium People (2003), and Kingdom Come (2006), effectively
exposing the foibles of his middle-class characters by documenting their reactions to the violence
against a stark backdrop of shopping malls and office parks.

Summary:
"Billennium" is a dystopian short story by J.G. Ballard that explores themes of overpopulation,
personal space, and societal control. Set in a future where the population has exploded to an
unsustainable level, the story follows two friends, John Ward and Henry Rossiter, as they navigate
their claustrophobic world.
Important Characters:
1. John Ward: The protagonist, who works as a government clerk. Ward is a thoughtful and
somewhat passive character who dreams of a better life but feels trapped by the overcrowded
conditions.
2. Henry Rossiter: Ward's close friend and roommate. Rossiter is more optimistic and proactive,
always looking for ways to improve their living situation.
3. Judith and Helen: Two women who enter Ward and Rossiter's life later in the story, adding
complexity to their living situation.

Plot Summary:
The story is set in a future where overpopulation has reached critical levels. Cities are packed
with people, and living spaces have shrunk to minuscule sizes. Personal space is a luxury, and
people live in tiny cubicles barely large enough to lie down in.
John Ward, the protagonist, is a government clerk who shares a cramped cubicle with his friend,
Henry Rossiter. Despite their bleak surroundings, the two friends maintain a close bond and often
dream of finding a larger living space. They yearn for a time when people had the luxury of
personal space and privacy.
One day, Ward and Rossiter discover a hidden room behind a wall in their cubicle. This room is
significantly larger than their current space, and they are thrilled by the prospect of having more
room to live. They secretly move into the hidden room and relish the newfound space and comfort.
Their joy is short-lived, however, as they begin to tell others about their discovery. Word spreads
quickly, and soon other people start moving into the room. Despite their initial intentions to keep
the space for themselves, Ward and Rossiter feel obligated to share it with others due to societal
pressures and the dire need for living space.
As more people move in, the hidden room becomes as crowded and uncomfortable as their
previous living situation. The room, once a symbol of hope and freedom, turns into another
cramped and oppressive space. The friends find themselves back where they started, trapped in
a world where personal space is nonexistent and privacy is a distant memory.
The story ends on a bleak note, highlighting the inescapable reality of overpopulation and the
futility of seeking personal comfort in such a world. Ward and Rossiter's brief glimpse of a better
life is extinguished, leaving them resigned to their cramped and oppressive existence.

Themes and Analysis:

"Billennium" explores the themes of overpopulation, personal space, and societal control. The
story paints a grim picture of a future where the population has grown beyond the planet's capacity
to sustain it. The lack of personal space and privacy is a central concern, reflecting the
dehumanizing effects of overcrowded living conditions.
The hidden room symbolizes hope and the desire for a better life, but it also represents the futility
of such aspirations in a world constrained by overpopulation. Ward and Rossiter's decision to
share the space, driven by societal expectations and moral obligations, underscores the theme
of societal control and the loss of individual freedom.
The story also examines the human tendency to adapt to adverse conditions, even when they are
clearly detrimental. Ward and Rossiter's initial excitement and eventual resignation highlight the
resilience of the human spirit, but also its vulnerability to external pressures and the inevitability
of conforming to societal norms.
In conclusion, "Billennium" is a thought-provoking story that raises important questions about the
future of humanity in the face of overpopulation. Through the experiences of Ward and Rossiter,
Ballard explores the consequences of unchecked population growth and the resulting loss of
personal freedom and dignity. The story serves as a cautionary tale, reminding readers of the
importance of sustainable living and the need to address the challenges of overpopulation before
it is too late.

QUESTIONS AND THEIR ANSWERS

Q.1. Discuss the Relevance of the Title Billennium by J.G. Ballard.

Ans. Relevance of the Title of the story is "Billennium" (a bit spacious room) that refers to the time
far into future when population of the city would increase to an extent. It will be a time when the
people of the city would have to face many difficulties. They will have no proper place to live in.
They will live in cabin like cells. They will not have sufficient place to live in. They will lose their
freedom of living alone. They will have to live with many other roommates. The main part of the
earth will be populated so there will be no place for further construction. As a result, new
population will have to be adjusted within places already populated with so many people.
In this story, the writer has presented the situation like we read above. The characters of the story
John Ward and Henry Rossiter scanned newspaper for a spacious room to live in. They are fed
up of living in a small room of four square meters. There is no further place to build new
apartments so the government has decided to minimize the size of place for a person even to
three and a half meter in future. This is really alarming for the population. On the other hand, John
Ward and Henry Rossiter succeed in getting a better residence. They start living happily but soon
the condition becomes the worst. They allow their old friends to live with them. They bring their
families as well, so they have to live in a congested environment again.

Q. 2. Discuss the thematic concerns of Billennium by J.G. Ballard. OR Discuss the

Main Themes of Story "Billennium by J.G. Ballard."
Ans: Main themes of the Story.
The main themes of Billennium are overpopulation. We see that overpopulation has deprived of
the inhabitant of the city from better and spacious accommodation. A specific land of the city is
specified for growing food for the population, so there is no further place to build new apartments.
The government has already changed churches and historical building into apartments. So the
new population is being adjusted within apartments which are already populated. The government
has decided to provide four square meters space for a person to live in.
The other theme of the story is loss of privacy. Many people have to live with others in a room.
So they have lost their privacy. The main characters of the story John Ward and Henry Rossiter
want to get rid of such situation. They try to find a separate place to live in. They succeed in finding
such a place but soon their privacy is affected. They invite their old pals who shifted with their
families. This ends private life of Ward and Henry.
The third theme of the story is power. When John Ward and Henry Rossiter get extra space, they
feel themselves powerful. They become authority. So they invite othes to live with them. They
have power to allow or to abandon others from their place alongwith earning money.

Q. 3. Write a note on character of John Ward in the story Billenium by J.G. Ballard.
Ans: John Ward is the main character of the story. He along with his friend Henry Rossiter Ward
lives in a narrow room He is a middle aged person. He is a librarian by profession. He loves
historical buildings. He is much dejected over demolishing the Victorian wardrobe to make more
space for living. He is not an active person. He hates landlords of his city who have changed living
rooms into cubicles just to earn more money. He loves freedom. He wants to enjoy a private life
so he tries to find some places where there no one would be to disturb his life. For that purpose,
he scanned classified ads in the newspaper. In this way, he succeeds in acquiring such an
accommodation.
Ward's character is also ironical. He hates landlord as they have turned living rooms into cells just
to earn money. But when he himself gets a spacious room, he offers his friends to live with him.
He lets them to live with him just to earn money. Here he not only becomes a ward but also loses
his privacy and free space for which he has already left the previous accommodation.

Q. 4. Write a note on character of Henry Rossiter in the story Billennium by J.G.

Ballard.
Ans: Henry Rossiter is one of the two main characters of the story who are in search of a free
space to live in. He is a close friend of Ward. He is a government servant. He is an active person
as compare to Ward who is a passive figure. He has convincing power. He dominates Ward in
making decision to bring their friends to the newly acquired accommodation. The decision
becomes drastic when their friends bring their families as well. These families not only consume
extra space but also end their privacy as well.
Henry is not only romantic like John Ward but also is a realist. He is an intelligent person who has
the power to convince others. He is a man who reads future well before. He knows that the
government is going to cut the size of limit of minimum space for a person to live down to three
meter and a half. So he finds a spacious room to live in. But at the same way, he spoils the fruit
of enjoy a spacious place to live in by bringing their friends and their families there.

Q.5."The Billennium' is a futuristic story where the writer has depicted the danger
the human race would face. Explain your answer.
Ans. J. G. Ballard was born on 15th November 1930 in a Chinese city Shanghai. He died on 19th
April, 2009 in London, England. He was the son of a British business executives based in China.,
Ballard spent four years of his boyhood in a Japanese' prison camp near Shanghai during World
War II. This experience is recounted in his largely autobiographical novel "Empire of the Sun"
(1984; film 1987).
The population of the world has been increased to 30 billion. It is about 21st century. People have
to live in room of 3.5 to 4 square meters’ room. Historical buildings and old churches have been
taken down to make way for new homes. City streets are narrow and overcrowded with people.
Most of the population of the world is living in the cities and rural areas are devoted for cultivation.
The areas are specified to produce food so that the increasing population may not have to face
food shortage.
John Ward and Henry Rossiter are two main characters in the story that are kicked out of their
houses. They try to find some spacious room to live in. For that purpose, they scanned classified
ads in the different newspapers. At last they discover a secret, larger than average room that was
being used as a wardrobe. They start living happily in their paradise they buy furniture for their
room that they have discovered. They choose heavy Victorian furniture that no one wants as there
is no space to fit it in. They are especially fond of a mahogany wardrobe that has carved
decorations. But soon they invite their two close friends, Judith and Helen. Later, they, along their
families move in, the wardrobe loses its shine as it is found to be occupying too much space. In
this way, the spacious wardrobe again becomes congested. So, both characters have to live in
environment like that they had got rid of.

Q.6. The story ‘Billennium’ is a reflection of a dystopian world that is smudged both
by overpopulation and chaos. Elaborate.
Ans. Ballard cunningly crafts a dystopian world by providing a clear depiction of the effects, of
this extremely overpopulated city, on the individuals (Ward) and the society. He also vividly
portrays different aspects of the city. In the passage, Ballard explains and provides a vivid
illustration of the way the society is affected, and ways it is different from ours due to this dystopian
setting. The society is now exhausted and extremely bored. When they step into the pedestrian
stream,' the 'pedestrians are forced along the path. Ballard effectively uses the metaphor
'pedestrian stream' to provide various implications: streams are constantly moving; similarly, he
is suggesting that people are constantly working, which leads to the idea that they are exhausted.
Streams are also the smallest water bodies; this emphasizes the theme of congestion, as it
illustrates numerous people moving in a small, narrow space. Furthermore, streams usually lead
on to bigger water bodies, which foreshadows that a bigger problem is coming up, just like bigger
water body awaits a stream. Streams also only consist of water droplets. This could suggest that
people are all the same; and just like how it is impossible to tell a water droplet from another water
droplet, people are so similar to each other, it is nearly impossible to same direction. Likewise, all
people are forced to think the same way. Moreover, everything in a stream heads in the same
way, and thus all creativity and individuality within the society has been lost. To add on to this
idea, there are trillions and millions of water molecules in a stream, which further highlights the
theme of overcrowding, as it suggests that there are numerous people in this 'pedestrian stream'.
The dystopian world is also crafted by Ballard as the government as an illogical, voracious
bureaucracy. 'if they had enough children (three was the required minimum) they might even one
day own a small room of their own.
------------------------------------------------------------

5-ELEPHANT
By Raymond Carver

A Few Words about the Author - A Biography

Raymond Carver was born on May 25, 1938, in small-town Oregon, USA. He was raised in the
state of Washington. He grew up watching his father struggle with alcoholism, an affliction that
proved to be hereditary and would eventually claim Carver as well. His father worked at a sawmill,
and his mother worked as a waitress.
When he was eighteen, he married his high school girlfriend, Maryann Burke, with whom he'd
have a second child by the time he was twenty-one. After high school, Carver and his family
moved to California, where he worked a variety of odd jobs, which would later provide inspiration
for the down-and-out, blue-collar characters of his stories. In 1958, Carver discovered his interest
in writing when he began taking classes at Chico State College under the instruction of writer
John Gardner.
He began writing poetry and short stories and published his first poetry collections, Near Klamath
and Winter Insomnia, in 1968 and 1970, respectively. He published his first short-story collection,
Will You Please Be Quiet, Please? in 1976. The collection has since become one of his best-
known works. His poetry and fiction received much critical praise, and he began teaching writing
at the college level.
He was a drinker who drinks too much. His habit of eventually supplanted kept him away from
any kind of productive work. He was hospitalized several times but failed at his attempts to quit.
Finally, in 1977, he stopped drinking and took a break from short-story writing so that he could
simply work at staying sober. When he started writing again, he went on to publish several more
collections, including What We Talk About When We Talk About Love (1981), Cathedral
(1983), and Elephant (published posthumously in 1988). Two compilations of Carver's stories
have also been published: Where I'm Calling from (1988) and Short Cuts: Selected Stories (1993).
Hollywood director Robert Altman made a film version of Short Cuts in 1993.
He is known for his minimalist approach to prose, and for this reason he's often compared to
Ernest Hemingway and Anton Chekhov. His short stories focus on middle-class, often blue-collar
people who are struggling with hard truths, disappointments, inertia and small glimmers of hope
in their ordinary lives. He is considered writer of the "dirty-realism" school.
His short stories are also recognizable for their abrupt ending sometimes called "zero endings,"
which do not seem to tie up the story neatly, if at all. "What We Talk About When We Talk About
Love" one of Carver's most famous stories and often regarded as the epitome of the dirty-realism
school.
He divorced his wife in 1982, and he married his longtime girlfriend, writer Tess Gallagher, in
1988. They were married for or a few months before Carver died from lung cancer at age fifty
August 2, 1988 in Port Angeles, USA.

Summary:
"Elephant" is a short story by Raymond Carver that delves into themes of family responsibility,
financial burden, and the struggle for personal freedom. The story is narrated by a man who is
weighed down by the financial and emotional demands of his family.
Important Characters:
1. The Narrator: The protagonist, a man in his late forties or early fifties who works hard but feels
overwhelmed by the financial responsibilities he has towards his family.
2. The Narrator’s Mother: An elderly woman who relies on her son for financial support and lives
in another town.
3. The Narrator’s Ex-Wife: She receives alimony and also asks for additional money for various
expenses.
4. The Narrator’s Son: A young man who is unemployed and lives off his father’s support.
5. The Narrator’s Daughter: She lives in Australia and regularly asks her father for money to
support her and her children.
6. The Narrator’s Brother: A man who frequently borrows money from the narrator, promising
to pay it back but never does.

Plot Summary:
The story begins with the narrator reflecting on his life and the constant demands placed upon
him by his family. He feels like he is carrying the weight of an elephant on his shoulders due to
the financial burdens from his mother, ex-wife, children, and brother.
The narrator’s mother constantly asks for money to help with her bills. Despite her reassurances
that she can manage on her own, she frequently calls her son, expressing her need for financial
assistance. The narrator dutifully sends her money every month.
The ex-wife of the narrator, who receives regular alimony payments, often asks for additional
money for various expenses. Despite their divorce, the narrator feels obligated to help her out
financially, leading to further strain on his already stretched resources.
The narrator’s son is another source of financial stress. He is unemployed and relies heavily on
his father’s financial support. He often calls, asking for money to cover his living expenses, adding
to the narrator’s growing frustration.
The narrator’s daughter lives in Australia with her children. She frequently reaches out to her
father, requesting money to support her family. The distance does not diminish her reliance on
him, and the narrator feels compelled to help her despite his own financial difficulties.
The narrator’s brother is perhaps the biggest drain on his finances. He often borrows money with
the promise of paying it back, but he never does. This constant borrowing adds to the narrator’s
sense of helplessness and frustration.
As the story progresses, the narrator’s sense of entrapment deepens. He dreams of escaping his
burdens and finding freedom, but he is unable to break free from his obligations. One day, the
narrator imagines what it would be like to escape to a place where he has no responsibilities. He
fantasizes about living a simple, carefree life, free from the constant demands of his family.
However, the reality of his situation always pulls him back. Despite his dreams of escape, the
narrator continues to support his family, feeling a mixture of resentment and duty. He understands
that his family relies on him, and he cannot bring himself to abandon them, no matter how much
he desires freedom.
The story ends on a poignant note, with the narrator accepting his fate. He acknowledges that he
will never be free from his responsibilities, but he finds a small measure of peace in knowing that
he is doing his best to support his loved ones. His dreams of escape remain just that—dreams—
but he takes solace in the knowledge that he is fulfilling his role as a provider.

Themes and Analysis:

"Elephant" explores themes of familial duty, financial stress, and the desire for personal freedom.
The narrator’s life is a testament to the weight of responsibility and the sacrifices one makes for
family. The story highlights the often-unseen burdens that come with being the primary provider
for a family, especially when that family includes dependents who continually rely on financial
support.
The title "Elephant" metaphorically represents the enormous weight and pressure the narrator
feels from his family’s constant demands. The story poignantly depicts the struggle between duty
and the yearning for liberation, showing how familial obligations can dominate and shape one’s
life.
In conclusion, "Elephant" is a powerful narrative about the sacrifices and burdens of family
responsibility. Through the narrator’s experiences, Carver paints a vivid picture of the emotional
and
financial toll of being the backbone of a family, illustrating the complex mix of love, duty,
resentment, and acceptance that comes with it.

QUESTIONS AND THEIR ANSWERS

Q.1. Discuss a few themes you find in the short story Elephant by Raymond Carver.
Ans. The main theme of the story Elephant by Raymond Carver is struggle. The protagonist of
the story struggles day and night. He earns a lot of money but he has nothing as a saving. Even
he has no money to spend on his basic needs like entertainment, good shoes and clothes and
maintenance of health. We come to know all money he earns is divided among his siblings. He
has many dependents that include his mother, brother, ex-wife and children of his married
daughter and for his son who goes to a college. He seems a donkey who is lifting load more than
his capacity.
Dependence and security are two other themes we find in the story. The main character of the
story has so many dependents. He wants to get rid of them and wishes to enjoy his life according
to his own will. But at the same time, he is a responsible person. He knows that his dependents
need security that can only provide through financial assistance. So, though he is fed up his
services, he decides to continue providing financial security to his dependents.
The theme of acceptance is another theme we find in the story. The narrator of the story is about
to stop helping his dependents. He is too tired to work. He wants to enjoy life. But when he has a
dream in which his father come in the form of an elephant and advises him to keep on his services
for his relatives, he is convinced and gets ready to accept his role he is already playing. His
acceptance shows that he is willing to work for others.

Q. 2. Why, do you think, the dream of the narrator is so important?

Ans. The dream the narrator has is of much importance. In his dream, the narrator's father is an
elephant. The protagonist sees that he is sitting on his father's shoulders. He rides on top of his
father. Here we discuss those reasons for which the dream becomes important.
The dream gives the hero support. He is dejected over his plight. His father becomes as a symbol
of hope. He tells him that things will be okay 'You can let go, he said, I've got you. You won't fall.'
In the whole story, we come to know that there is no one to console him. All are greedy and
selfish. But, in dream, his father is there to console him and to support him. It is dream after that
the hero decides to play the role of his father. He decides to continue helping his dependent rather
than to quit.
The importance of dream becomes prominent when, on the next day as he goes on his work. He
is resolute to play the role his father has already played. He realistically thinks that members of
his family need his support rather than money. He regrets if he had not played his role, his siblings
would have not been enjoying their lives. H decides to play the role of an active leader or a
supporter rather than to be a passive figure. When he is standing outside Smitty's cafe with his
arms level with his shoulders, mirroring his dream of him sitting on his father's shoulders, he
becomes resolute for letting go. So see changes occur soon after the dream.

Q.3.The end of the story "The Elephant" is ironical. What do think?

Ans. Irony is defined as difference between appearance and reality the start of the story; we come
to know that the narrator is g give up his role of supporting his family. He is tired of work long
hours. He himself has no time and money to enjoy his life. He is leading a life for others. He is
pulling a cart for others.
After the hero of the story has dream, he changes his idea. To the wonder of the reader, he
accepts his role and decides to let go. This seems ironical. The person who was unwilling to play
his role becomes resolute to play more rapidly. We see him standing outside Smitty's cafe. His
work colleague, George offers him a lift. He knows that his friend's car is unpaid. He is always in
debt like his own family. He asks him to drive his car as fast as he can. It seems, he has accepted
his previous role of supporting his family. Now wants to live a care free life. He decides to let go.
He comes to know that there are many other good things beside money. He prefers merriments
of his siblings to money.

Q.4. What is the symbolic significance of the title Elephant? OR

What do you think the title of the story Elephant signify?
Ans. In the story "The Elephant" we come across elephant in a dream the narrator of the story
has. He sees that his father is an elephant and he is riding him. We know an elephant is prodigious
animal. In this story the word Elephant is used symbolically. Author's father had supported a large
family when he alive. It was a Herculean task to support such a large family of idlers. Only a
person having power and body like an elephant can support such a family. An elephant like person
can do so much hard work for such a family. So the protagonist of the story works hard and
supports a large number of relatives.
The writer of the story focuses on the literal meaning of the elephant. Elephants are animals that
rely on their family links. They chose a leader who leads the other members of the family. The
leader is often a mother elephant. She leads herd of elephants. In the same way, the narrator is
an elephant and herd of his family sees to lead them in any way. He assumes that he is playing
the role of matriarch, the leader of herd of elephants. They all need his help to survive. They all
are dependents like elephants. Narrator's brother needs 500 dollars. He is unaware of difficulties
of his brother. He continues to ask for money throughout the whole story.
As the elephant sacrifices for his family, so does the narrator. He, even himself lives a life of
misery submits money to his family regularly. For the sake of his family he decides to live a difficult
life once again. So we see that the title of the story is suitable to the characters as well as
conditions.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

GRAMMAR

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES:
Conditional sentences are used to express that the action in the main clause (the result clause)
can only take place if a certain condition (the condition clause) is fulfilled. They often start with "if"
or "unless."
Types of Conditional Sentences
1. Zero Conditional
2. First Conditional
3. Second Conditional
4. Third Conditional
5. Mixed Conditional

1. Zero Conditional
Definition: The zero conditional is used for statements about the real world, often general truths
such as scientific facts.
Structure:
- If + present simple, present simple
Examples:
- If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.
- If it rains, the ground gets wet.
- If you mix red and blue, you get purple.

2. First Conditional
Definition: The first conditional is used for real or possible situations in the future. It expresses
something that might happen if a certain condition is met.
Structure:
- If + present simple, will + base verb
Examples:
- If it rains tomorrow, we will cancel the picnic.
- If you study hard, you will pass the exam.
- If she calls me, I will answer.

3. Second Conditional
Definition: The second conditional is used for hypothetical or unlikely situations in the present or
future. It expresses a situation that is not true now, or a future event that is unlikely to happen.
Structure:
- If + past simple, would + base verb
Examples:
- If I won the lottery, I would buy a mansion.
- If I were you, I would talk to her.
- If he had more time, he would travel more.

4. Third Conditional
Definition: The third conditional is used for hypothetical situations in the past. It talks about a
situation that did not happen and imagines the result of this past situation.
Structure:
- If + past perfect, would have + past participle
Examples:
- If I had known about the meeting, I would have attended.
- If they had left earlier, they would have caught the train.
- If she had studied harder, she would have passed the test.

5. Mixed Conditional
Definition: Mixed conditionals are used to express situations where the time in the "if" clause is
different from the time in the result clause. They often talk about a past condition with a present
result or a present condition with a past result.
Structure:
- Past condition with present result: If + past perfect, would + base verb
- Present condition with past result: If + past simple, would have + past participle
Examples:
- Past condition with present result: If I had studied medicine, I would be a doctor now.
- Present condition with past result: If she were more careful, she wouldn't have broken the vase.

Summary of Structures
1. Zero Conditional: If + present simple, present simple
2. First Conditional: If + present simple, will + base verb
3. Second Conditional: If + past simple, would + base verb
4. Third Conditional: If + past perfect, would have + past participle
5. Mixed Conditional: Combination of different times in "if" clause and result clause

Common Points
- "If" Clause: This part of the sentence sets the condition.
- Result Clause: This part of the sentence tells the result of the condition being met.
Practice Sentences
1. Zero Conditional: If you press the switch, the light turns on.
2. First Conditional: If she finishes work early, she will join us for dinner.
3. Second Conditional: If I had a car, I would drive to the beach.
4. Third Conditional: If they had invited me, I would have gone to the party.
5. Mixed Conditional:
- Past condition with present result: If I had saved more money, I would be traveling now.
- Present condition with past result: If he were honest, he wouldn't have lost his job.
---------------------------------------------------------------

COMMON ERRORS IN ENGLISH

Common errors in English can occur in various aspects of grammar, usage, and pronunciation.
These errors often arise due to misunderstandings of the rules, irregularities in the language, or
influence from one's native language. Here are some of the most frequent errors along with
examples and explanations.
1. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Definition: The subject and verb in a sentence must agree in number (singular or plural).
Common Errors:
- Incorrect: She go to school every day.
- Correct: She goes to school every day.
- Incorrect: The books is on the table.
- Correct: The books are on the table.
2. PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
Definition: A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number and gender.
Common Errors:
- Incorrect: Every student must bring their pencil.
- Correct: Every student must bring his or her pencil. (or "their" if using singular they for gender
neutrality)
- Incorrect: The dog wagged its tail because they were happy.
- Correct: The dog wagged its tail because it was happy.
3. MISPLACED MODIFIERS
Definition: A modifier should be placed next to the word it modifies to avoid confusion.
Common Errors:
- Incorrect: She almost drove her kids to school every day.
- Correct: She drove her kids to school almost every day.
- Incorrect: The man saw a dog on the way to the store with a collar.
- Correct: On the way to the store, the man saw a dog with a collar.
4. INCORRECT USE OF TENSES
Definition: Verbs must be in the correct tense to convey the intended time of action.
Common Errors:
- Incorrect: I have seen him yesterday.
- Correct: I saw him yesterday.
- Incorrect: She will cook dinner when I will arrive.
- Correct: She will cook dinner when I arrive.
5. CONFUSING HOMOPHONES
Definition: Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings and
spellings.
Common Errors:
- Incorrect: Their going to the park.
- Correct: They're going to the park.
- Incorrect: I need to by some groceries.
- Correct: I need to buy some groceries.

6. INCORRECT USE OF PREPOSITIONS

Definition: Prepositions must be used correctly to indicate relationships between words.
Common Errors:
- Incorrect: She is good in mathematics.
- Correct: She is good at mathematics.
- Incorrect: He is married with a doctor.
- Correct: He is married to a doctor.
7. DOUBLE NEGATIVES
Definition: Using two negatives in a sentence to express a single negative is incorrect.
Common Errors:
- Incorrect: I don't need no help.
- Correct: I don't need any help.
- Incorrect: She can't hardly wait.
- Correct: She can hardly wait.
8. WRONG WORD CHOICE
Definition: Using a word that doesn't fit the context of the sentence.
Common Errors:
- Incorrect: The effect of the drug was too strong.
- Correct: The effect of the drug was too strong. (effect is correct here; "affect" would be incorrect)
- Incorrect: He complemented her on her dress.
- Correct: He complimented her on her dress.
9. SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
Definition: A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence that lacks a main clause.
Common Errors:
- Incorrect: Because I was late.
- Correct: I missed the bus because I was late.
- Incorrect: For example, the new project.
- Correct: The team is excited about the new project, for example.

10. RUN-ON SENTENCES

Definition: A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses are joined without
proper punctuation or conjunction.
Common Errors:
- Incorrect: I love to write it is my favorite hobby.
- Correct: I love to write; it is my favorite hobby.
- Incorrect: She plays the piano she also sings.
- Correct: She plays the piano, and she also sings.
Examples of Sentences to Correct
1. He don't like to dance.
2. Everyone should do their homework.
3. Walking in the park, the flowers were beautiful.
4. She seen him at the party.
5. They're going to there house.
6. She is afraid from the dark.
7. He doesn't know nothing about the problem.
8. She affect me deeply.
9. Whenever I have time.
10. The sky is clear the stars are visible.
Corrected Sentences
1. He doesn't like to dance.
2. Everyone should do his or her homework. (or "their" for gender neutrality)
3. Walking in the park, I saw beautiful flowers.
4. She saw him at the party.
5. They're going to their house.
6. She is afraid of the dark.
7. He doesn't know anything about the problem.
8. She affects me deeply.
9. Whenever I have time, I will call you.
10. The sky is clear, and the stars are visible.
-----------------------------------------------------

CONNECTIVES
Connectives, also known as linking words or conjunctions, are words or phrases that connect
ideas, sentences, or parts of sentences. They help to create coherence and cohesion in writing
by linking related ideas together.

TYPES OF CONNECTIVES:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
3. Correlative Conjunctions
4. Conjunctive Adverbs
1. COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Definition: Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, or independent clauses that are
of equal importance.
Common Coordinating Conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
Examples:
- I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining.
- She likes reading, and he enjoys writing.
- Do you want tea or coffee?
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
Definition: Subordinating conjunctions connect an independent clause with a dependent clause,
showing a relationship between the two.
Common Subordinating Conjunctions: because, although, since, if, when, while, until, after,
before, unless, as, though
Examples:
- She stayed home because she was feeling sick.
- Although it was cold, we went swimming.
- We will start the meeting when everyone arrives.

3. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS:
Definition: Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join words, phrases, or clauses that have a
reciprocal relationship.
Common Correlative Conjunctions: both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also,
whether...or
Examples:
- Both the teacher and the students enjoyed the field trip.
- Either you come with us, or you stay here.
- Not only, is he smart, but also he is hardworking.
4. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS
Definition: Conjunctive adverbs connect two independent clauses, providing a transition and
showing the relationship between the ideas.
Common Conjunctive Adverbs: however, therefore, moreover, consequently, meanwhile, thus,
hence, nevertheless, likewise, furthermore
Examples:
- She studied hard; therefore, she passed the exam.
- The team was tired; however, they continued to play.
- He didn't like the movie; nevertheless, he watched it until the end.
Examples of Using Connectives in Sentences
Coordinating Conjunctions:
- I want to buy a new dress, butI don't have enough money.
- We can go to the park, or we can stay home and watch a movie.
Subordinating Conjunctions:
- If it rains tomorrow, we will stay inside.
- Since he moved to the city, he has made many new friends.
Correlative Conjunctions:
- Neither the manager nor the employees knew about the change in schedule.
- Whether you like it or not, you have to complete the project.
Conjunctive Adverbs:
- She was late to the meeting; furthermore, she forgot to bring the documents.
- The proposal was rejected; consequently, we need to come up with a new plan.
IMPORTANCE OF CONNECTIVES:
1. Coherence: Connectives help to create a smooth flow of ideas, making the text easier to
understand.
2. Clarity: They clarify the relationship between different parts of the text.
3. Emphasis: Certain connectives can emphasize important points.
4. Transition: They provide a transition between different ideas or sections, aiding in the overall
structure of the text.
Practice Using Connectives:
1. He likes to play basketball, and she enjoys playing tennis.
2. I will go to the store if I have enough time.
3. Both the novel and the movie were excellent.
4. He is very talented; moreover, he is very humble.
5. Although it was raining, we decided to go for a hike.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Subject-verb agreement refers to the grammatical rule that the verb in a sentence must agree
with the subject in number (singular or plural). Ensuring subject-verb agreement is crucial for
writing grammatically correct and clear sentences. Below are the key rules and examples to help
understand and apply subject-verb agreement correctly.
BASIC RULES OF SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

1. Singular subjects take singular verbs:

- Example: The cat runs fast.
- Example: She is my best friend.
2. Plural subjects take plural verbs:
- Example: The dogs run fast.
- Example: They are my best friends.

1. Agreement with Compound Subjects

Definition: When two subjects are joined by "and," the verb is usually plural.
- Example: The cat and the dog are sleeping.
- Example: My friend and her sister have arrived.
Exception: When the compound subject refers to a single entity or idea, the verb is singular.
- Example: Peanut butter and jelly is my favorite sandwich.

2. Agreement with Subjects Joined by "Or" or "Nor"

Definition: When subjects are joined by "or" or "nor," the verb agrees with the subject closest to
it.
- Example: Neither the teacher nor the students were ready.
- Example: Either the manager or the assistant has the key.

3. Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns

Definition: Some indefinite pronouns are singular, some are plural, and some can be both,
depending on the context.
- Singular indefinite pronouns: anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobody, each, either,
neither
- Example: Everyone is welcome to join.
- Example: Neither of the options is suitable.

- Plural indefinite pronouns: both, few, many, several

- Example: Many were invited to the party.
- Example: Few know the truth.

- Singular or plural indefinite pronouns: all, any, more, most, none, some (depending on the
noun they refer to)
- Example: All of the cake is gone. (singular)
- Example: All of the cakes are gone. (plural)

4. Agreement with Collective Nouns

Definition: Collective nouns refer to a group acting as a single unit (singular) or as individuals
(plural).

- Singular: The team is winning.

- Plural: The team are arguing among themselves.

5. Agreement with Subjects Separated from Verbs

Definition: When additional words or phrases come between the subject and the verb, the verb
must still agree with the main subject.
- Example: The bouquet of flowers is beautiful.
- Example: The book, along with its illustrations, was fascinating.

6. Agreement with Titles, Names, and Quoted Words

Definition: Titles, names, and quoted words, even if plural in form, take a singular verb.

- Example: "The Catcher in the Rye" is a classic novel.

- Example: The United States is a large country.

7. Agreement with Plural Forms but Singular Meanings

Definition: Some nouns that end in -s are singular in meaning and take a singular verb.
- Example: Mathematics is challenging.
- Example: The news is surprising.

COMMON PITFALLS AND TIPS

- Beware of prepositional phrases: The subject is not in a prepositional phrase; the verb must
agree with the main subject.
- Incorrect: One of the boys are here.
- Correct: One of the boys is here.
- Watch for inverted sentences: In questions and sentences starting with "here" or "there,"
identify the subject to ensure proper agreement.
- Example: Where are the keys?
- Example: There is a problem.
- Be careful with "who," "which," and "that": These relative pronouns take verbs that agree
with their antecedents.
- Example: The students who study hard succeed.
- Example: The book that is on the table belongs to me.

Examples Of Subject-Verb Agreement

1. The list of items is on the desk.

2. A bouquet of roses adds beauty to the room.
3. Neither of the answers is correct.
4. The committee decides the policy.
5. My mom and dad cook dinner together.
6. Each of the students has a textbook.
7. Both of the cars are in the garage.
8. Either the teacher or the students are wrong.
9. The news was shocking.
10. Mathematics is her favorite subject.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Understanding the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs is essential for constructing
clear and grammatically correct sentences. Below are detailed explanations and examples to help
you grasp these concepts.
Definitions:
1. Transitive Verbs: Verbs that require a direct object to complete their meaning.
2. Intransitive Verbs: Verbs that do not require a direct object to complete their meaning.
1. TRANSITIVE VERBS
Definition: A transitive verb is a verb that needs a direct object to receive the action. The action
of the verb is transferred to the object.
Examples:
- She bought a car. (The verb "bought" transfers the action to the object "car.")
- He wrote a letter. (The verb "wrote" transfers the action to the object "letter.")
- They watched a movie. (The verb "watched" transfers the action to the object "movie.")

Identifying Transitive Verbs:

To identify if a verb is transitive, ask "what?" or "whom?" after the verb. If you get an answer, the
verb is transitive.
- She ate (what?) an apple.
- He helped (whom?) his friend.

2. INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Definition: An intransitive verb does not need a direct object to complete its meaning. The action
does not transfer to an object.
Examples:
- She laughed loudly. (The verb "laughed" does not need an object.)
- He slept peacefully. (The verb "slept" does not need an object.)
- They arrived late. (The verb "arrived" does not need an object.)
Identifying Intransitive Verbs:
To identify if a verb is intransitive, try to ask "what?" or "whom?" after the verb. If there is no
answer, the verb is intransitive.
- She cried (what? whom?) — No object needed.
- He jumps (what? whom?) — No object needed.
Examples of Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive Verbs:
1. She kicked the ball.
2. He opened the door.
3. They read the book.
4. The chef cooked a meal.
5. The teacher explained the lesson.
Intransitive Verbs:
1. She runs every morning.
2. He cried for hours.
3. They laughed at the joke.
4. The sun sets in the west.
5. The baby slept soundly.
Mixed Examples
Sentences with Both Transitive and Intransitive Uses:
1. She sings beautifully. (Intransitive)
- Shesings a song. (Transitive)
2. He runs quickly. (Intransitive)
- He runs a business. (Transitive)
3. The book sells well. (Intransitive)
- The store sells books. (Transitive)
4. They play outside. (Intransitive)
- They play soccer. (Transitive)
5. The flowers bloom in spring. (Intransitive)
- She bloomed a garden. (Transitive)
IMPORTANCE IN WRITING

1. Clarity: Understanding the distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs helps in
constructing clear and precise sentences.
2. Grammar: Correct verb usage ensures grammatical accuracy and enhances readability.
3. Variety: Using a mix of transitive and intransitive verbs can add variety and interest to writing.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PUNCTUATION
Punctuation marks are essential tools in writing that help to clarify meaning, indicate pauses, and
organize text. Proper use of punctuation improves readability and ensures that the intended
message is conveyed accurately.
1. Period (.)
The period indicates the end of a declarative sentence.
- Example: She enjoys reading books.
- Example: The meeting starts at 9 AM.

2. Comma (,)
Commas are used to indicate a pause, separate items in a list, set off non-essential information,
and more.
- Items in a list: She bought apples, oranges, and bananas.
- Introductory phrase: After the show, we went out for dinner.
- Non-essential information: My brother, who lives in New York, is visiting.
- Compound sentences: I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining.

3. Question Mark (?)

The question mark indicates the end of a direct question.
- Example: What time is it?
- Example: Are you coming to the party?
4. Exclamation Point (!)
The exclamation point indicates strong emotion or emphasis.
- Example: Wow, that’s amazing!
- Example: Stop right there!
5. Semicolon (;)
The semicolon links closely related independent clauses and separates items in a complex list.
- Independent clauses: I have a big test tomorrow; I can’t go out tonight.
- Complex list: We visited New York, New York; Los Angeles, California; and Miami, Florida.
6. Colon (:)
The colon introduces a list, quote, explanation, or a block of text.
-List: You need to bring three things: a flashlight, a tent, and a sleeping bag.
- Quote: He said: "We must strive for excellence."
- Explanation: She had one goal: to win the championship.
7. Dash (—)
The dash indicates a pause or range and can set off information for emphasis.
- Pause/emphasis: She was running late—but she didn’t want to rush.
- Range:The office hours are 9 AM—5 PM.
8. Hyphen (-)
The hyphen joins words or parts of words together.
- Compound words: mother-in-law, well-known.
- Word division: at the end of a line: super-delicious

9. Parentheses (())
Parentheses enclose additional information or asides.

- Example: She finally answered (after taking five minutes to think) that she would go.
- Example: The team's best player (John) is injured.

10. Quotation Marks ("" or '')

Quotation marks enclose direct speech, quotes, or titles of short works.

- Direct speech: She said, "I will be there soon."

- Quotes: He quoted Shakespeare: "To be or not to be."
- Titles: Have you read "The Tell-Tale Heart" by Edgar Allan Poe?

11. Apostrophe (')

The apostrophe shows possession or forms contractions.

- Possession: Sarah’s book, the dog’s leash.

- Contractions: don’t (do not), it’s (it is).

12. Ellipsis (…)

The ellipsis indicates an omission or a pause in thought.

- Omission: She began to speak, but then… silence.

- Pause in thought: I was thinking… maybe we should go.
EXAMPLES IN SENTENCES:
1. Period:
- The sun is shining.
2. Comma:
- We visited Paris, London, and Rome.
- After the concert, we had dinner.
3. Question Mark:
- What is your name?
4. Exclamation Point:
- Congratulations!
5. Semicolon:
- She loves painting; he loves drawing.
6. Colon:
- Here are the supplies: a notebook, a pen, and a ruler.
7. Dash:
- He is my best friend—my confidant.
8. Hyphen:
- This is a high-quality product.
9. Parentheses:
- We went to the park (which was very crowded) and had a picnic.
10. Quotation Marks:
- “I can’t wait for summer,” she said.
11. Apostrophe:
- It’s raining outside.
12. Ellipsis:
- So much has happened in the past year…
Understanding and using punctuation correctly helps in writing clearly and effectively, ensuring
that the message is conveyed with the intended meaning.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

PRECIS WRITING
Precis Writing is the skill of summarizing a passage to capture its essential points
concisely. A precis should retain the core ideas and main points of the original text but in a
much shorter form.

KEY POINTS OF PRECIS WRITING:

1. Understand the Text: Read the passage carefully to comprehend its main ideas, tone, and
structure.
2. Identify Key Points: Highlight the key points, arguments, and supporting details in the text.
3. Avoid Personal Opinions: A precis should be objective and avoid inserting your opinions or
interpretations.
4. Use Your Own Words: Paraphrase the text without copying phrases directly from the
original passage.
5. Maintain the Original Tone: Ensure the tone and mood of the original passage are
preserved in the precis.
6. Be Concise: The precis should be significantly shorter than the original passage, typically
about one-third of its length.
7. Use Logical Flow: The precis should flow logically, reflecting the structure and order of ideas
in the original text.
8. Check for Clarity: Ensure the precis is clear and understandable, free from ambiguous
language.

STEPS TO WRITE A PRECIS

1. Read and Understand: Carefully read the passage to grasp its overall meaning and identify
the key points.
2. Highlight Key Points: Underline or note the main ideas, supporting details, and any
important arguments.
3. Outline the Passage: Create a rough outline of the passage, noting the introduction, main
body, and conclusion.
4. Write the Precis: Using the outline, write the precis in your own words, maintaining the
logical flow of the original text.
5. Review and Revise: Review the precis to ensure it accurately captures the essence of the
original passage and revise for clarity and conciseness.

Example of Precis Writing

Original Passage
"Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world. It is a
fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all other human rights. Quality
education aims to develop a balanced individual who can think critically and act responsibly. It
nurtures the ability to make informed decisions and fosters respect for others. Without education,
it is difficult to succeed in life and contribute to society. Thus, providing quality education should
be a priority for all nations, as it lays the foundation for peace, prosperity, and progress."
Precis
Education, a fundamental human right, is vital for exercising all other rights and essential for
personal and societal development. It fosters critical thinking, responsible actions, informed
decision-making, and respect for others. Quality education is crucial for individual success and
societal contribution. Therefore, nations must prioritize providing quality education as it underpins
peace, prosperity, and progress.
Additional Examples:
Original Passage
"The Internet has revolutionized communication, making it easier to connect with people across
the globe. It has also transformed the way we access information, allowing instant availability of
vast amounts of data. However, the Internet also poses challenges, such as privacy concerns
and the spread of misinformation. Despite these issues, its benefits in enhancing connectivity and
information access are undeniable."
Precis
The Internet revolutionized global communication and information access, providing instant
connectivity and data availability. Despite challenges like privacy concerns and misinformation,
its benefits in enhancing connectivity and access to information are significant.
Original Passage
"Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing humanity today. It results from the
buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily due to human activities such as burning
fossil fuels and deforestation. The consequences of climate change include rising global
temperatures, melting polar ice, and increased frequency of extreme weather events. Addressing
this issue requires global cooperation and significant efforts to reduce carbon emissions and
promote sustainable practices."
Precis
Climate change, driven by human activities like fossil fuel burning and deforestation, is a critical
issue causing rising temperatures, melting ice, and extreme weather. Tackling it demands global
cooperation, emission reductions, and sustainable practices.

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE PRECIS WRITING:

1. Be Objective: Ensure your precis is an unbiased summary of the original text.
2. Focus on Clarity: Use clear and straightforward language.
3. Avoid Details: Exclude examples, anecdotes, and unnecessary details.
4. Use Proper Structure: Follow the structure of the original text with a clear introduction, body,
and conclusion.
5. Edit Ruthlessly: Eliminate redundancy and unnecessary words to make theprecis as
concise as possible.
By practicing these principles and steps, you can master the art of precis writing, effectively
summarizing texts while retaining their essential points and meaning.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

TECHNICAL WRITING
Technical Writing encompasses a wide range of documents that convey technical
information in a clear and accessible manner. While it primarily focuses on user manuals,
instructional guides, technical reports, and process documentation, it can also include other
forms of communication such as:

- Applications: Documents that describe and explain how to use or operate software, systems,
or machinery.
- Memos: Internal communications that convey technical information or instructions within an
organization.
- Book Reviews: Analyses and evaluations of technical books, often highlighting their
usefulness, accuracy, and relevance to the field.

APPLICATION WRITING
Application writing is the process of drafting formal requests or appeals for a particular purpose,
often addressed to an authority or institution. This type of writing is commonly used for job
applications, college admissions, scholarships, or any other requests that require a formal
approach.

Key Components of an Application

1. Heading:
- Your Contact Information: Include your full name, address, phone number, and email
address.
- Date: The date you are writing the application.
- Recipient's Information: Include the recipient’s name, title, organization, and address.

2. Salutation:
- Use a formal greeting such as "Dear Mr./Ms. [Last Name]," or "To Whom It May Concern," if
the recipient's name is unknown.

3.Introduction:
- State the purpose of the application clearly and concisely.
- Mention the position or opportunity you are applying for, and where you found the listing if
applicable.

4. Body:
- First Paragraph: Introduce yourself and briefly mention why you are writing the application.
- Second Paragraph: Highlight your qualifications, skills, and experience relevant to the
application.
- Third Paragraph: Provide additional information supporting your application, such as your
motivations, aspirations, or any relevant achievements.

5. Conclusion:
- Summarize your request or application.
 - Express your enthusiasm and willingness to provide further information or attend an
interview.
- Thank the recipient for considering your application.

6. Closing:
- Use a formal closing such as "Sincerely," "Best regards," or "Yours faithfully," followed by
your signature (for printed applications) and typed name.

Tips for Effective Application Writing:

1. Be Clear and Concise: Avoid unnecessary details. Stick to the main points to make your
application easy to read.
2.Be Professional: Use formal language and avoid slang or informal expressions.
3. Tailor Your Application: Customize your application to match the specific job or opportunity
you are applying for. Highlight relevant skills and experience.
4. Proofread: Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors. A well-written application
reflects your attention to detail.
5. Follow Instructions: Ensure you adhere to any specific guidelines or requirements provided
by the recipient.

EXAMPLE OF A JOB APPLICATION LETTER

[Your Contact Information]

John Doe
123 Main Street
City, State, ZIP Code
Email: [email protected]
Phone: (123) 456-7890
[Date]
June 15, 2024
[Recipient's Information]
Jane Smith
Hiring Manager
ABC Company
456 Corporate Blvd
City, State, ZIP Code

[Salutation]
Dear Ms. Smith,

[Introduction]
I am writing to express my interest in the Marketing Coordinator position at ABC Company, as
advertised on your careers page. With a Bachelor's degree in Marketing and over three years of
experience in digital marketing, I am confident in my ability to contribute effectively to your team.

[Body]
In my previous role at XYZ Corp, I successfully managed multiple marketing campaigns,
increasing brand awareness and driving sales growth. My skills in SEO, content creation, and
social media management have consistently produced measurable results. Additionally, my ability
to analyze market trends and consumer behavior has helped develop strategies that align with
business objectives.
Moreover, I am highly organized and possess excellent communication skills, which have enabled
me to collaborate effectively with cross-functional teams. I am passionate about staying updated
with the latest marketing trends and technologies, ensuring that my strategies remain innovative
and effective.

[Conclusion]
I am enthusiastic about the opportunity to bring my unique skills and experiences to ABC
Company. I am available for an interview at your earliest convenience and can provide any
additional information you may require. Thank you for considering my application.

[Closing]
Sincerely,
[Signature (if printed)]
John Doe
EXAMPLE OF A COLLEGE ADMISSION APPLICATION LETTER

Examination Hall,
City A.B.C
March 20, 2024

[Recipient's Information]
The Admissions Officer,
International Islamic University,
Islamabad.

[Salutation]
Respected Sir,

[Introduction]
I am writing to apply for admission to Elite University's Bachelor of Science in Computer Science
program for the Fall 2024 semester. I am highly motivated to pursue a career in technology, and
I believe that Elite University’s rigorous curriculum and distinguished faculty will provide me with
the education and experience necessary to achieve my goals.
[Body]
Throughout my high school career, I have excelled in mathematics and science courses,
consistently earning top grades. My passion for technology led me to participate in various coding
competitions and tech clubs, where I developed strong problem-solving and programming skills.
During my senior year, I completed an internship at a local software development company, where
I gained practical experience in coding, debugging, and collaborating with professional
developers.
In addition to my academic achievements, I have been actively involved in extracurricular
activities, such as the Robotics Club and the Math Team. These experiences have honed my
teamwork and leadership abilities, preparing me to contribute positively to the university
community.
[Conclusion]
I am excited about the prospect of joining International Islamic University and am confident that I
will thrive in your Computer Science program. Thank you for considering my application. I look
forward to the opportunity to further discuss my qualifications and aspirations.

[Closing]
Best regards,
X.Y.Z

Common Types of Applications

1. Job Application
2. College Admission Application
3. Scholarship Application
4. Internship Application
5. Grant/Funding Application

Each type of application may have specific requirements, so it's important to follow the given
guidelines and customize your application accordingly.
By following these guidelines and tips, you can craft effective applications that clearly
communicate your qualifications, intentions, and enthusiasm for the opportunity you are seeking.

MEMO WRITING

A memo (short for memorandum) is a concise, formal document used for internal
communication within an organization. Memos are typically used to inform, request, remind, or
provide instructions to employees. They are usually brief and to the point.

KEY COMPONENTS OF A MEMO

1. Header
-To: The recipient(s) of the memo
- From: The sender of the memo
- Date: The date the memo is written
 - Subject: A brief description of the memo’s content

2. Opening
- A short introduction stating the purpose of the memo.

3. Body
- The main content of the memo, providing details and necessary information.
- Organized into paragraphs or bullet points for clarity and ease of reading.
4. Closing
- A brief closing statement, which may include a call to action or a summary of the memo’s
key points.
5. Signature
- The sender’s name and, if applicable, their position within the organization.

Tips for Effective Memo Writing

1. Be Clear and Concise: Stick to the main points and avoid unnecessary details.
2. Use Professional Language: Maintain a formal tone and use appropriate language.
3. Organize Information Logically: Structure the memo in a logical order, using headings,
subheadings, and bullet points as needed.
4. Include Only Relevant Information: Focus on what the recipients need to know and avoid
extraneous information.
5. Proofread: Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors before sending the memo.

EXAMPLE OF A MEMO
Memo Header
```
To: All Staff
From: John Doe, HR Manager
Date: June 14, 2024
Subject: Upcoming Training Sessions
```
Opening
```
I am writing to inform you about the upcoming training sessions scheduled for next month.
```

Body
```
As part of our ongoing professional development program, we have organized a series of training
sessions to enhance your skills and knowledge in various areas. Below are the details of the
sessions:
1. Customer Service Training
- Date: July 5, 2024
- Time: 10:00 AM - 12:00 PM
- Location: Conference Room A
2. Effective Communication Workshop
- Date: July 12, 2024
- Time: 2:00 PM - 4:00 PM
- Location: Conference Room B
3. Time Management Skills
- Date: July 19, 2024
- Time: 9:00 AM - 11:00 AM
- Location: Conference Room A
Please make sure to attend the sessions relevant to your role. If you have any scheduling
conflicts, contact HR to arrange for an alternative session.
```
Closing
```
We look forward to your active participation in these training sessions. Your commitment to
continuous improvement is essential to our success.
Thank you.
```

#### Signature
```
John Doe
HR Manager
```

Common Types of Memos:

1. Informational Memo: Provides information about company policies, procedures, events, or
updates.
2. Request Memo: Requests specific information or action from the recipients.
3. Confirmation Memo: Confirms arrangements, decisions, or agreements.
4. Periodic Report Memo: Provides regular updates or status reports on projects or activities.
5. Problem-Solving Memo: Addresses specific issues and suggests solutions.
Additional Tips for Memo Writing:
- Use Headings and Subheadings: For longer memos, use headings and subheadings to
organize the content and make it easier to navigate.
- Bullet Points: Use bullet points or numbered lists to present information clearly and concisely.
- Direct and Simple Language: Avoid jargon and overly complex sentences. The goal is clear
communication.
- Format Consistently: Use a consistent format for all memos to maintain professionalism and
make documents easily recognizable.
By following these guidelines and tips, you can write effective memos that convey your
message clearly and professionally within your organization.

BOOK REVIEW WRITING

A book review is a way to share your thoughts about a book you've read. It helps others decide
if they want to read it. A good book review includes a summary of the book, your opinion on it,
and whether you would recommend it.
Key Parts of a Book Review:
1. Introduction
- Book Details: Mention the title, author, and genre of the book.
- Context: Briefly introduce the book and its background.
- Main Opinion: State your overall opinion or main point about the book.

2. Summary
- Plot Overview: Give a short summary of the main events in the book.
- Main Characters: Describe the important characters.
- Setting: Explain where and when the story takes place.
3. Analysis
- Themes: Discuss the main ideas or messages in the book.
- Style: Talk about how the author writes, including language and tone.
- Structure: Comment on how the book is organized.
- Character Development: Evaluate how well the characters are developed.
- Strengths and Weaknesses: Highlight what you liked and didn’t like about the book.
4. Conclusion
- Overall Impression: Summarize your overall thoughts on the book.
- Recommendation: Say whether you would recommend the book and to whom.
- Final Thoughts: Add any last comments about the book.

TIPS FOR WRITING A BOOK REVIEW

1. Be Fair: Consider both the good and bad aspects of the book.
2. Use Examples: Support your opinions with examples from the book.
3. Be Brief: Keep your review focused and to the point.
4. Know Your Audience: Write with your readers in mind.
5. Proofread: Check your review for errors before sharing it.

EXAMPLE OF A BOOK REVIEW

Book Review: "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone" by J.K. Rowling
Introduction:
"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone" by J.K. Rowling is a fantasy novel and the first book in
the Harry Potter series. It introduces readers to a magical world full of wonder and adventure.
Summary
The story follows Harry Potter, an orphan living with his mean aunt and uncle. On his eleventh
birthday, Harry learns he is a wizard and is invited to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and
Wizardry. At Hogwarts, Harry makes new friends, learns about his past, and discovers a plot to
steal a powerful magical object called the Sorcerer’s Stone. Along with his friends Ron and
Hermione, Harry works to stop the dark wizard Voldemort from returning to power.
Analysis
Themes: The book explores themes like the fight between good and evil, the importance of
friendship, and growing up. Harry’s experiences teach him about bravery and making the right
choices.
Style: J.K. Rowling writes in a way that is easy to read and very descriptive. Her storytelling
makes the magical world feel real and exciting.
Structure: The story is well-organized, with a clear beginning, middle, and end. The pacing keeps
readers engaged, especially during the climax when Harry and his friends face dangerous
challenges.
Character Development: Harry grows from a lonely boy into a brave young wizard. Ron and
Hermione also develop as loyal friends with unique strengths. The characters are relatable and
make the story more engaging.
Strengths and Weaknesses: The book’s biggest strength is its detailed and imaginative world.
Hogwarts is full of interesting characters and magical creatures. However, some characters, like
Draco Malfoy and Professor Quirrell, can seem a bit one-dimensional.
Conclusion
"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone" is a captivating and enjoyable book that sets the stage
for the rest of the series. It’s great for readers of all ages who love fantasy and adventure. I highly
recommend it.
Final Thoughts
J.K. Rowling’s first novel is a testament to her storytelling talent. "Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's
Stone" is not just entertaining but also teaches valuable lessons about courage and friendship.
It’s a timeless classic that continues to inspire readers around the world.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
THE END