NOTES ON FORENSIC 1: FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

I. Definition of Photography
a. Etymology of the word Photography

The word “photography” was derived from the Greek word “phos” or “photos” which means
“light” and the word “graphia” which means “writing” or the word “grapho” meaning “to draw”. Thus,
literally speaking photography is nothing but writing by means of light. (The New Webster’s
Dictionary of the English Language, 2004).

The word photography was said to have been first used in 1839 by Sir John F.W. Herschel
in his letter to Sir Henry Fox Talbot. It is believed that Herschel coined the term photography.

b. Real Definition of Photography

Photography is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light action on
sensitized material with the aid of a camera, lens and other accessories and the mechanical and
chemical process necessary to produce a photograph.

II. Important Terminologies

a. Police Photography = refers to an application of the principles of photography in police work such
as identification of criminals, recording and preservation of the crime scene and the evidences
found therein and such other fields of police work which requires the use of photography.
b. Forensic Photography = refers to the wide application of the principles of photography in the
administration of justice.
c. Photograph = the mechanical and chemical result of photography. It is the visible representation
of the image formed also referred to as the positive result of photography.
d. Picture = (derived from the Latin word “pictura” or “pictus” which means “to paint”. It is a design or
representation made by various means such as painting, drawing, or photography.
e. Negative = A material showing a negative (latent) photographic image on transparent material
used for printing positive picture (photograph) as a result of chemical processing.

III. Importance of Photography in Police Work

a. Personal Identification
b. Communication
c. Record Purposes
1. General View
It is the process of photographing the crime scene in all views. The principle of “total
take” or taking an over-all view of the crime scene in all angles is involved in this process.
2. Medium View
It is the process of photographing the area by dividing it in to section. It will show
the nature of the crime committed. This view will give an investigator the idea of more or
less how the crime was perpetrated through the process of mental reconstruction.
3. Close-up View
It is the process of photographing every detail in the crime scene. Individual
photograph of every pieces of evidence, wounds sustained by the victims and anything that
would help in the determination of the case and requires presentation in court as evidence.
In this regard, a number of shot should be made. At least four (4) shots should be made.
4. Extreme Close-Up
This view is not normally done in the crime scene for this requires a more
sophisticated process. The purpose of this view is to show the details of each or every
evidence that requires discovery of their details.

d. Preservation
e. Discovering and Proving
1. Use of Magnification
1.1. Photomicrography = taking a magnified photograph of a small object by
attaching a camera to the ocular of a compound microscope in order to show
minute details of the physical evidence.
1.2. Photomacrography = the process of taking a magnified photograph of a
small object by attaching an extended tube lens or a specialized short focus
lens to show an enlarge photograph of a small object. It is also referred to as
macrophotography.

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 1.3. Microphotography = is the process of reducing into small strips of film a
scenario. It is first used in film making.
1.4. Telephotography = is the process of taking a magnified photograph of a far
distance object by attaching a long focus or telephoto lens to a camera. It is
usually employ in surveillance work.
2. Used of Artificial lights such as X-Ray, Ultra-violet light, Visible light and Infra-red
light in order to decipher things which are not visible to the naked eye. Details of
their application will be discuss in the succeeding chapters.
f. Court Exhibits
g. Crime Prevention
h. Police Training/Community Relations
i. Reproducing and Copying

IV. Special Uses of Photography

a. Aerial Photography = is photography from the air.
b. Astrophotography = is the photography of object in space – such as stars and planets with the
aid of telescope. The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, gathers its ages with digital
cameras.
c. Diagnostic Imaging = X-ray, Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT Scan) and Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI) are the advancement in photography and computer that were widely
used in medicine and science in diagnosing patient and even used as security gadgets for
inspections of materials and parts.
d. Holography = is the three dimensional photography. To create a hologram, part of a laser beam
is directed at a subject, and is then reflected to a sensitized photographic plate. The other part of
the beam is focused directly on the photographic plate. Together the two parts of the beam record
all the information needed to produce a three dimensional image.
e. Satellite Photography =Photography from satellites is very useful in mapping, weather
forecasting, and military intelligence. Military specialists study these images to learn about
airfields, missile bases, and other military installations.
f. Spectrography = combines a camera with a spectroscope, an instrument that breaks up light into
its different wavelengths. Using spectrography, scientists can analyze the light emitted by the stars
and the sun. Spectographs of the planets reveal which gases are present in their atmospheres.
Spectrographs can be used to analyze material such as metal alloys.
g. Night-vision Photography = is a special form of digital photography where a very weak mage
taken at night or in a dark area is amplified by electronic circuitry so more details can be seen. This
type of photography is used in surveillance, police work and military operations.

V. Essentials of Conventional Photography

1. Light = is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a form of wave with the speed of 186,000 miles
per second.
2. Camera = a light tight box designed to block unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the
sensitized material.
3. Lens = is a piece of glass or plastic material designed to gather the light and transmit it to the
sensitized material to form the image.
4. Sensitized material = composed of a highly sensitized chemical compound which is capable of
being transformed into an image through the action of light and with some chemical processes. A general
term used when referring to either photographic film or paper.
5. Chemical Process = is the process necessary for reducing silver halides into a form so as a latent
image and a positive image be made resulting to what we called photograph.

VI. Methods of Forming Image by Means of Light:

Generally, images are formed using any of the following Methods:
1. Pin Hole Method
= it is considered to be the oldest method of forming image where a box camera
with a very small hole without lens is use to collect light and form the image.
2. Shadow Method
= This method is used in the principle of X-ray photography which found its used in
1895 as incidentally discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen.
3. Lens Method
= the modern method of forming image by light action that passes through a lens.

HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

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1727 Johann Schulze, a German doctor, made the discovery that sunlight would blacken chalk that had been
treated with a solution of silver nitrate. His discovery led to the development of film and become a basis of
modern photography that lights affects certain silver compounds.

1800 William Herschel, discovery of infra-red.

1826 Joseph Nicephore Niepce, a French inventor, made the first successful invention of photograph by
capturing an image in a metal plate coated with an asphalt compound exposed with light and placed in a
solution that brought out the picture and dissolved the unexposed portion thereby fixing the image.

1829 Niepce became partner of Louis Mande Daguerre, a French theatrical designer. But before they
successfully finished a developing process, Niepce died.

1839 Daguerre revealed a successful process of developing which gains wide acceptance and his photographs
are called---“The Daguerreotypes”. Each photograph is unique there being no negative used in the
process and this make it impossible to make a reproduction of the same photograph.

William Henry Fox Talbot, an English man, in about the same time, developed the first practical process
that produced a negative from which prints could be made. The process is called the “calotype” or the
“talotype”. A negative image on a paper is later transfer to the make a positive print. However, paper
negative has defect, the image it regards to its ability to stay on the glass.

1847 Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor, nephew of Joseph Niepce, coated a glass plate with albumen (the white of
an egg) which held the chemical fast.

1851, Frederick Scott Archer, an English chemist, introduced the wet collodion process to hold the silver
compounds on glass which results in a much faster reaction of light. The process requires that the glass
plate be first coated before it is loaded into the camera. Then the plate had to be exposed.

1870’s Gelatin-based dry emulsion began to replace the wet collodion plates.

1877 William Abney, an English photo-chemist, gave practical directions for manufacturing emulsions.
Invented copper bromide-silver nitrate intensifications. In 1880 he introduced hydroquinone as a
developer.

1880’s George Eastman, founder of the Eastman Kodak Company in Rochester, New York, introduced the
flexible, roll-up film and later a hand-held roll-up film camera. A camera that is easy to carry and use. The
company also offered service for processing of film which makes it for amateur photographer not to think
of how to process them. This marks the popularity of photography as a hobby.

1900’s Experiments have been made with new printing techniques to make their photograph look like a painting.
Various darkroom techniques and multiple exposures where also developed.

1924 Leica Camera, a miniature 35 mm camera was introduced in Germany. This camera has flexibility and
variety in taking pictures. It can make sharp image, detailed pictures under different conditions. It is the
forerunner of today’s 35 mm cameras.

1930’s The development of electronic flash by Dr. Harold Edgerton (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
This is one of the most important developments in photography.

1935 From early 1900’s experiments, Kodachrome slide film was finally introduced and became and became
the first popular and affordable color film.

1940’s Color-negative film was used.

1947 Edwin Howard Land, an American scientist, develops the instant film and his Polaroid Land Camera. In
just a matter of second, image is readily formed in an instant film after shoot has been made.

DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC PHOTOGRAPHY

1800’s Discoveries of electricity and magnetism led to the invention of electric telegraph.

1843 The first Facsimile (fax) machine was patented.

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1920 Photograph can now be transmitted across Atlantic through underwater telegraph cable. The first digital
transmissions of photograph.

1950 Both the United States and former Soviet Union were engaged in a space race. The US> government now
became a major transmit images from manned and unmanned spacecraft.

1964 Mariner 6 and Mariner 7 spacecraft was launched and was able to make the first electronic photo of
Mars. RCA television camera attached to a leg of the Apollo 11 lunar lander takes the first picture on the
moon surface.

Charge-coupled device (CCD), works of Willard Boyle and George Smith, began to record image
electronically. In 1970’s CCD camera were being made for industrial uses and later adapted for astronomy
and space exploration.

1980’s Sony Corporation of Japan introduced a consumer electronic camera (the Mavica – magnetic video
camera). This camera can record images on a two-inches floppy disks which can be played on a
television or video monitor.

1990 DCS-100, a digital camera house in a modified Nikon SLR body was introduced by Kodak. This is the first
digital camera designed as a full professional system. This was very expensive and had to be attached to
an external hard drive. Improvements were later made. In the same year Complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) was introduced which is less expensive that CCD or DCS.

2000’s Digital Cameras greatly improved. Their image quality was equal to or better than that of film. The spread
of digital later outsell film cameras.

Now digital cameras are being incorporated in different gadgets/instruments such as computers, laptops,
cellular phones, I-pods, notebook and digital organizer.

Lights, Its Nature, Characteristics, Sources and Classifications

I. Nature of Light
1. The Wave Theory
Dutch physicist and astronomer Christian Huygens’ Principle of wave theory has been widely
accepted in the earlier 17th century. It explains how light behaves as it reflects from matter or passes
through it. It is a theory that was transcribed from the motion of the water that if we observe a piece of log
floating in the ocean and with the force of the air would naturally will make the log move up and down.

2. The Corpuscular Theory

In 1600’s An English scientist and mathematicians Isaac Newton wonders about how light spreads
out from its source as a stream of tiny particles or whether it travels through space as waves, like ripples
in the pond. Later he opposed the wave theory stating that light has its effect by the motion of very small
particles such as electrons.

3. Modified Wave Theory

Scottish physicists James Clerk Maxwell in 1865, published a mathematical formula to describe
the relationship between electricity and magnetism. This supports the theory of wave. His theory led him
to the existence of electromagnetic waves and later concluded that light itself is an electromagnetic
energy. His discoveries can be said to be attributed to several discoveries on electricity made by the
French physicists Charles Augustin de Coulomb and Andre-Marie Ampere and the English scientist
Michael Faraday. The Coulomb’s Law relates to the constant value that between forces of two electrical
charges to the amount of each charges and the distance from one to the other. The Ampere law’s
contains a constant that relates between electric currents, the distance between the wires, and the
magnetic force between them. While Faraday’s Law relates to the rate of changes of a magnetic field to
the amount of electrical current it produced.

Maxwell was also able to measure the speed of light using Hippolyte Louis Fizeau’s instrument
setting up a bright light source from one hill and a mirror on another hill several miles away. Fizeau was
able to determine how long it took the light to travel from the first hill to the second hill and back again.

Improved measurements using other techniques were developed by a French scientist Leon
Foucault in 1850 and by the American physicist Albert Michaelson in the 1920’s. At present the speed of
light and all other electromagnetic waves travelling through empty space is usually given as approximately
186,000 miles per second (300,000 kilometers). This speed can varies when light travels in certain

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 medium just like when it travels through a water or glass. The speed of light in water is about 124,000
miles per second.

II. Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves have so much similarities with ocean waves that shows an up and down or
rise and falls cause by the wind blow. Waves have crest and trough. The crests are the peak of the wave
heights and the troughs are the tip down portion of the wave. The heights of the wave measured as half
distance from the crest to the trough is referred to as the amplitude, while the rate of the rises and falls
refers to the frequency. The distance measured from two successive crests is known as the wavelength.
Light wavelengths are either expressed is millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom. A millimicron is the unit of
light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth part of a millimeter. An Angstrom is relatively smaller
than a millimicron for it measures ten-millionth part of a millimeter.

Electromagnetic spectrum is also one of the predictions of Maxwell. It consists of lights of varying
wavelengths and frequency. One of which is the visible light.

In 1905, Albert Einstein postulated that light might actually have some particle characteristics,
regardless of the overwhelming evidence for a wave-like nature. In developing his quantum theory,
Einstein suggested mathematically that electrons attached to atoms in a metal can absorb a specific
quantity of light (first termed a quantum, but later changed to a photon) and thus have the energy to
escape. He also speculated that if the energy of a photon were inversely proportional to the wavelength,
then shorter wavelengths would produce electrons having higher energies, a hypothesis borne in fact from
the results of Lenard's research.

Einstein's theory was solidified in the 1920s by the experiments of American physicist Arthur H.
Compton, who demonstrated that photons had momentum, a necessary requisite to support the theory
that matter and energy are interchangeable. About the same time, French scientist Louis-Victor de Broglie
proposed that all matter and radiation have properties that resemble both a particle and a wave. De
Broglie, following Max Planck's lead, extrapolated Einstein's famous formula relating mass and energy to
include Planck's constant:

E = mc2 = hν

where E is the energy of a particle, m the mass, c is the speed of light, h is Planck's constant, and
ν is the frequency. De Broglie's work, which relates the frequency of a wave to the energy and mass of a
particle, was fundamental in the development of a new field that would ultimately be utilized to explain
both the wave-like and particle-like nature of light. Quantum mechanics was born from the research of
Einstein, Planck, de Broglie, Neils Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger, and others who attempted to explain how
electromagnetic radiation can display what has now been termed duality, or both particle-like and wave-
like behavior. At times light behaves as a particle, and at other times as a wave. This complementary, or
dual, role for the behavior of light can be employed to describe all of the known characteristics that have
been observed experimentally, ranging from refraction, reflection, interference, and diffraction, to the
results with polarized light and the photoelectric effect. Combined the properties of light work together and
allow us to observe the beauty of the universe.

III. Reflection, Absorption, Transmission (RAT Law) and other light actions

When light falls into object different actions might occur depending on the quality of object/matter, light
may either bounce-off, absorbed by or pass through the material. As light travel a lines can be drawn to show
the direction towards which light moves on. This line of direction is referred to as rays of light. When this light
ray shines on a material which causes it to bounce off, such action is called reflection of light (See Figure
---). If such material is just an ordinary surface like a piece of white cloth, the light that bounce off is every
direction produces a not-so bright rays called diffusion reflection (“Diffuse” means going in all directions). It
the material to which light rays falls is a shiny and smooth object it bounces a bright light rays towards one
direction; this is called the specular reflection (“Specular” is derived from the Latin word for “mirror”). If the
object to which light falls is an opaque, light may be absorbed and when light falls in a transparent object just
like a transparent glass, light will normally pass through known as transmitted light.

In 1666, Isaac Newton proved that light which men see as white lights is actually a mixture of all colors
of the spectrum. This is produced when we allow light to hit a glass prism (a solid, three-sided piece of
glass). A rainbow array will then be shown with colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet colors (from
top to bottom). This phenomenon is called by Newton as the spectrum and this is due to bending of light
(refraction) resulting to the spread of light (dispersion) of varying color wavelength.

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 Thomas Young, an English physicist made several experiments with different behavior of light in 1801
and he wondered if diffraction could be used to prove that light is made of waves. The results support the
case for the wave theory. Light seems to bend a bit around the edge of the object, producing a fuzzy
boundary between light and darkness. This phenomenon is called diffraction.

IV. Sources of Light

a. Natural Light Source = those light which come to existence without the intervention of man e.g.
sunlight, starlight, lightning, bioluminescence, nebula etc.
Different conditions of sunlight:
1. Bright sunlight = a condition of sunlight where object in an open space cast a deep and
uniform shadow and the object appears glossy.
2. Hazy Sunlight = object in an open space cast a transparent or bluish shadow due to thin
clouds that covers the sun.
3. Dull Sunlight = a condition of sunlight where thick clouds covers the sun, thus no shadow
is produced.

Daylight may still be classified as: open space bright sunlight, under shade bright sunlight,
hazy sunlight, cloudy sunlight and cloudy dull sunlight.
These conditions and their colors affect the appearance of the object being photograph.
Factors such as atmospheric vapor, atmospheric dust and quality of the reflected light coming and
not coming from the source should likewise be considered.

b. Artificial light source = otherwise known as man-made light e.g. fluorescent bulb, incandescent
bulb, electronic flash bulb and photoflood lamp.

1. Continuous Radiation Artificial Light

a. Photoflood lamp = is likewise known as Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light
with a reflector at the back which focuses the light to the object the common
wattages of this lamp is 500 watts.
b. Fluorescent Lamp = are tube lamps filled with mercury vapor in which the walls
are coated with powders called phosphors and a filament placed at each end. When
this lamp is switched on electric current flowing from each end of the tube will
passes through the mercury vapor producing ultra-violet radiation (invisible light)
that would hit phosphors that produces the visible light. It was developed in 1930’s.
This is more efficient than incandescent lamp for its can maximize the use of
electric energy making it commonly used in commercial establishment. Prior to
fluorescent lamps other simpler lamps were made using either neon gas, mercury
and sodium lamps.

c. Incandescent Lamp = are bulb with a wire filament connecting two wires which
sustain the electrical charge that produces the light. The first electrical lighting
industry of this kind was introduced by Thomas Alva Edison in 1879 using a lamp
filament which later tried a sewing thread which was carbonized and work to last for
40 hours. This was replaced by a tungsten filament in 1910.

2. Short Duration Artificial Light

a. Flash bulb = are chemical lamps, as it generates light by the rapid combination of
metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used only once as the bulb is busted when fired
electrically. There are thin filaments inside the bulb with two electric contacts. When
the current flows through the filament, it becomes incandescent and ignites the
explosive primer that ignites the aluminum foil that burn, giving flash of intense light.

b. Electronic Flash = produces light by an instantaneous electrical charges between

electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. The electrical energy for the discharge is kept
in capacitor or condenser. It usually ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 second,
and because of this, subject in fast motion can be arrested or stopped in the
photographs.

V. Classification of lights
A. According to their ability to produced such effect or sensation to the human eye.
1. Visible light = is the type of light that produces different sensation when it reaches the
human eye. As the name connotes a type of light in which its wavelength is capable of
exciting the retina of the human eye. The type of light that is commonly used by man.

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 2. Invisible lights = are those lights in which their wavelength is either too short or too long
to excite the retina of the human eye. They are not commonly used in the household or
commercial establishment but have special application to human life for it has the ability
to extend or show something that cannot be seen by the naked eye. These are the X-ray,
the Ultra-violet light and the Infra-red light to mention some.

B. According to the quality of light rays they produced.

1. Concurrent light = light which in which their rays are scattered. This is the typical form of
light commonly used by man.
2. Coherent light = light in which their rays are so arranged that it is concentrated towards a
particular direction. Laser light is the very good example of this kind.

C. Photographic Rays
1. X-rays
It is an invisible light with a wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by
passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally
discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roetgen in the year 1895 which marks a great
development in the field of Medicine. This type of light works in the principle of shadow and
internal photography. It is also known as Roentgen rays derived from the name of the very
person who discovered it.

2. Ultra-violet rays
Another invisible light that has a wavelength ranging from 30 to 400 millimicrons or
nanometers designed to decipher fingerprints in multi colored background, altered
documents such as erasures, invisible writings, contact writings and watersoaked
documents. It is likewise used in the examination of seminal stains, blood, fibers and
counterfeit money. It is commercially known as “black light”.

3. Visible light rays

It is the type of light having a wavelength ranging from 400 to 700 millimicrons. It is
the one widely and commonly used by man and in ordinary photographing purposes.
Various Techniques in the used of visible light:
a. Direct light Examination = generally applied in photographing purposes especially with
documents in order to supply light.
b. Side Light Examination = a type of light examination in which the source of light comes
from one side of the object usually in paper for detection of altered documents.
c. Oblique Light Examination = a type of light examination in which the source of light
comes from one side and hits the surface of the paper at a very low angle. This is very
useful in detection of disturbed fibers, erasures and indented writings.
d. Transmitted Light Examination = one of the most useful type of visible light examination
where the source of light comes either from the back or at the bottom of the paper. It is
commonly employ for detection of water markings, fiber arrangements and sequence of
strokes not to mention its application to forgery by some skilled forgers.

Visible light is not just white but a composite of the various colors of light.
White light can be produced by combining the three (3) basic colors of same intensity;
these are the primary colors of light: (1) blue, (2) green and (3) red. The combination
of two of the three primary colors produces the secondary colors of light. Combined
blue and green produces cyan, while the combination of blue and red produces
magenta, and the combination of green and red will produce the yellow colors.

Primary and Secondary Colors of Light The Tertiary Color of Light

4. Infra- red rays

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 It is an invisible light with the longest wavelength among the photographic rays. It
has a wavelength that ranges from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. With its ability to go beyond
the surface of the paper or other materials it is largely employed for detection of obliterated
writings, Addition, interlineations or insertion and charred document. It is sometimes
referred to as heat rays.

SENSITIZED MATERIAL
I. Definition
Sensitized Material refers to the film and photographic paper that basically composed of emulsion
containing silver halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.

II. Parts of the Sensitized Material

1. Emulsion = is that part of the film or photographic paper which contains the silver grains
which is the one sensitive to light. In a black and white film there is but one layer of emulsion while in the
colored film this emulsion surface can be composed of three layers (Blue, Green and Red) with filters
intervening.
2. Anti-Halation Backing = Is the one designed to hold back the light and prevents halation.
3. Base = Support the emulsion

Aside from these three basic parts of the sensitized material, others can be included to give better
quality such as the thin gelatin coating that provides glossy and protection to the emulsion surface and
filters which are placed in between the colored layer of the emulsion of colored film.

III. Types of Sensitized Material

Sensitized materials are generally divided into to form: (a) Film and (b) photographic paper.
1. Photographic Film = A sheet of cellulose acetate or nitrocellulose coated with a radiation-
sensitive emulsion for taking photographs. It is the one which records the latent image called negative.
2. Photographic Paper = is a form of sensitized material which finally exposed and developed to
form the positive result called photograph.

IV. Classification of Film

A. According to Form

1. Roll film = these are mounted on a numbered opaque paper backing and wrapped on a wood
or metal spool.

2. Perforated film = the original film used in 35 mm miniature cameras was simply 35 mm. cine
negative film.

Cine film = sensitized material used in cinematography normally available in four gauges:
8 mm, 9.5mm, 16mm and 35mm; for special techniques, such as wide screen projection, larger
gauges such as 65 mm are used.

Spools, magazines or cassettes are employed for loading cine film into the camera.

3. Sheet film = also known as flat film or cut film is manufactured in all normal plate negative size.
The base is usually thicker than that used for the roll films and there is no paper backing. This is
loaded in special film holders which hold the films in flat and in correct focal plane in the camera.

4. Film Packs = is a convenient package of twelve pieces of cut film attached to paper separators
with numbered tabs in such a way that each film in turn can be brought into position for exposure
in the camera.

B. According to Use
1. Black and White Film = usually represented by a prefix or a suffix “Pan” or “Ortho” and generally
used in black and white photography. Examples are Ortholith film, Tri X-Pan and Pan X-plus.

2. Colored Film = can be divided into two: The Negative type and the reversal type of colored film.

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 2.1. Negative type = those colored film that bears the color to which it is sensitive such as
Ultra-violet film, Blue sensitive film and Infra-red film.
2.2. Reversal Colored Film =those colored film which though contain the prefix “pan” or
“ortho” which is usually indication of a black and white film is reverse to colored by the addition of
the word “chrome”. Examples of this type are: Orthochromatic film and Panchromatic film. e.g.
Blue sensitive film, Ultra-violet film, Infra-red film, Orthochromatic film and Panchromatic film.

C. According to Spectral Sensitivity

Spectral sensitivity = is the responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of the
light course.

1. Blue – Sensitive film = sensitive to U.V. light and Blue Color.

2. Orthochromatic Film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to the green. (Popular in the marker as KODALITH
FILM) Hermann Wilhelm Vogel in 1873
3. Panchromatic film = Sensitive to U.V. Light up to red (sensitive to all colors of the visible light)
3.1 Process Panchromatic film = permit short exposures under average lighting condition
and has the advantage of the grain structure.
3.2 Grain Panchromatic film
3.3 High Speed Panchromatic film designed originally for photographing object under
adverse lighting condition.
4. Infra-red Film = Sensitive to all colors and to infra-red light.

D. FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)

Film speed or emulsion speed classification indicates how fast or sensitive the film emulsion to light. As a
general rule, the film with the higher ASA, DIN or ISO rating is more sensitive to light that those with lower rating.

This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to light.

1. ASA (American Standards Association) = this is expressed in arithmetic value system.

The bigger the number the more sensitive the film is.

ASA 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000

ASA 200 and ASA 400 are the most commonly used all-purpose and outdoor films.

2. DIN (Deutche Industre Normen) = expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used in the
same principle as the ASA.

Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.

3. ISO (International Standard Organization) = expressed as combination of ASA and DIN

rating.

Note: ASA 200 is said to be two times faster than ASA 100, ASA 400 is two times faster than ASA
200. The same is applied to DIN and ISO rating.

V. Photographic Paper

It is that sensitized material that will record the visible image in the final development and become
the photograph.

VI. Classification of Photographic Paper.

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)

Photographic papers are classified according to the silver contents in their emulsion surface. This
is one of the bases in determining the quality of photographic paper that best suit the photographing
purpose.

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 1. Silver Chloride paper = used for contact printing, the size of the positive print is the same
as the size of the negative used. Sensitivity to light is low and give blue-black tones when properly
developed.
2. Silver Bromide paper = used projection, printing and enlarging process. This is one of the
most ideal photo paper used for police photography. This will give a black tone when properly developed.
3. Silver Chlorobromide paper = used both for projection and contact printing. Slow
emulsion.
4. Variable contract paper = combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a special
chloro-bromide emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colors of
light.

B. According to Physical Characteristics

B.1. Weight
1. Light weight = designed for high flexibility and when paper thickness is not of consideration.
Intended for purposes, which involves folding.
2. Single Weight = papers used for small prints or which are need to be mounted on solid and
fine details necessary in the production. Used in ordinary photographic purposes.
3. Double weight = generally used for large prints because they stand up under rough
treatment.

B.2. Surface Texture

a. Glossy paper =designed for fine details and brilliant image formation.
b. Semi-mate paper = obscure the fine details.
c. Rough papers = used for large prints or where breath rather than detail is necessary.

B.3. Color
a. White = better used in police photography.
b. Cream = preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth effect is desired.
c. Buff papers = prepare for tone prints.

C. According to Contrast (grade)

1. Velox No. 0 = used for printing extremely contrast negative or extremely exposed film.
2. Velox No. 1 = used for high contrast negative (over exposed film)
3. Velox No. 2 = used for normal exposed film
4. Velox No. 3 = used for negative with weak contrast (under exposed)
5. Velox No. 4 = used to provide sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak
negatives. It is useful imprinting which high contrast is desired.
6. Velox No. 5 = for flat negative that are unprintable.

CAMERA

I. Definition:
Camera is a light tight box with light gathering device and a means of blocking unwanted or
unnecessary light from reaching the sensitized material.

The forerunner of the camera, the Camera Obscura “dark chamber” was invented hundred years
before photography. Through a small hole on one wall of the box image is produce on the opposite wall. It
was errouneously ascribed to some writers such as Roger Bacon, Alberti Leonardo da Vinci and Giovanni
Battista Porta. In fact, it was described by Alhazen (an Arabian scholar) before 1039.

II. Essential Parts of a Camera

1. Light Tight Box (body) – a box designed to keep light out and serve as a frame to hold other parts.
2. Lens – one or more pieces of glass or plastic with curved surfaces designed to collect or to focus the
reflected light from an object to form an image on the film.
3. Shutter – is a mechanical device behind the lens that opens and closes designed to control the time
during which the light reaches the film
4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly the
sensitized material to prevent the formation of the multiple or blurred image.
5. View finder – designed to determine the field of view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the
given lens.

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 III. TYPES OF THE CAMERA
1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest and the simplest type of camera
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera best suited for police work due to its
interchangeability of the lens
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the other for
forming the image.
4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and expensive type of camera, used for movie
making

IV. Miscellaneous Types of Cameras

1. OTUC’s (one-time use cameras) = also referred to as disposable camera, the simplest camera
made from small cardboard and plastic cameras that are taken back to store to get developed. It has a
fixed focus and single exposure setting.

2. Point-and shoot camera = a more complex but is very popular type of camera being easy to use. It
has a autofocus lens, different shutter speed and lens opening that are set automatically, it has a built-in
flash and will fire when needed, unless it is turned off. It automatically loads the film and advances to the
next frame and rewinds it when it finished the roll.

3. Instant Camera (Polaroid) = produces a fully developed photograph shortly after shoot due to the
presence of the developing chemicals included in the film. It becomes less popular due to the
development of digital camera which allows the viewer to see or view the image right away.

4. Digital Camera = most of this type used by amateurs are the point-and-shoot type which focus
automatically, set the lens opening and shutter speed automatically and flash when needed. It also has
variety of kinds and made to be part of other types of camera such as the Compact Flash (CF), the
Secure Digital (SD) and the SLR Digital. A new type of digital camera is the Electronic Viewfinder (EVF)
which works much like an S-L-R.

V. Other Parts and Controls of Camera:

A. Viewing System
It is that part of the camera which provides the means of showing to the photographer the entire
scene coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized material. It includes the following:
1. View finder = where image is viewed by the photographer.
2. Pentaprism = the five sided glass prism design to reflect the light to the view finder.
3. Mirror = initially reflects the light to the pentaprism.

B. Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob)

It is designed to transfer the exposed film to the other side or to the take up spool and the
unexposed film will be the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.

C. Shutter speed
It is that part of the camera which regulates the time exposure of the film thus, affecting the
amount of light reaching the sensitized material. It is usually expressed in a fraction of a second.
The speed number in the left is always two times powerful in terms of light gathering than that of
the right number.
Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop or “freeze” the action of a person provided
that necessary adjustment on the lens opening is made in order to maintain normal exposure.
In dim light, a slower speed is preferable. In some camera, the use of B-shutter is most advisable
in photographing at night and when the light condition is not enough. The need for a tripod and a cable
release will support the B-shutter to obtain a sharp result of the image.

1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500 etc.

Types of Shutter

a. The focal plane shutter operates as close to the film plane as possible and consists of cloth
curtains that are pulled across the film plane with a carefully determined gap between the two
curtains or consisting of a series of metal plates moving either vertically or horizontally across the

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 film plan. As the curtains or blades move at a constant speed, exposing the whole film plane can
take much longer than the exposure time. For example, an exposure of 1/1000 second may be
achieved by the shutter curtains moving across the film plane in 1/50th of a second but with the
two curtains only separated by 1/20th of the frame width. When photographing rapidly moving
objects, the use of a focal plane shutter can produce some unexpected effects. Focal plane
shutters are also difficult to synchronize with electronic flash and it is often only possible to use
flash at shutter speeds below 1/60th second although in some modern cameras that can be as fast
as 1/100second/.

b. The Copal shutter or more precisely the in-lens shutter is a shutter contained within the lens
structure, often close to the diaphragm consisting of a number of metal leaves which are
maintained under spring tension and which are opened and then closed when the shutter is
released. The exposure time is determined by the interval between opening and closing. In this
shutter design, the whole film frame is exposed at one time. This makes flash synchronization
much simpler as the flash only needs to fire once the shutter is fully open. This disadvantage of
such shutters is their inability to reliably produce very fast shutter speeds and the additional cost
and weight of having to include a shutter mechanism for every lens.

D. Lens Aperture

It is the ratio between the diameters of the whole lens in relation to the focal length of the
lens. It is the light gathering power of the lens. Otherwise known as lens opening or relative
aperture and it is expressed in F-number.

f-2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16

The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening and the bigger the lens opening the
greater the volume of air that will passed through the lends and reach the sensitized material.

If the objective of a photographer is obtaining the widest possible coverage of the lens in
which objects are all sharp, It will be advisable to use a smaller lens opening.

E. Focusing
It is that mechanism of a camera designed to control the degree of sharpness of the object
to be photograph. It is usually obtained by estimating the distance from the camera and that of the
object that will make a sharp or clear image.

F. Support Parts
1. Tripod = a three-legged stand on the top of which the camera is fixed to avoid camera shake
during the process of photographing. A shutter speed slower than 1/25 second usually requires
support in order to avoid unnecessary shake of the camera that would lead to blurredness of
the image. It is ideal for studio and indoor use although a lighter and collapsible one are made
for carrying around.
2. Stands = the simplest type of stand consists of a solid, heavy base carrying a vertical pillar
with a platform on top to take the camera. The center pillar is adjustable for height and the
platform can be tilted to point the camera up or down. This is very useful in document
photography.
3. Camera clamp, monopod, pistol grip, chest pod, gun pod and chain pod and others are also
being used by some

LENS

I. Definition
Lens is the image-forming device of the lens that actually has a greater effect on the quality of the
image to be formed.
= a medium or system which converge or diverge light rays passing through it to form an image.
= Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit light to pass through and change the
direction of light.
Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the camer
a.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF LENSES

A. According to the type of image to be produced

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 1. Positive or Convex Lens (Converging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the
center and thinner at the side which is capable of bending the light together and forms the image
inversely.
2. Negative or Concave Lens (diverging Lens) Characterized by the fact that it is thinner at the
center and thicker at the side and forms the virtual image on the same side of the lens.

B. According to Degree of Corrections

a. Meniscus Lens = lens that has no correction.
b. Rapid Rectilinear Lens – lens corrected of distortion
c. Anastigmat Lens – correcting astigmatism
d. Achromatic Lens – correcting chromatic aberration
e. Apochromatic Lens – correcting both astigmatism and chromatic aberration

III. INHERRRENT LENS DEFECTS

1. Spherical Aberration= Inability of the lens to focus light passing the side of the lens producing
an image that is sharp in the center and blurred at the side.
2. Coma = (Also known as lateral aberration) = Inability of the lens to focus light that travels
straight or lateral, thus making it blurred while the light reaching the lens oblique is the one the is
transmitted sharp.
3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the images of the different point are incorrect with respect
to one another.
4. Distortion = Is a defect in shape not in sharpness. It can either be Pincushion distortion
(curving inward) or Barrel (curving outward).
5. Chromatic Aberration = Inability of the lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The lens
refracts rays of short wavelength more strongly than those of longer wavelength and therefore bringing
blue rays to a shorter focus than the red.
6. Astigmatism= is a form of lens defects in which the horizontal and vertical axis are not equally
magnified. It is the inability of the lens to focus both horizontal and vertical lines.
7. Chromatic Difference of Magnification
8. Flares = condition of the lens producing multiple images.

IV. LENS CHARACTERISTICS

1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens is set to focus at
infinite position. As according to focal lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus = with focal length not longer than the diagonal half of the
negative. It is useful in taking photograph at short distance with wider area coverage. (less than 35 mm)
b. Normal or Medium Focus = with focal length approximately equal but not longer than twice the
diagonal half of the negative. (More than 35 less than 70)
c. Long or Telephoto Lens = with focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
Best used in long distance photographing but with narrow area coverage. (More than 70 mm)
d. ZOOM lens = lens with variable focal length or that which can be adjusted continuously by the
movement of one or more elements in the lens system.

2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number
a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent
sharp focus when the lens
b. Hyperfocal distance = Is the nearest distance at which when a lens is focused with a given
particular diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of field.

3. Focusing = is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image.
Types of focusing device
1. Range finder (Either coincidence or split image type)
Coincidence otherwise known as superimposed image focusing. In this type of focusing a
single object will appear double once the object is not in focus, but moving the focusing adjustment
this double image will coincide or superimposed to form a single object.
Split Image focusing on the other hand will show an image in split or two parts once the
object in not in focus once the two parts of the image has been united then the object is already
focused
2. Ground Glass
This is observed from the viewing system of the camera, once the object is not in focused
the object will be viewed to be blurred and will turn sharp and clear once adjusted.
3. Scale Bed
Estimating the distance of the object and adjusting the camera control based on his
estimation do this.

V. Exposure

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 Exposure is the product of the intensity of light and the time during which the light acts. In practical
photography, it is the particular combination of lens aperture and the shutter speed that must be
chosen to give a good negative. Good quality is desired by photographer in order to: (1) to get a print
of the best possible quality by giving the actual value of the exposure low; (2) to keep the duration of
exposure short, to arrest movement; and (3) by keeping the lens aperture small, to give the greatest
possible depth of field.

Methods of Computing Exposure

1. Use of light meter or Exposure meter = an instrument which measures the light intensity by the
effect of light to the photo electric cells and indicates this in terms of exposure settings for a
camera. It is usually composed of (a) photo-electric cell, (b) a micro-ammeter, and (c) some kind of
calculator. Exposure meters can either be: (1) reflected light meters, the most common type of
photo-electric cell which measures the total amount of light which comes from the scene to be
photographed; (2) Incident light meters, an alternative type of light meter which measures the light
incident on a scene instead of that reflected from it; and (3) built-in meter, usually a highly compact
version pf normal separate meter (cadmium sulphide cell system permit particularly compact
design. It is usually a reflected light meter.
2. By taking into consideration factors such as: emulsion speed or the film speed, light condition, kind
of subject.

Example: When photographing a normal subject using a film rating of ASA100 in

combination with a shutter speed of 1/125 of a second, the following lens opening or
aperture according to the following light condition are considered:

Bright Sunlight = f-11

Hazy Sunlight = f-8

Dull Sunlight = f- 5.6

Wrong exposures may affect the details, tone production and contrast of the photograph of the
image. An underexposed photograph lacks details in the areas corresponding to the shadows while
overexposed causes the highlights to become flat and “burnt-out”.

Factors to be considered in obtaining good exposure:

1. Lighting condition
Lighting condition is of great importance since the amount of light that would reach the
sensitized material greatly depends on the available source of light. This will also serve as a basis in
determining the need to make additional lighting in order to achieve the desired exposure.
2. Type of object to be photographed
The type of object/subject to be photographed is also a factor in as much as different subject may
reflect/absorb or transmit light in varying intensity.
3. The Film Sensitivity/Emulsion Speed
The ASA, DIN or ISO rating is also a factor to be considered since the quality of the film
varies on their sensitivity to light. A film with a higher rating is more sensitive and it is more
appropriate when the light source is not sufficient. On the other hand, too high film sensitivity rating
is not so good for a very strong source of lighting.
4. Shutter Speed
Shutter speed is also a factor to be considered for it can fasten or delay the opening and
closing of the shutter, thus adjusting the time of exposure. This is also very important when object is
either moving or not. In order to freeze a moving object a faster shutter speed is required.
5. Len Aperture/Lens Opening
The lens opening greatly affect the depth of field of a given photograph, thus it should also be
considering especially in taking group of people or objects. It also affects exposure in as much as the
smaller or wider the opening of the lens the more or less light will pass through and will reach the
sensitized material.

Illustration:
At bright sunlight using ASA100 and shutter speed 1/125 the ideal lens aperture was that of F-
11 based on experiments and experienced of learned photographer. If the photographer would take a
photograph under the same light condition but with an object that is moving, adjustment with the
shutter would be necessary. But this would require an adjustment in the lens aperture in order to
achieve the same exposure.

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 f- 5.6 will allow four times light to pass through than f-11 since f-
5.6 is twice wider than f-11.

BS = ASA 100, 1/125, f-11 = ASA100, 1/500, f- 5.6

1/125 will allow four times light than 1/500 since

1/125 is twice slower than 1/500.

VI. Filters
These are plastic transparent glass or plastic place over the lens which has an effect with the
quality of light that would enter the lens and reach the sensitized material. It is a homogenous medium
which absorbs and transmits different light rays passing through it.

Filter Factor = It is the number of times that the normal exposure must be multiplied so as to
obtain the normal exposure with the use of a filter. This is necessary since filter may subtract some light
that would pass through the lens, thus an increase in exposure or lens opening will be required to obtain
the same exposure when the filter is not in use.

In black and white photography, the use of a filter will change the tone of gray. In color
photography, it will have an effect of actually changing the color. Color filter works in such a way that it will
block other colors and allows its own color to pass through the lens.

Types of Filter
1. Correction filter = used to change the response of the film so that all colors are recorded at
approximately the relative brightness values seen by the eye.
2. Contrast filter = used to change the relative brightness values so that two colors will have a
better contrast or of different degree of brightness.
3. Haze filter = used to illuminate or reduce the effect of aerial haze
4. Neutral density filter = used for reducing the amount of light transmitted without changing the
color value.
5. Polarizing filter = used to reduce or illuminate reflections on highly glossy or reflective surface.

Mechanical and Chemical Processing

I. Conventional Process
A. Processing the Film

When film is exposed inside the camera an invisible image is formed in the film (latent image). To
process this exposed film into a negative a series of chemical processing should be done in total darkness
or under safelight conditions. There are two conventional techniques: (1) The inspection and (2) The time
and temperature.

Steps in processing plates and sheet films by inspections:

1. Immerse the plate or film, face up, in the dish of developer, making sure that the solution
covers the whole surface at one;
2. Dislodge any airbells from the surface of the emulsion;
3. Rock the dish gently, but not too evenly, all the time;
4. Inspect the negative from time to time, lifting it out to see the image from the back, if
necessary. Keep the dish covered with a card at all other times, and do not prolong the
inspection, especially with fast panchromatic plates;
5. When development has reached the required point, transfer the film or plate to a dish of clean
water (or with dilute acetic acid) for 1 minute;
6. Transfer the negative to the fixer solution;
7. Rock the fixing dish occasionally, and leave the negative in it for about twice as long as the
time required to discharge all traces of milkiness from the emulsion layer;

15
 8. Wash the negatives in running water for at least thirty minutes, or in eight changes of water of
three to five minutes each; and
9. Lift the plates out of the washing water, drain, and stand up on edge in a dust-free place to dry.
Alternatively, stand the plates in a drying rack. Sheet film should be hung up on a line by
means of small film clips.
10. Roll films can be developed in a similar way by see-sawing the film through the developing
dish.

Time and Temperature Technique

This system is the basis of all modern tank procedures. With amateur tanks neither
darkroom nor safelights is needed, since the tank is light tight and all operations—except for
loading the film--- can be carried out in broad daylight. Various manufacturers recommend
development time and temperature for certain materials using certain standard developers. These
time and temperature are merely guide or references rather than absolutely correct values. It
would be advisable to follow such instructions, if it would result to less or too contrast adjustment
can be made to obtain the desired results.

Steps in using the developing tank: (The operation should be made in the dark or using a
photographing changing bag.

1. Prepare the film end;

2. Feed the film into the beginning of the groove;
3. Gradually push the film into the reel;
4. Detach from backing paper or cassette spool;
5. Put the reel into the tank;
6. Pour the developer into the tank;
7. Agitate as soon as the developer is put into the tank;
8. Develop for the required time;
9. Pour in rinse;
10. Pout in first fixing bath;
11. Pour in second fixing bath (if used);
12. Wash;
13. Remove from the tank; and
14. Hung up the film to dry in a dust free place.

B. Processing/Developing Prints

Process of making the latent image visible and permanent:

1. Preparation of the darkroom, the chemicals and the enlargers;
2. Sort the negatives and place the selected negative to the film carrier of the enlarger with the dull side
of the negative facing down;
3. Turn off-the white light, switch on the red light;
4. Switch on the light of the enlarger;
5. Adjust the easel to the desired size of the photograph and also adjust the dodging board (if there is) to
frame the object to be developed;
6. Focus the lens of the enlarger. It should be done by first setting the lens opening to its maximum
opening (biggest opening) and start adjusting the focus and magnification of the object. Once the
object is set to focus, make some reduction to the intensity of the light by reducing the lens opening;
7. Switch off the light of the enlarger and make a test strip to establish the correct exposure;
8. Place the photographic paper on baseboard and expose for the time suggested by the test strip after
development; and
9. Process the exposed enlargement following the developer, rinse, fixing, washing and drying.

Stages in the development:

1. Development (Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal Solution)
It is the process necessary for reducing the silver halides into metallic silver. Factors such as
agitation, temperature, concentration, chemicals, and exposure are considered. Its usual compositions
are:
Elon, Hydroquenone = used as main developing agents
Sodium Sulfite = as the preservative
Sodium carbonate = as accelerator

16
 Potassium bromide = as restrainer or fog preventer

2. Stop bath = It is an intermediate bath between the developer and the acid fixer which normally
composed of water with little amount of dilute acetic acid that serves as a means to prevent contamination
between the developer and the acid fixer.

3. Fixation = It is the process by which all unexposed silver halides are dissolved or removed from the
emulsion surface and making the image more permanent. The usual composition of an acid fixing solution
is the solvent silver halide known as hypo (sodium thiosulfate), an anti-staining agent like acetic acid, a
preservative like sodium sulfite, and a hardening agent like potassium alum.

Other techniques in the use of photographing enlarger:

Dodging = is the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the negative during enlarging.
Cropping = is the process of omitting an object during the process of enlarging and printing.
Vignetting = is the gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful adjustment on the
dodging board.
Dye toning = is the process designed in changing the color tone of the photograph.
Burning-In = refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of the negative used for purposes of
making a balance exposure.

Remedial process in cases of defects in the development of a negative:

1. Underdevelopment = intensifier
2. Overdevelopment = reducer
3. Stains = stain remover

II. The Digital Darkroom

Different from the conventional processing is the concept of Digital Processing where the usual Darkroom
process is now in the computer. There are four (4) basic steps in the processing of digital image through
computer and computer software: (1) capture, (2) downloading, (3) image editing, and (4) printing.

1. Capture = this is the process by which image is recorded first by a digital device such as camera,
scanners or similar gadgets in order to have a digital file of electronic image.
2. Downloading =Electronic image file is then sent to computer using, cable, a dock or a card reader or
the scanner itself if it is attached to the computer.
3. Image editing = this is the process of modifying the picture with the aid of image-editing software, the
picture can be made in different presentation, a person may crop, add effects and do other things
before finally deciding to print it.
4. Printing = this is done with the aid of a printer and the used of photographic paper for printers. Image
that was already edited can easily be made visible through the usual printing process done in the
computer printer.

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