Part A: 2-Mark Questions

(Answers will be longer, with sufficient explanation for 2 marks, covering at least a substantial portion
of a page.)

1. Define operating system and list the services provided by the OS

An Operating System (OS) is a type of system software that acts as an intermediary between
the user and computer hardware. It manages hardware resources and provides essential
services for computer programs to run efficiently. The OS ensures seamless communication
between hardware and software, enabling users to interact with the computer system.

Services provided by the Operating System:

o Process Management: Manages processes, including creation, scheduling, and

termination. Ensures multitasking by sharing the CPU.

o Memory Management: Allocates and deallocates memory to programs and

processes. Handles efficient utilization of primary memory.

o File System Management: Manages file storage, retrieval, and updates in a

structured manner. Provides directory services for easy organization.

o Device Management: Facilitates communication between the CPU and peripheral

devices like printers, keyboards, and storage drives.

o Security: Ensures protection against unauthorized access and potential threats to

data and resources.

o Error Detection: Monitors hardware and software for errors, ensuring system
stability and recovery options.

o User Interface: Provides either a graphical user interface (GUI) or a command-line

interface (CLI) for user interaction.

2. Differentiate between a process and a program

A process and a program differ fundamentally based on their nature and behavior:

Process:

o A process is an active entity that represents a program under execution.

o It has a specific state, including a program counter, registers, and variables.

o A process requires system resources such as CPU time, memory, and input/output
devices.

o Example: An internet browser currently running is a process.

Program:

o A program is a passive set of instructions stored in a file, ready to be executed.

 o It does not change or interact with the system until it is loaded into memory and
executed.

o Programs are static and do not consume resources until executed.

o Example: A browser installation file on your disk is a program.

3. What is a scheduler? Mention its types

A scheduler is a core component of the operating system responsible for managing the
execution of processes. It decides which processes to run, in what order, and for how long.

Types of Schedulers:

o Long-term Scheduler: Determines which jobs are to be admitted into the system for
processing. It controls the degree of multiprogramming.

o Short-term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler): Selects which process from the ready queue
will execute on the CPU next. It operates frequently and is highly time-sensitive.

o Medium-term Scheduler: Manages swapping processes in and out of memory to

optimize CPU performance and ensure efficient resource utilization.

4. Define seek time, transfer time, and rotational time

Seek Time:

o The time required for the disk arm to move the read/write head to the appropriate
track where the desired data is stored.

Transfer Time:

o The time taken to transfer data from the disk surface to the computer’s memory
after the correct track is located.

Rotational Time:

o The time required for the disk to rotate to the specific sector where the required
data is located. It depends on the disk's rotational speed, measured in RPM
(revolutions per minute).

Together, these times contribute to the total access time for retrieving data from a disk.

5. What do you mean by booting?

Booting is the process of starting a computer system when it is powered on or restarted.
During booting, the computer initializes its hardware, loads the operating system into
memory, and prepares the system for use.

Steps involved in booting:

o The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) performs a Power-On Self-Test (POST) to check
hardware integrity.
 o The bootloader program, such as GRUB, loads the operating system kernel into RAM.

o The kernel initializes system components, processes, and services required for
operation.

Types of Booting:

o Cold Boot: Starting the system from a completely powered-off state.

o Warm Boot: Restarting the system without turning off the power.

6. Define a process and a program

o Process:
A process is an executing instance of a program. It represents a running program
with its own allocated resources, such as CPU time, memory, and I/O access. Each
process has a unique Process ID (PID) and can be in various states (Ready, Running,
Waiting, etc.).

Example: A video player currently running on your system is a process.

o Program:
A program is a static collection of instructions stored on disk, ready to be executed. It
becomes a process when loaded into memory and executed.

Example: The media player application installed on your computer is a program.

7. What is polling?
Polling is a technique where the CPU continuously checks the status of a device to determine
whether it is ready for a data transfer or requires attention.

Explanation:

o The CPU repeatedly interrogates the device, checking if it is idle, busy, or ready to
transfer data.

o Polling consumes CPU cycles and can be inefficient since the CPU remains occupied
while waiting for the device.

o Example: Checking the status of a printer to determine whether it is ready to print.

Alternative: Interrupt-driven I/O is often preferred over polling to improve efficiency.

8. What is context switching?

Context switching is the process of saving the state of a currently running process and
loading the state of another process for execution by the CPU.

Steps involved in context switching:

o Save the current process's state (Program Counter, CPU registers, etc.) into the
Process Control Block (PCB).
 o Load the next process's state from its PCB.

o Switch the CPU to the next process.

Overhead: Context switching introduces overhead as the CPU spends time switching between
processes rather than performing actual execution.

9. Describe the operating system functions

The operating system performs several critical functions, ensuring the smooth operation of a
computer system:

o Process Management: Schedules processes, manages execution, and handles

multitasking.

o Memory Management: Allocates and deallocates memory, tracks free space, and
ensures efficient memory usage.

o File System Management: Organizes files, directories, and storage devices for easy
access.

o Device Management: Manages I/O devices, device drivers, and communication

between peripherals and the CPU.

o Security: Protects data and resources from unauthorized access and potential
threats.

o System Performance Monitoring: Tracks system performance and adjusts resource

allocation as needed.

10. Explain the simple batch system

A simple batch system is an early form of operating systems where jobs are grouped into
batches and executed sequentially without user interaction during execution.

Features:

 Jobs are submitted in bulk and executed one at a time.

 The OS loads the next job into memory once the previous job completes.

 Users cannot interact with the system during execution.

Advantages:

 Efficient use of CPU time.

 Reduces idle time by queuing jobs in advance.

Disadvantages:

 Lack of interaction between the user and the system.

 Errors cannot be corrected immediately.

 11. What is deadlock?
A deadlock occurs in a system when two or more processes are unable to proceed because
each is waiting for a resource held by another process, creating a circular dependency.

Conditions for Deadlock:

 Mutual Exclusion: Resources cannot be shared.

 Hold and Wait: A process holds one resource while waiting for another.

 No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken away.

 Circular Wait: A circular chain of processes exists where each process waits for a resource
held by the next process.

Example: Two processes attempting to access a printer and a scanner simultaneously.

12. What is internal fragmentation?

Internal fragmentation occurs when allocated memory blocks are larger than the actual
memory required by a process, leaving unused space within the block.

Explanation:

 When a process requests memory, the OS allocates a fixed-sized block. If the process's
memory requirement is smaller than the block size, the remaining space is wasted.

 Internal fragmentation is common in fixed-partition memory allocation schemes.

Example: If a process needs 6KB of memory and the OS allocates an 8KB block, the unused 2KB is
internal fragmentation.

PART B

13. What are System Calls? Explain in detail.

System Calls: System calls provide the interface between user programs and the operating system.
They allow a program to request services from the OS, such as reading or writing files, creating
processes, allocating memory, or communicating with hardware. Without system calls, programs
would be unable to interact with the underlying hardware in a secure and controlled manner.

Categories of System Calls:

1. Process Control:

o These system calls manage the execution of processes in the system. They include
the creation, scheduling, termination, and synchronization of processes.

o Examples include:

 fork(): Creates a new process.

  exec(): Replaces the current process with a new one.

 exit(): Terminates the current process.

 wait(): Suspends the execution of the current process until one of its child
processes finishes.

2. File Management:

o These system calls handle operations on files such as opening, reading, writing, and
closing files.

o Examples include:

 open(): Opens a file.

 read(): Reads data from a file.

 write(): Writes data to a file.

 close(): Closes an open file.

3. Device Management:

o These system calls manage hardware devices. They allow the OS to control
input/output devices, handle data transmission, and ensure that programs can
interact with devices like printers or disks.

o Examples include:

 ioctl(): Configures or controls hardware devices.

 read() and write(): Perform data transfer operations.

4. Information Maintenance:

o These system calls allow processes to retrieve or update system information, such as
process IDs, system time, or the status of a device.

o Examples include:

 getpid(): Returns the process ID of the calling process.

 gettimeofday(): Gets the current time.

5. Inter-Process Communication (IPC):

o These system calls provide mechanisms for processes to communicate with each
other. IPC allows processes to share data, synchronize actions, and exchange
messages.

o Examples include:

 msgsnd(): Sends a message to a message queue.

 msgrcv(): Receives a message from a message queue.

 semop(): Performs operations on semaphores for synchronization.

System calls are essential for enabling software programs to make requests to the kernel, allowing for
efficient management of system resources.

14. Write a detailed note with a neat block diagram on schedulers.

Schedulers in Operating Systems: Schedulers are responsible for determining which processes run
on the CPU and when. They play a vital role in process management, ensuring fair resource allocation
and efficient execution. There are three types of schedulers in an operating system:

1. Long-Term Scheduler (Job Scheduler):

o Function: Decides which processes are admitted into the system for execution. It
controls the degree of multiprogramming and manages the ready queue. The long-
term scheduler selects processes from the job pool (or job queue) and loads them
into memory for execution.

o Purpose: To maintain a balance between CPU-bound and I/O-bound processes.

o Frequency: Runs less frequently compared to short-term and medium-term

schedulers.

2. Short-Term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler):

o Function: Selects which process from the ready queue will execute next. The CPU
scheduler assigns CPU time to the processes, often based on a scheduling algorithm
(e.g., FCFS, SJF, Round Robin).

o Purpose: To allocate CPU resources efficiently and ensure fairness and

responsiveness.

o Frequency: Runs very frequently (milliseconds to seconds) since it makes decisions

about the process to execute.

3. Medium-Term Scheduler (Swapper):

o Function: Manages the movement of processes between the main memory and
secondary storage (usually swapping). When memory is full, the medium-term
scheduler selects processes to swap out and make space for others.

o Purpose: To optimize memory usage and allow processes to continue running

without exhausting the memory.

o Frequency: Runs periodically based on memory availability.

Block Diagram of Scheduler Workflow:

A block diagram of the scheduler workflow typically looks like this:

 Job Queue (Long-Term Scheduler): Contains all processes that are waiting to be admitted
into memory.

 Ready Queue (Short-Term Scheduler): Holds processes that are loaded into memory and
ready to execute.
  Swap Queue (Medium-Term Scheduler): Stores processes that have been swapped out of
memory due to space limitations.

You can search for a "scheduler block diagram" on Google for visualization.

15. Explain the working of SJF and Priority Scheduling with an example each.

SJF (Shortest Job First) Scheduling:

 Definition: SJF is a non-preemptive scheduling algorithm that selects the process with the
shortest burst time (execution time) to execute next.

 Working:

o The scheduler looks at all the processes in the ready queue and selects the one with
the shortest execution time (burst time).

o Advantage: It minimizes the average waiting time and turnaround time for
processes.

o Disadvantage: It requires knowledge of the burst time of processes, which is often

difficult to predict in real-time.

Example of SJF Scheduling: Consider three processes with burst times:

 P1: 6 ms

 P2: 8 ms

 P3: 7 ms

The order of execution would be:

1. P1 (6 ms)

2. P3 (7 ms)

3. P2 (8 ms)

Here, the process with the shortest burst time is selected first.

Priority Scheduling:

 Definition: Priority Scheduling assigns each process a priority, and the process with the
highest priority is executed first. This can be preemptive or non-preemptive.

 Working:

o In the non-preemptive version, once a process starts, it runs to completion,

regardless of the arrival of higher-priority processes.

o In the preemptive version, if a higher-priority process arrives while a lower-priority

process is running, the scheduler may interrupt the lower-priority process.

Example of Priority Scheduling: Consider three processes with the following priorities (lower
number means higher priority):
  P1: Priority 2

 P2: Priority 1

 P3: Priority 3

The order of execution would be:

1. P2 (priority 1)

2. P1 (priority 2)

3. P3 (priority 3)

This scheduling ensures that processes with higher priority values are executed first.

16. Explain directory structures in detail about any three.

Directory Structures: Directory structures manage the organization of files in the file system. They
allow users and programs to easily locate files and directories. Below are three common directory
structures:

1. Single-Level Directory:

o Structure: In this structure, all files are stored in one directory. There is no hierarchy
of subdirectories.

o Advantages: Simple to implement, easy to manage.

o Disadvantages: Difficulty in organizing files when there are too many, leading to
confusion.

2. Two-Level Directory:

o Structure: This structure separates files into two levels: the root directory and
individual user directories. Each user has their own directory, containing their files.

o Advantages: Better organization, each user has a separate space.

o Disadvantages: Limited flexibility, no hierarchy for file organization within user

directories.

3. Hierarchical (Tree-Structured) Directory:

o Structure: This is the most commonly used structure, where directories can contain
subdirectories, and those subdirectories can further contain files or other
directories. It resembles a tree structure with a root and branches.

o Advantages: Flexible, allows deep nesting and better organization of files.

o Disadvantages: More complex to implement, requires efficient traversal

mechanisms.

17. Explain the following page replacement algorithms: A. FIFO, B. LRU.

FIFO (First-In-First-Out) Page Replacement:

 Definition: FIFO is a simple page replacement algorithm where the page that has been in
memory the longest is replaced when a new page needs to be loaded into memory.

 Working:

o The pages in memory are placed in a queue. When a page needs to be replaced, the
one at the front of the queue (the oldest) is removed.

o Advantage: Simple to implement and understand.

o Disadvantage: Can lead to poor performance in certain scenarios, as it doesn’t

consider the frequency or recency of page accesses.

LRU (Least Recently Used) Page Replacement:

 Definition: LRU replaces the page that has not been used for the longest period of time.

 Working:

o Pages are ordered based on when they were last accessed. When a new page is
needed, the page that has been least recently used is replaced.

o Advantage: More efficient than FIFO in most cases, as it better reflects actual
program usage.

o Disadvantage: Requires maintaining a history of page access, which can be resource-

intensive.

18. Write in detail about system calls.

System Calls (Continued): System calls are fundamental to the interaction between user programs
and the operating system. They form the bridge through which applications communicate with the
kernel, which controls the hardware and provides services to user programs.

 User-Level vs Kernel-Level:

o User-level functions are typically part of an application, but when they need to
interact with the kernel (e.g., to access files, use network sockets, or create
processes), they issue a system call.

o Kernel-level functions are part of the operating system and perform the core tasks
like managing memory, scheduling processes, and handling input/output.

Types of System Calls: System calls can be classified into five major types:

1. Process Control:

o These include creating, scheduling, and terminating processes. Example: fork(),

exec(), exit().

2. File Management:
 o These system calls manage the file system, like opening, closing, reading, or writing
to files. Example: open(), read(), write(), close().

3. Device Management:

o These system calls allow processes to interact with hardware devices. Example:
ioctl(), read(), write().

4. Information Maintenance:

o These system calls gather or set system or process information. Example: getpid(),
gettimeofday().

5. Inter-Process Communication (IPC):

o These are crucial for processes that need to communicate with one another, such as
message passing or shared memory. Example: msgsnd(), msgrcv(), semop().

System Call Interface: When a user program makes a system call, it involves a context switch to
kernel mode. The system call is identified by a number, which the kernel looks up to determine the
action to take. After the kernel completes the system call, it returns control to the user program.

19. Explain the different kinds of schedulers.

Schedulers in Operating Systems: Schedulers play a critical role in process management by deciding
which process should be executed next on the CPU. There are three major types of schedulers:

1. Long-Term Scheduler (Job Scheduler):

o Function: It is responsible for deciding which processes are admitted into the system
and brought into the ready queue. It regulates the degree of multiprogramming,
controlling how many processes are in memory.

o Example: If there are too many processes in memory, the long-term scheduler might
delay the admission of new processes.

2. Short-Term Scheduler (CPU Scheduler):

o Function: This scheduler selects processes from the ready queue to execute on the
CPU. It uses scheduling algorithms such as FCFS, SJF, and Round Robin.

o Example: The short-term scheduler decides which process should run next, ensuring
fairness and efficient use of the CPU.

3. Medium-Term Scheduler (Swapper):

o Function: The medium-term scheduler manages the swapping of processes between

the main memory and secondary storage. It is used when the system runs out of
memory and needs to free up space.

o Example: If there is limited RAM, the scheduler may swap out processes that are not
currently executing to disk, freeing memory for others.
20. Differentiate between processes and threads.

Processes vs Threads:

 Process:

o A process is an independent program in execution with its own memory space,

system resources, and state. Each process has its own address space, code, data, and
stack.

o Overhead: Processes have higher overhead due to their need for separate memory
and resources.

o Isolation: Processes are isolated from each other, meaning that if one process
crashes, it doesn’t affect others.

 Thread:

o A thread is a smaller unit of a process that can run independently. Threads within the
same process share the same memory space, file descriptors, and other resources,
but have their own program counter, stack, and local variables.

o Overhead: Threads have less overhead because they share resources with other
threads of the same process.

o Communication: Threads can easily communicate with each other because they
share the same memory space.

Key Differences:

 Processes are heavier, with their own resources and memory space, while threads are lighter
and share resources within the process.

 Threads are faster to create and terminate because they share the process’s resources.

21. Explain FCFS scheduling algorithm with an example.

FCFS (First-Come, First-Served) Scheduling Algorithm:

 Definition: FCFS is a non-preemptive scheduling algorithm where the process that arrives
first is executed first. Once a process starts executing, it runs to completion.

 Working:

o The CPU scheduler selects the process in the order of their arrival in the ready
queue.

o Advantage: Simple and easy to implement.

o Disadvantage: It can lead to the "convoy effect," where shorter processes are
delayed by longer ones, resulting in high average waiting times.

Example: Consider the following three processes with their arrival times and burst times:

 P1: Arrival Time = 0, Burst Time = 5

  P2: Arrival Time = 2, Burst Time = 3

 P3: Arrival Time = 4, Burst Time = 2

The order of execution under FCFS is:

1. P1 executes first (from time 0 to 5).

2. P2 executes second (from time 5 to 8).

3. P3 executes third (from time 8 to 10).

Here, even though P3 has the shortest burst time, it has to wait for P1 and P2 to finish first.

22. What are the various objectives and functions of the operating system?

Objectives of an Operating System:

1. Resource Management: The OS manages the hardware resources of a system, including the
CPU, memory, and I/O devices, to optimize their usage.

2. Process Management: It ensures that multiple processes can run concurrently without
interfering with each other.

3. File Management: The OS handles the creation, deletion, and access of files, ensuring that
users can interact with files in a logical and consistent manner.

4. Security and Protection: The OS protects data and system resources from unauthorized
access while ensuring safe execution of processes.

5. User Interface: The OS provides the user with an interface (e.g., command-line or graphical)
to interact with the system.

Functions of an Operating System:

1. Process Scheduling: The OS schedules processes for execution based on various scheduling
algorithms.

2. Memory Management: It keeps track of memory allocation and deallocation, and optimizes
memory usage.

3. Input/Output Management: The OS manages I/O devices, ensuring smooth and efficient
communication between hardware and software.

4. File System Management: The OS organizes, stores, and retrieves data on storage devices.

5. Error Detection and Handling: The OS detects and responds to errors, such as hardware
failures or invalid memory access.

6. Security: The OS ensures secure access to resources through authentication and access
control mechanisms.

23. Explain about first fit, best fit, worst fit, and next fit algorithms.
Memory Allocation Algorithms:

1. First Fit:

o Function: Allocates the first available block of memory large enough to satisfy the
request.

o Advantage: Simple and fast.

o Disadvantage: Can lead to fragmentation because small unused gaps are left in the
memory.

2. Best Fit:

o Function: Allocates the smallest available block that is large enough to satisfy the
request.

o Advantage: Tends to leave smaller gaps, reducing fragmentation.

o Disadvantage: Can lead to inefficient use of memory, as many small gaps remain.

3. Worst Fit:

o Function: Allocates the largest available block to satisfy the request.

o Advantage: May reduce fragmentation by leaving larger gaps.

o Disadvantage: Can lead to inefficient memory usage if large gaps are wasted.

4. Next Fit:

o Function: Similar to first fit, but it starts searching for a block from the point where
the last allocation was made.

o Advantage: Less overhead compared to first fit since it doesn’t always start from the
beginning of the memory.

o Disadvantage: Can lead to fragmentation in certain cases.

24. Describe indexed file, indexed sequential file organization.

Indexed File Organization:

 Definition: In an indexed file, an index is used to store pointers to the actual records. It
allows fast access to data by using the index instead of scanning the entire file.

 Structure: It has two components:

o Index Block: Contains keys and pointers to the records.

o Data Block: Stores the actual data records.

 Advantages:

o Faster search and retrieval due to the index.

o Reduces the need for sequential searching.

  Disadvantage: Overhead of maintaining the index.

Indexed Sequential File Organization:

 Definition: This combines both indexed and sequential access methods. Records are stored
sequentially, and an index provides access to records in non-sequential order.

 Structure:

o Records are stored in sequential order.

o An index is used to point to the key fields of records.

 Advantages:

o Efficient for both sequential and direct access.

o Suitable for applications that require both types of access.

 **Dis

advantages:**

 Complexity in maintaining both the index and the sequential list.

PART C

25. Explain in detail the concept of Inter-Process Communication (IPC).

Inter-Process Communication (IPC): Inter-Process Communication (IPC) refers to the mechanisms

that allow processes to communicate with each other and synchronize their actions while running. It
enables processes to share data, signal events, and synchronize actions without interfering with each
other's memory space. IPC is crucial in multiprogramming environments, where multiple processes
execute concurrently.

Types of IPC: IPC can be broadly classified into two categories:

1. Message Passing:

o In this model, processes communicate by sending and receiving messages.

o Direct Message Passing: The sender specifies the recipient of the message.

o Indirect Message Passing: Messages are sent to a mailbox or message queue, from
where the recipient retrieves them.

o Example: Using send() and receive() system calls for communication.

o Advantages: Suitable for processes on different machines (distributed systems).

o Disadvantages: Can lead to delays, and message delivery is not always guaranteed.

2. Shared Memory:
 o A region of memory is shared between processes, and they can read and write data
to this shared memory.

o Mechanism: One process writes to the memory, and the other reads from it.

o Advantages: Efficient because it allows direct access to data.

o Disadvantages: Synchronization must be managed carefully to avoid conflicts (race

conditions).

IPC Techniques:

1. Pipes:

o Used for communication between two related processes. A pipe provides a

unidirectional communication channel between processes.

o Anonymous Pipes: Used for communication between related processes, such as

parent-child processes.

o Named Pipes (FIFOs): Can be used between any processes, regardless of whether
they are related.

o Example: pipe() system call.

2. Message Queues:

o A message queue is a linked list of messages stored in memory. A message queue

allows processes to send and receive messages asynchronously.

o Advantage: Messages are stored in queues, and processes do not need to wait for
each other.

o Example: msgsnd(), msgrcv() system calls.

3. Semaphores:

o Semaphores are synchronization tools used to manage concurrent access to shared

resources. They are primarily used to avoid race conditions.

o Binary Semaphore: Works like a lock; it only takes two values (0 or 1).

o Counting Semaphore: It allows multiple units of resources to be controlled.

4. Shared Memory:

o A region of memory is shared between processes, allowing them to communicate

directly by reading and writing to the shared memory.

o Advantage: Fast communication since there is no need for context switching or

message passing.

o Disadvantage: Requires synchronization techniques like semaphores to avoid

conflicts.

Advantages of IPC:

 Synchronization: IPC mechanisms help synchronize the execution of processes.

  Resource Sharing: Processes can share common resources without interfering with each
other's memory.

 Communication: IPC provides communication pathways for processes to exchange data or

events.

26. Write in detail about any four different types of operating systems.

1. Batch Operating System:

 Definition: A batch operating system executes a series of jobs without manual intervention,
collecting them into batches and processing them sequentially.

 Characteristics:

o Jobs are processed in batches, and the operating system doesn’t allow interaction
with the user during execution.

o There’s no need for user interaction between tasks.

o Efficient for jobs that require less interactivity.

 Example: IBM's early systems like IBM 1401 or IBM 7090.

 Advantages:

o Efficient in handling repetitive tasks.

o No human intervention is required.

 Disadvantages:

o No real-time user interaction.

o Difficult to manage for jobs that require interaction.

2. Time-Sharing Operating System:

 Definition: A time-sharing system allows multiple users to interact with the computer
simultaneously. Each user gets a small time slice of the CPU's time.

 Characteristics:

o Provides an interactive environment with a rapid response time.

o CPU time is shared among users or tasks based on time slices.

 Example: Unix, Multics.

 Advantages:

o Enables multi-user and multitasking capabilities.

o Reduces CPU idle time and improves system efficiency.

 Disadvantages:

o Overhead due to context switching.

 o Requires complex management of tasks and resources.

3. Real-Time Operating System (RTOS):

 Definition: A real-time operating system guarantees a certain level of responsiveness within

a specified time frame.

 Characteristics:

o Systems are designed to perform specific tasks with high reliability and predictability.

o They are used in embedded systems, robotics, medical devices, etc.

 Example: VxWorks, RTEMS.

 Advantages:

o Predictable behavior is crucial for tasks like flight control systems and medical
devices.

o Provides deterministic response times.

 Disadvantages:

o Limited to specific, time-critical tasks.

o Not as flexible as general-purpose operating systems.

4. Network Operating System (NOS):

 Definition: A network operating system manages network resources and allows

communication between devices on a network. It facilitates resource sharing and
coordination in a networked environment.

 Characteristics:

o Provides networking capabilities like file sharing, print services, and communication
protocols.

o Manages both local and remote resources.

 Example: Novell NetWare, Microsoft Windows Server.

 Advantages:

o Enables sharing of resources across multiple systems.

o Facilitates secure communication in a networked environment.

 Disadvantages:

o Complex to manage and configure.

o Security concerns due to the distributed nature.

27. Explain the following:

a. SSTF (Shortest Seek Time First):

  Definition: SSTF is a disk scheduling algorithm that selects the request that is closest to the
current head position to minimize the seek time.

 Working:

o The disk arm moves to the nearest request in the queue, reducing the average seek
time.

 Example:

o Suppose a disk head is at position 50 and there are requests at 30, 60, and 90. SSTF
will first serve the request at position 60, as it is closest to 50, then serve the request
at 30, and finally at 90.

 Advantages:

o It minimizes the seek time.

 Disadvantages:

o Can lead to starvation, where requests far from the head may not be serviced for a
long time.

b. SCAN Disk Scheduling Algorithm:

 Definition: SCAN is a disk scheduling algorithm where the disk arm moves in one direction,
serving requests along the way, and when it reaches the end, it reverses direction and serves
requests in the opposite direction.

 Working:

o The disk arm moves from one end of the disk to the other, servicing requests as it
goes, and then reverses direction to serve the remaining requests.

 Example:

o Consider requests at 30, 50, 60, and 90. If the disk head starts at position 50 and
moves towards the right, it will first serve the request at 60, then 90, then reverse
direction and serve 30.

 Advantages:

o SCAN reduces the average seek time compared to FCFS.

 Disadvantages:

o Can result in longer wait times for requests near the end of the disk.

28. Write a detailed note on any three directory structures.

1. Single-Level Directory:

 Definition: In a single-level directory system, all files are stored in one directory.

 Structure:
 o All files are stored in a single directory, without subdirectories.

 Advantages:

o Simple to manage and access files.

o Suitable for small systems with fewer files.

 Disadvantages:

o Difficult to manage when the number of files increases.

o No hierarchical organization of files.

2. Two-Level Directory:

 Definition: A two-level directory structure separates files into two categories: one for users
and one for the system.

 Structure:

o The first level is the root directory, and the second level contains user directories.

o Each user has a personal directory with their files.

 Advantages:

o Helps organize files better than a single-level directory.

o Prevents conflicts between files with the same name by keeping them in separate
directories.

 Disadvantages:

o Still not scalable for large systems with many users.

3. Hierarchical Directory:

 Definition: A hierarchical directory system organizes files into a tree structure, where
directories can contain subdirectories.

 Structure:

o The root directory is the top-level directory, and beneath it, there are multiple
subdirectories and files.

 Advantages:

o Scalable and well-suited for large file systems.

o Provides clear organization, making it easy to manage files and directories.

 Disadvantages:

o Requires a more complex management system and more disk space.

29. Explain Magnetic Disk Structure.

Magnetic Disk Structure: A magnetic disk is a storage device that uses magnetic patterns to store
data.

It is a secondary storage device consisting of one or more rigid plates (platters) coated with a
magnetic material.

Structure Components:

1. Platters:

o The disk consists of platters, which are the flat, circular surfaces where data is stored.
Each platter has two surfaces, and data is written on both surfaces.

2. Tracks:

o The surface of each platter is divided into concentric circles called tracks. Each track
is further subdivided into sectors, which are the smallest units of data storage.

3. Heads:

o Each platter surface has a read/write head that moves across the surface to read or
write data. The heads float above the platter on a thin layer of air.

4. Spindle:

o The spindle holds the platters and rotates them at a constant speed, typically 5400
RPM or 7200 RPM.

5. Cylinder:

o A cylinder is a set of tracks located at the same position on all platters. The
read/write heads move together, accessing the same track on each platter
simultaneously.

Working:

 The disk spins, and the read/write head accesses the appropriate track and sector to read or
write data. Data is written magnetically in binary format.

Advantages:

 High capacity and relatively low cost.

 Provides fast access to data, especially for sequential reads.

Disadvantages:

 Slower compared to solid-state drives (SSDs).

 Susceptible to physical damage due to moving parts.

30. A) What is the important feature of the critical section?

Critical Section: The critical section is a part of the program where shared resources are accessed,
and it must be executed by only one process at a time to avoid race conditions.
Important Feature:

 Mutual Exclusion: The main feature of the critical section is ensuring that only one process
can execute the critical section at any given time. This prevents conflicts when multiple
processes access shared resources concurrently.

30. B) Explain the Dining Philosopher's Problem.

The Dining Philosophers' Problem is a classic synchronization problem that illustrates the difficulties
of process synchronization when multiple processes need to share resources. It involves a number of
philosophers sitting around a dining table, where each philosopher thinks and occasionally eats. To
eat, a philosopher needs two forks, one to their left and one to their right.

Problem Setup:

 Philosophers spend their time thinking and eating.

 They can only eat if they have both forks (one from their left and one from their right).

 Philosophers pick up the forks one at a time, but if all philosophers pick up the fork at the
same time, they can get stuck in a deadlock.

Solution Approaches:

1. Mutex Locks: Use locks to ensure that only one philosopher can pick up the forks at any
given time.

2. Resource Hierarchy: Assign a hierarchy to the forks (e.g., odd-numbered philosophers pick
up the left fork first, and even-numbered philosophers pick up the right fork first) to prevent
circular waiting.

Goal:

 To avoid deadlock (where all philosophers hold one fork and wait forever for the other) and
ensure that all philosophers can eventually eat.