REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ● Vaginal Orifice - located inside the vulva, which is a

collection of organs, blood vessels, nerves, and erectile

I. FUNCTIONS tissue that protects the internal reproductive organs. The
It has four specific functions: vaginal opening serves many purposes, including:
- To produce gametes (egg and sperm cells) reproduction, menstruation, and sexual pressure.
- To store and transport these reproductive cells ● Hymen - Some people with vulvas also have a hymen. This
- To nurture offspring as it develops is a thin, delicate tissue that partially covers the entrance to
- To produce hormones the vagina. When someone has penetrative sex for the first
time, the hymen can stretch or break. But not everyone has
a hymen, and it can also stretch for a number of other
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM reasons.
- The female reproductive system consists of internal and external
organs. It creates hormones and is responsible for fertility, THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
menstruation, and sexual activity. External Organs
- It also encompasses the mammary glands, which produce milk to 1. Penis: Used for sexual intercourse; delivers sperm into the female
nourish newborns during lactation. Pregnancy involves the formation reproductive system. It also serves as the passageway for urine to
of a placenta, a temporary organ that facilitates nutrient exchange leave the body.
between the maternal and fetal circulatory system.
- The female reproductive system involves structures such as the 2. Scrotum: A pouch of skin that holds the testes outside the body. It
ovaries, where egg cells develop through oogenesis. The release of helps regulate temperature for optimal sperm production, keeping the
mature eggs into the fallopian tube during menstrual cycle allows for testes cooler than the body's internal temperature.
potential fertilization.
- The Reproductive System’s functionality extends beyond gamete Internal Organs
production to include the facilitation of fertilization, pregnancy, and 1. Testes: The testes are responsible for producing sperm cells
childbirth. Following fertilization, the zygote undergoes development through a process called spermatogenesis.
within the uterus, supported by endometrium. 2. Epididymis: The epididymis is a coiled tube where sperm mature
and gain motility.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 3. Vas Deferens: The vas deferens is a duct that transports mature
- The Male Reproductive System includes a group of organs that make sperm from the epididymis to the urethra..
up the Reproductive system and urinary system in men. 4. Seminal Vesicles: Secrete a fluid rich in fructose and other
- Testes- Responsible for the production of sperm cells through a substances.
process known as spermatogenesis. These sperm cells are then 5. Prostate Gland: The prostate produces seminal fluid, which
transported through ducts, including the vas deferens, and are nourishes and protects sperm
expelled from the body during ejaculation. 6. Urethra: Serves as a common passageway for both urine and
semen.
II. ANATOMY
IV. DISEASES
III. PHYSIOLOGY Erectile Dysfunction: Inability to achieve or maintain an erection.
Causes can include cardiovascular issues, diabetes, stress, and low
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM testosterone levels.
Internal Organs: Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate gland, often caused by
1. Ovary - produce eggs (ova) through a process called oogenesis. bacterial infections. Symptoms include pelvic pain, difficulty urinating,
The female reproductive system has two ovaries. They contain and painful ejaculation.
undeveloped eggs (ova) which are present from birth. They also make Testicular Cancer: rare cancer, often found in younger men, that
hormones which regulate the menstrual cycle. One of the ovaries affects the testicles. Early signs include lumps or swelling.
releases a mature egg as part of the menstrual cycle. Hypogonadism: Low testosterone production, resulting in fatigue,
reduced libido, and infertility.
2. Oviduct/FALLOPIAN TUBE - The oviducts are two tubes which Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: Hormonal disorder causing irregular
connect the ovaries to the uterus. Oviducts are also known as fallopian periods, ovarian cysts, and excess androgens, which can lead to
tubes. They are lined with hair like cells called cilia to help move the fertility issues.
egg from the ovary to the uterus. Endometriosis: Growth of uterine tissue outside the uterus, leading to
severe pain, heavy periods, and sometimes infertility.
3. Uterus - is a mascular organ with a thick lining (endometrium) that Fibroids: Non-cancerous growths in the uterus that can cause heavy
thickens in preparation for pregnancy. A fertilized egg can implant in menstrual bleeding, pelvic pain, and reproductive complications.
the uterus wall and develop from an embryo to a baby over the course Ovarian Cysts: Fluid-filled sacs on the ovaries, which can cause pain,
of a pregnancy. The lining of the uterus wall comes away as a period if bloating, and hormonal disturbances.
an egg is not fertilized by a sperm.

4. Cervix - The cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connects to INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
the vagina. The cervix dilates to open during labour.
DO YOU KNOW WHAT IS THE LARGEST ORGAN OF THE BODY?
5. Vagina - The vagina is a mascular tube that connects the cervix to - SKIN
the external genitalia. It is where the penis enters during sexual
intercourse and where the baby exits the body during child birth. The INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
vagina is also where the menstrual blood (period) leaves the body. Is a system that contributes to maintaining overall health and
homeostasis within the body.
External Organs:
Vulva - is the collective name for all your external genitals
Main parts of vulva I. FUNCTIONS
● Mons Pubis - a fatty tissue pad that covers the pubic bone
and is part of the external genitalia of people assigned ➤ Protection - The skin is part of the body's first line of defense
female at birth. against infection and it also serves as a barrier from UV radiation
● Labia majora - These are the larger lips that surround the because of the Melanin in the skin that helps absorb and dissipate
vulva. After puberty, they typically have pubic hair. At the top harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun.
of the vulva is also the mons pubis, which is a rounded pad
of fat that sits over the pubic bone. ➤ Temperature Regulation - Sweat glands release moisture onto the
● Labia minora - These are smaller lips that surround the surface of the skin, which cools the body as the sweat evaporates.
entrance to the vagina
● Clitoris - sensitive area of the body that is the primary ➤ Sensory Reception - The skin contains a variety of sensory
pleasure center of the female reproductive system receptors that allow the body to sense touch, temperature, pain, and
● Urethral Orifice - This is where urine comes from. The pressure. The skin also can convey emotional and physical states
urethra is part of the urinary system and sits just above the through changes in appearance, such as blushing, sweating, or
vaginal opening.
indicate health issues, such as jaundice (yellowing of skin due to liver Psoriasis is an autoimmune disorder that speeds up the skin cell
disease). turnover process. Normally, skin cells grow and shed over a period of
weeks, but in psoriasis, skin cells proliferate much faster (within days),
➤ Excretion - The skin helps excrete waste products, such as urea, leading to a buildup of cells on the surface of the skin. This results in
salts, and excess water, through sweat. While the kidneys play a major thick, scaly patches.
role in excretion, sweat glands provide an additional route for some Symptoms:
waste elimination. ● Red, inflamed patches of skin covered with silvery-white
scales.
➤ Synthesis of Vitamin D - When the skin is exposed to UV light, it ● Dry, cracked skin that may bleed.
synthesizes vitamin D (specifically vitamin D3), which is important for ● Itching, burning, or soreness.
calcium absorption and bone health. ● Thickened or ridged nails.
● Swollen and stiff joints (psoriatic arthritis in some cases).
➤ Storage - The skin serves as a storage site for lipids and water.
Adipose tissue (fat) in the hypodermis stores energy, and the skin can Treated with topical treatments, phototherapy, or systemic
also store water and electrolytes for later use. medications.

II. ANATOMY
III. PHYSIOLOGY ALOPECIA AREATA
➤ Epidermis - is the top layer of the skin that you can see and touch, Alopecia areata is an autoimmune condition in which the body's
Keratin, a protein inside skin cells, makes up the skin cells and, along immune system mistakenly attacks hair follicles, leading to hair loss. It
with other proteins, sticks together to form this layer. Acts as a often begins with round, smooth patches of hair loss on the scalp or
protective barrier, makes new skin, and provides skin color. other areas of the body.
Symptoms:
➤ Dermis - is the middle layer of skin it makes up 90% of skin's ● Sudden, round patches of hair loss, usually on the scalp,
thickness. This is where the roots of hair follicle are attach. Makes oil, face (eyebrows, eyelashes), or other body parts.
produces sweat, and supplies blood. ● Tingling or itching in the affected areas before hair falls out.
● In some cases, thinning of nails or changes in nail texture
➤ Hypodermis - is the bottom layer of skin and is the fatty layer. It (e.g., pitting).
has areolar and adipose tissue that connects layers of skin to muscles
and bones. It also protects muscles and bones from injuries when you Treated with corticosteroids, minoxidil, and immunotherapy
fall or are in an accident.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
➤ Hair Shaft - is the visible part of the hair that protrudes from the
skin. For example, eyelashes protect the eyes from dust and debris. I. FUNCTION
➤ Arrector Pili - is a tiny muscle thought to be a response to What is the Digestive System?
emotional stimuli, attached to each hair follicle. When it contracts (due Your digestive system is a group of organs that work together to digest
to cold, fear, or other stimuli), it causes the hair to stand upright, and absorb nutrients from the food you eat. Digestion is a complicated
creating what we call goosebumps. process, and conditions and disorders can disrupt that process.
Knowing how your digestive system works may help you keep it
➤ Hair Follicle - is responsible for hair production. healthy and know when it may be time to get medical care.
➤ Sebaceous Gland - secrete sebum (an oily substance) which helps What does The Digestive System do?
to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair, preventing the skin from It breaks down and absorbs nutrients from the food and liquids you
becoming dry and cracked. consume. Your digestive system also takes care of food waste — the
stuff that’s left over after you digest food. Your digestive system turns
➤ Hair Root - It is responsible for the growth of the hair. food waste into poop
(stool).
➤ Hair Follicle Receptor - is also called the root hair plexus. It is a
sensory nerve ending wrapped around the base of the hair follicle. What Happens in The Digestive System?
This contributes to the sense of touch and provides awareness of The digestive process involves lots of steps and several stops as food
objects or insects on the skin. and liquid move through your digestive system:
1. Digestion starts even before you take that first bite of food. When
➤ Adipose Tissue - is located beneath the skin and around internal you see and smell food, your salivary glands get to work. They release
organs, serves several key functions: it insulates the body to regulate saliva so you have some spit in your mouth to moisten food when you
temperature, acts as an energy reserve by storing lipids for fuel, and start chewing.
provides cushioning and protection for internal organs against 2. Next, your chewed-up food moves from your mouth to your
mechanical damage. esophagus. Your esophagus uses a process known as peristalsis to
send food to your stomach.
➤ Sensory Nerve Fiber - is responsible for transmitting information to 3. Your stomach releases acid and enzymes that break food down.
the central nervous system. These fibers work with hair follicle 4. Next, your small intestine turns semisolid food into fluid to absorb
receptor and are sensitive to pain, pressure, temperature, and nutrients.
vibration, helping the body to detect potential threats or changes in the 5. Your pancreas and liver help by sending digestive juices to your
environment. small intestine. Your gallbladder contributes bile.
6. The final step is when your small intestine sends leftover food waste
➤ Eccrine Sweat Gland - produce sweat, primarily made of water, to your large intestine. That food waste becomes poop that leaves
salt, and waste products. Their main function is your body via your rectum and your anus (butthole).
thermoregulation—cooling the body through sweat evaporation. These
are found all over the body, with higher concentrations on the palms, II. ANATOMY
soles, and forehead. The main parts of your digestive system are your gastrointestinal (GI)
tract and your biliary tract:
➤ Pacinian Corpuscle - is a type of mechanoreceptor found deep in
the dermis and subcutaneous tissue. It detects these mechanical • Your GI tract is a series of hollow organs that connect to digest and
stimuli and sends signals to the brain. move food through your body. It includes your mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine and large intestine.
➤ Cutaneous Vascular Plexus - it regulates blood flow in the skin to
control temperature and deliver nutrients. • Your Biliary tract makes and releases fluids that help digestion. It
includes your bile ducts, gallbladder, liver and pancreas
➤ Pore of Sweat Gland Duct - is the opening on the skin's surface
where sweat is released from the sweat glands.

IV. RELATED DISEASES

PSORIASIS
 III. PHYSIOLOGY Similar symptoms however may show including: Unexplained weight
loss, nausea, or loss of appetite, Fatigue, and Dark-colored urine.
The gastrointestinal tract
Your GI tract is a long tube that runs from your mouth to your anus. If What's the main cause of esophageal cancer?
you could stretch it out, it would measure 30 feet (9 meters). It’s Liver cancer happens when something affects healthy liver cells'
shorter in your body because your intestines — the longest parts of DNA. DNA carries the genes that tell our cells how to function.
the tract — coil up in your lower abdomen (belly) under your stomach. We all have genes that tell cells when to grow, multiply and die.
Your GI tract parts are your:
- MOUTH 2. ESOPHAGEAL CANCER
The mouth, or oral cavity, is the first part of the digestive tract. It is It starts in the tissues in your esophagus, the long muscular tube
adapted to receive food by ingestion, break it into small particles by that moves food from your throat to your stomach. There are
mastication, and mix it with saliva. two types of esophageal cancer:

- ESOPHAGUS 1. adenocarcinoma - It usually affects the lower part of your

The primary function of your esophagus is to carry food and liquid from esophagus.
your mouth to your stomach. When you swallow, food and liquid first 2. Squamous cell carcinoma - Squamous cell esophageal cancer
move from your mouth to your throat (pharynx). usually affects the upper and middle parts of your esophagus

- STOMACH What are esophageal cancer symptoms?

The stomach is a muscular hollow organ. It takes in food from the food Vomiting or coughing up blood, Heartburn, Hoarseness or chronic
pipe, mixes it and starts breaking it down. The pre-digested food is cough, and Unintentional weight loss.
then passed on to the small intestine in small portions.
What's the main cause of esophageal cancer?
- SMALL INTESTINE Risk factors that increase the chance of developing esophageal
The small intestine has three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and cancer, including: Tobacco use, Alcohol use, Obesity, History of cancer
ileum. It helps to further digest food coming from the stomach. It and other disorders.
absorbs nutrients (vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, proteins)
and water from food so they can be used by the body. 3. COLON CANCER
Colon (colorectal) cancer starts in your colon (large intestine), the long
- LARGE INTESTINE tube that helps carry digested food to your rectum and out of your
The large intestine is the final part of the gastrointestinal tract, whose body. Colon cancer develops from certain polyps or growths in the
main role is to accept food from the small intestine, from which it inner lining of your colon.
absorbs water and salt, after which it collects undigested remains,
which in the process of fermentation, turns into feces. What are colon cancer symptoms?
Common symptoms of colon cancer include: Blood on or in your stool
The biliary tract: (poop), Abdominal (belly) pain, Bloated stomach, Unexplained weight
Your biliary tract is in your upper abdomen (belly). Organs in your loss, etc.
biliary tract support digestion by delivering bile and enzymes that help
your small intestine break down food. Your biliary tract includes your: What causes Colon Cancer?
- In colon cancer, cells lining your colon and rectum keep
- BILE DUCTS growing and dividing even when they're supposed to die.
The bile ducts are a network of tubes that transport bile from the liver
to the gallbladder and then to the small intestine. Bile ducts help break - The risk factors include certain medical conditions, including
down fats during digestion. inherited conditions, and lifestyle choices.

- GALLBLADDER - Lifestyle choices that are risk factors for colon cancer:
The gallbladder is a small organ located beneath the liver on the right Smoking, Excessive alcohol use, Having obesity, Having a diet
side of the body. It stores bile produced by the liver and releases it into that includes lots of red meat and processed meat, and Not
the small intestine when needed for digestion, especially after eating exercising
fatty foods.

- LIVER
The liver is a large organ located on the right side of the abdomen, RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
under the ribs. It produces bile, filters toxins from the blood, stores
nutrients, and performs several other essential functions to maintain I. FUNCTION
overall health.
The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help
- PANCREAS us breathe. The main organ of the respiratory system is the lungs.
The pancreas is an organ located behind the stomach and in front of Other respiratory organs include the nose, the mouth, the pharynx, the
the spine, on the right side of the body. It produces digestive enzymes larynx, the trachea, the bronchi, and the diaphragm.
and hormones, such as insulin, which help in the digestion and When we breathe, the respiratory system takes in oxygen and sends
regulation of blood sugar levels. out carbon dioxide. The cells in our bodies need fresh oxygen to stay
alive. As cells do their jobs, they make and give off carbon dioxide.
This exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is called respiration.
IV. DISEASE The main function of your respiratory system is to pull in oxygen for
What are some common conditions and disorders that affect the your body’s cells and get rid of carbon dioxide, a waste product. You
digestive system? do this by breathing in and out and through gas exchange between the
small air sacs of your lungs (alveoli) and the blood vessels running
Many different conditions and disorders can disrupt your digestive nearby. Your respiratory system also:
system. Some are acute, meaning they don’t last for long. Others may ● Warms and adds moisture to the air you breathe in. Your
be long-term or chronic illnesses. And some — like colon cancer, respiratory system warms the air to match your body
esophageal cancer or liver cancer — are serious diseases that can be temperature. It moisturizes the air to bring it to the humidity
life-threatening. level your body needs.
● Protects your body from particles you breathe in. Parts of
1. LIVER CANCER your respiratory system can block harmful germs and
Liver cancer is a life-threatening illness and one of the fastest-growing irritants from getting in — or push them out if they do get in.
cancer types. There are two kinds of liver cancer: ● Allows you to talk. Air vibrates your vocal cords, which
makes sounds.
1. Primary cancer starts in your liver. ● Helps you smell. Breathing in air moves its molecules past
2. Secondary cancer spreads to your liver from another part of your your olfactory nerve, which sends messages to your brain
body about the way something smells.
What are esophageal cancer symptoms? ● Balances level of acidity in your body. Too much carbon
dioxide lowers your blood’s pH, making it acidic. By
 removing carbon dioxide, your respiratory system helps Pneumonia can affect one or both lungs. Pneumonia in both of your
maintain the acid-base balance in your body. lungs is called bilateral or double pneumonia.
Tuberculosis (TB)
II. ANATOMY Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that most often affects the
lungs. TB is caused by a type of bacteria. It spreads through the air
III. PHYSIOLOGY when infected people cough, sneeze or spit. TB is preventable and
curable. About a quarter of the global population is estimated to have
1. Nose and nasal cavity been infected with TB bacteria. About 5-10% of people infected with
Forming the main external opening of the respiratory system, the nose TB will eventually get symptoms and develop TB disease. Those who
protects the anterior portion of the nasal cavity. The nose is also are infected but not (yet) ill with the disease cannot transmit it. TB
unique, as it is the only part of the system that is externally visible. disease is usually treated with antibiotics and can be fatal without
The nasal cavity is the uppermost part of the respiratory system, treatment.
divided into two by the nasal septum. It is the best entrance for outside
air, as hairs and mucus line the inside wall and operate as air
cleansers. Within this hollow space, the air is warmed, moisturized, IMMUNE SYSTEM
and filtered before reaching the lungs. The nose prevents dust, mold,
and other contaminants from reaching the lungs. I. FUNCTION
Air can also enter through your oral cavity(mouth), especially if you The immune system is the body’s tool for preventing or limiting
have a mouth-breathing habit or your nasal passages may be infection. The immune system is a network of special cells, tissues,
temporarily blocked. proteins, and organs that work together to protect the body from
2. Pharynx potentially damaging foreign invaders and disease. It is the body’s
The pharynx, or throat, is a versatile muscular tube, shaped like a primary defense mechanism against infections and diseases. When
funnel, that delivers air from the mouth and nose to the trachea, or our immune system functions properly it detects threats, such as
windpipe. It also connects the nasal and oral cavities with the larynx bacteria, parasites, and viruses, and it triggers an immune response to
and esophagus. destroy them. When the body faces harmful invaders, such as a virus
The pharynx is key to the respiratory and digestive systems. It allows or a splinter in the finger, it launches an attack to destroy the
inhaled air to pass from the nasal cavity to the larynx, trachea, and pathogens, it is a complex system that is vital for survival. The immune
lungs. A section of the pharynx called the nasopharynx hosts the system is responsible for identifying and neutralizing these pathogens
epiglottis. This keeps the passage to the esophagus covered, to maintain overall health and prevent illness. A fully functional
preventing air from entering the digestive system. immune system can distinguish healthy tissue from unwanted
3. Larynx substances. If it detects an unwanted substance, it will mount an
The larynx has a dual function in the respiratory system: as an air immune response — a complex attack to protect the body from
canal to the lungs (while stopping food and drink from blocking the invaders like bacteria, viruses, and parasites. It also recognizes and
airway) and as the “voice box” (which contains vocal cords for removes dead and faulty cells.
speech).
The larynx is a 2-inch tube made up of nine cartilage pieces. It II. ANATOMY
connects the pharynx with the trachea and is held together by The immune system is spread throughout the body, with key
ligaments, membranes, and fibrous tissue. components including:
4. Lungs
The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system, as they ● Lymphatic System: A network of vessels, ducts, and nodes
perform a vital role in breathing: gas exchange. The right lung is that transport lymph fluid containing immune cells.
divided into three lobes, or sections. The left lung is divided into two
lobes. The pleura are the two membranes that surround each lobe of Vessels: These are the tiny pipes that weave through your body,
your lungs and separate the lungs from your chest wall. collecting lymph from every corner.
The air that a person breathes in through the nose and mouth contains
oxygen and other gases. Oxygen enters the lungs, then the Ducts: Like larger sewer lines, these connect the vessels to the
bloodstream, allowing the body to function normally. However, the bloodstream, where the waste is filtered out.
lungs also take the carbon dioxide from the blood and release it into
the air when a person breathes out. Nodes: These are like mini-treatment plants scattered throughout the
The grape-like sacs called alveoli in each lung allow the exchange of system. They filter the lymph, removing debris and pathogens
oxygen and carbon dioxide to take place. (disease-causing invaders). They also house lymphocytes, the
5. Trachea immune cells that fight infections.
The trachea runs down the neck and upper chest. It is a wide, hollow
tube that connects the larynx to the bronchi, or airways, of the lungs. Example: Think of a cut on your finger. The lymphatic system helps
Its most vital function is to enable airflow to and from the lungs. The remove the fluid and debris from the wound, while the lymph nodes
fibroelastic membrane expands and contracts during inhalation and filter out any bacteria that might have entered.
exhalation.
The trachea divides into the two main bronchi (tubes), one for each ● Lymph Nodes: Bean-shaped organs that filter lymph fluid
lung. The bronchi, in turn, subdivide further into bronchioles. The and house lymphocytes. Lymph nodes are like small,
bronchial tubes are lined with cilia (like very small hairs) that have a bean-shaped security checkpoints along the lymphatic
wave-like motion. This motion carries mucus (sticky phlegm or liquid) system. They're strategically placed throughout the body,
upward and out into the throat, where it is either coughed up or especially in areas like theneck, armpits, and groin.
swallowed. The mucus catches and holds much of the dust, germs,
and other unwanted matter that has invaded your lungs. Your lungs Filtering: They act as filters, trapping pathogens and other harmful
get rid of the mucus through coughing. substances that might be in the lymph fluid.
The trachea, bronchi and bronchioles form the tracheobronchial tree
– a system of airways that allow passage of air into the lungs, where Housing Lymphocytes: They provide a home for lymphocytes, the
gas exchange occurs. These airways are located in the neck and special immune cells that recognize and destroy specific pathogens
thorax.
6. Diaphragm Example: If you have a sore throat, you might notice swollen lymph
The diaphragm is a dome-shaped sheet of muscle located below the nodes in your neck. This is
lungs. It separates the chest from the abdomen. The diaphragm
operates as the major muscle of respiration and aids breathing. The because your body is fighting off an infection, and the lymph nodes are
parasympathetic nervous system regulates the contraction and working overtime to filter out the pathogens and activate lymphocytes
relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. to fight them.
IV. RELATED DISEASES ● Spleen: Filters blood, removes old blood cells, and stores
white blood cells. The spleen is like a large, spongy filter
Pneumonia located in your abdomen. It's responsible for cleaning up
Pneumonia is an infection in your lungs caused by bacteria, viruses or your blood and storing some of your immune cells.
fungi. Pneumonia causes your lung tissue to swell (inflammation) and
can cause fluid or pus in your lungs. Bacterial pneumonia is usually Blood Filtering: It removes old, damaged red blood cells and platelets
more severe than viral pneumonia, which often resolves on its own. from the bloodstream, keeping your blood healthy.
 viruses, and other organisms causing diseases that are in the blood,
Storing White Blood Cells: It also holds a reserve of white blood cells which white blood cells can then sense and fight infection. Apart from
(especially lymphocytes), ready to be deployed to fight infections. that, this organ also ensures that the levels of blood cells are kept in a
proper balanced state so that old red blood cells can be removed and
Example: If you have a serious infection, your spleen will release a new healthy cells circulated. Because of its storage ability for blood,
large number of white blood cells into your bloodstream to fight the the spleen can release surplus blood during emergencies, such as
invaders. massive bleeding in the body.

● Thymus: A gland in the chest that matures T lymphocytes.

The thymus is a small gland located in your chest. It plays a ADENOIDS
critical role in training Tcells, a type of lymphocyte that plays
a crucial role in fighting infections. Adenoids are a small bit of tissue located up above in the throat, just
behind the nose. Adenoids and tonsils make up the lymphatic system
T Cell Maturation: The thymus helps T cells mature and learn to that clears infections as well as maintains balance in fluids within the
identify and attack specific pathogens body. The lymphatic system is a significant part of the immunity; the
immune system is an essential structure defending the body against
Example: The thymus is most active during childhood, ensuring that harmful microorganisms.
your T cells are properly trained and ready to protect you from
infections. The adenoids consist of a type of lymphoid tissue consisting of a large
number of immune cells, in particular, lymphocytes. Lymphocytes
● Bone Marrow: Spongy tissue inside bones that produces all recognize and combat such pathogens as bacteria and viruses.
blood cells, including white blood cells. Bone marrow is the Adenoids are therefore positioned at the back of the nasal passage so
soft, spongy tissue found inside your bones. It's like a busy as to represent one of the body's first lines of defense with respect to
factory that produces all the cells in your blood, including the infections entering it by the mouth and nose.
white blood cells that make up your immune system.
The adenoids work together with the tonsils to trap and filter germs
Blood Cell Production: It constantly creates new red blood cells, white and other foreign particles entering the body through either breathing
blood cells, and platelets, ensuring that your blood is healthy and your or swallowing. Once inside the adenoids, pathogens stimulate an
immune system is fully equipped to fight off infections. activation response from the immune cells that exist within them,
neutralizing the threat before it penetrates into the respiratory system
Example: If you have a cut, your bone marrow will produce more white any further. It is during this filtering process that the role of adenoids
blood cells to help fight off any bacteria that might have entered the becomes vital in little children because their immune systems are only
wound maturing, though with time, as the child grows, adenoids usually shrink
and become less active due to the better-developed immunity through
III. PHYSIOLOGY other body defenses.

LYMPH NODE
A small bean-shaped structure of the human body's immune system. TONSILS
Lymph nodes filter substances that travel through the lymphatic fluid
and contain lymphocytes, the white blood cells that assist the body to The tonsils are immunocompetent organs which serve as the immune
fight infection and disease. There are hundreds of lymph nodes found system's first line of defense against ingested or inhaled foreign
throughout the human body. They are connected to each other with pathogens, and as such frequently engorge with blood to assist in
lymph vessels. immune responses to common illnesses such as the common cold.
The tonsils have on their surface specialized antigen capture cells
These nodes are usually located in some specific parts of the body, called M cells that allow for the uptake of antigens produced by
such as the neck, axilla, chest, abdomen, or groin. For example, there pathogens. These M cells then alert the underlying B cells and T cells
are around 20-40 lymph nodes in the axilla alone. in the tonsil that a pathogen is present and an immune response is
stimulated. B cells are activated and proliferate in areas called
The lymph nodes also contain immune cells called germinal centers in the tonsil. These germinal centres are places
lymphocytes-actually, kinds of white blood cells. These lymphocytes where B memory cells are created and secretory antibody (IgA) is
are vital in fighting off invading germs, including bacteria, viruses, and produced.
other foreign entities. As harmful organisms invade through the fluid of
lymph, they are sifted out by the lymph nodes, where the lymphocytes The physiology of Tonsils are lymphoid tissue aggregates situated
work to identify and destroy them, therefore ensuring that infection and near the entrance of the digestive and respiratory tracts and play a key
diseases do not set in. role in our immune system. They act as a front-line defense forming
the initial immunological response to inhaled or ingested pathogens.
This is because lymph nodes are important in eliminating bad
substances and activate the body's defence against infections. Owing
to this, they are very essential to maintaining our health. They can SMALL INTESTINES
even sometimes be mistakenly called lymph glands owing to their
function of managing and protecting the immune system. The small intestine is a vital part of the digestive system, primarily
responsible for breaking down food and absorbing nutrients like
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. It is structured to
SPLEEN maximize nutrient absorption, with the mucosa covered in villi that
increase surface area. In addition to its digestive function, the small
This is one small, but rather very vital organ positioned between the intestine plays an important role in immune defense, as its lining acts
left rib cage and the stomach. The spleen, as part of the lymphatic as a barrier against harmful bacteria. Specialized immune structures,
system itself because it belongs to the immune system, performs such as Peyer’s patches in the ileum, help protect against pathogens,
several important functions in relation to maintaining good health and while the lamina propria beneath the mucosal layer aids in immune
body defense. surveillance.

The spleen is a soft, spongy organ that stores and filters blood. There The small intestine also has an endocrinologic function, producing
are two types of main tissues in it: red pulp and white pulp. The red hormones like cholecystokinin and secretin, which regulate digestion
pulp acts as a reservoir-it holds extra blood and platelets. These can and energy balance. Its layered structure, including the serosa,
then be released into the bloodstream when the body needs them. muscularis, submucosa, and mucosa, all contribute to its efficiency.
This is crucial when the body is injured for instance. This part of the The muscularis contains two layers of muscle that work together to
spleen also filters out old, damaged red blood cells from the propel food, while the submucosa supports the production of digestive
circulation. The white pulp is highly rich in immune cells referred to as enzymes and protects the intestine with structures like Brunner glands
white blood cells (or lymphocytes) and is the part that produces and in the duodenum. This complex design allows the small intestine to
activates these cells in order to prevent pathogens. perform its essential functions of digestion, absorption, immune
defense, and hormonal regulation effectively.
The role of the spleen has a direct relation with an immune response
and blood health. It acts like a purifier for such harmful bacteria,
APPENDIX HIV progresses, it weakens the immune system, making individuals
more susceptible to opportunistic infections and certain cancers.
The appendix, once considered a vestigial organ with no clear
function, has been found to play a significant role in the immune - Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID): CVID is a primary
system of mammals, including humans. Researchers have discovered immunodeficiency disorder characterized by low levels of antibodies
that it is involved in mucosal immune function, which is part of the (immunoglobulins). This deficiency makes individuals prone to
body's defense mechanism at the interfaces between internal and recurrent infections, particularly in the respiratory and gastrointestinal
external environments, such as the gut. The appendix contains tracts.
lymphoid tissue, which is important for protecting the body from
pathogens that enter through the digestive system.
3. Allergic Diseases
In addition to its involvement in mucosal immunity, the appendix is
believed to play a role in the development and function of specific Allergic diseases occur when the immune system overreacts to
immune cells, particularly T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes. These normally harmless substances called allergens. This overreaction
cells are crucial components of the adaptive immune system. The triggers an inflammatory response that can cause a variety of
appendix is thought to support the production of extrathymically symptoms.
derived T-lymphocytes—T cells that are produced outside the
thymus—and help in the maturation and activation of B-lymphocytes, - Allergic Rhinitis (Hay Fever): Allergic rhinitis is a common allergic
which are responsible for producing antibodies. Both types of cells condition that causes inflammation of the nasal passages. It is
contribute to targeted immune responses and help the body fight off triggered by allergens such as pollen, dust mites, pet dander, and
infections more effectively. mold. Symptoms include sneezing, runny nose, itchy eyes, and
congestion.
Another important function of the appendix is its contribution to early
defense mechanisms. It has been suggested that the appendix serves - Asthma: Asthma is a chronic lung disease characterized by
as a reservoir for beneficial bacteria and immune cells, which can help inflammation and narrowing of the airways. This narrowing can cause
the body respond to infections more quickly. In the event of an wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, and chest tightness.
infection, the appendix may release these stored cells and microbes to Allergens are a common trigger for asthma attacks, along with other
bolster the immune response. This early action can help prevent the factors such as exercise, cold air, and respiratory infections.
development of more severe infections, providing a line of defense
before the body can mount a full immune response. Overall, while the - Food Allergies: Food allergies occur when the immune system
appendix may not be essential for survival, it plays an important role in mistakenly identifies certain food proteins as harmful. This can trigger
supporting immune health and preventing infections. a range of reactions, from mild symptoms like hives and itching to
severe, life-threatening anaphylaxis. Common food allergens include
peanuts, tree nuts, milk, eggs, soy, wheat, fish, and shellfish.
IV. DISEASES

1. Autoimmune Diseases
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Autoimmune diseases occur when the body's immune system, which
normally protects against foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses, I. FUNCTION
mistakenly attacks the body's own healthy tissues and cells. This
happens because the immune system fails to recognize its own cells The circulatory system acts as the body's internal delivery service,
as "self" and instead identifies them as "non-self" targets. efficiently transporting vital materials to cells and clearing away waste.
This intricate network, powered by the heart's rhythmic pumping, uses
- Systemic Lupus Erythematosus(SLE): This chronic autoimmune blood vessels as its roadways and blood as its delivery vehicles.
disease can affect various organs and tissues throughout the body. In
SLE, the immune system produces autoantibodies that mistakenly Its main role is the continuous delivery of oxygen-rich blood from the
attack the body's own cells and tissues. This can lead to a wide range lungs to the body's tissues and organs. This oxygen fuels cellular
of symptoms, including fatigue, joint pain, skin rashes, kidney respiration, the energy-producing process vital for all bodily functions.
problems, and inflammation of the lungs, heart, and brain. Concurrently, it removes carbon dioxide, a byproduct of respiration,
from the tissues and returns it to the lungs for expulsion.
- Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): RA is a chronic autoimmune disease that
primarily affects the joints. The immune system mistakenly attacks the In addition to oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, the circulatory
lining of the joints, causing inflammation, pain, stiffness, and swelling. system is responsible for distributing nutrients, hormones, and other
This inflammation can eventually damage the cartilage and bone in the essential substances throughout the body. It also effectively removes
joints, leading to joint deformities and disability. metabolic waste products, such as urea and lactic acid. Furthermore,
it plays a critical role in maintaining stable body temperature,
- Multiple Sclerosis (MS): MS is a chronic, inflammatory disease that supporting the immune system's function, and regulating the body's
affects the central nervous system. In MS, the immune system attacks fluid balance. The efficient operation of this system is
the myelin sheath, a protective covering around nerve fibers. This fundamental to overall health and well-being.
damage disrupts communication between the brain and the rest of the
body, leading to a range of symptoms, including fatigue, weakness, II. ANATOMY
numbness, and vision problems.
III. PHYSIOLOGY
2. Immunodeficiency Diseases The heart is the central organ of the circulatory system, responsible
for pumping blood. Aside from pumping blood, the heart also regulates
Immunodeficiency diseases occur when the immune system is our blood pressure, supplies oxygen and nutrients to our tissues and it
weakened or compromised, making the body more vulnerable to also helps remove waste products in our bloodstreams and tissues
infections and diseases. This can be due to a lack of immune cells, a using deoxygenated blood. Heart is a muscular, hollow organ divided
defect in immune cell function, or a deficiency in antibodies. into four chamber: the left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, and right
ventricle. In the heart there is also the valves that control blood flow
- Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID): SCID is a rare, genetic between chambers.
disorder characterized by a severely weakened immune system.
Individuals with SCID are born with a deficiency in important white As we all know, the heart have several parts:
blood cells, making them highly susceptible to a wide range of
infections. Aorta: The main artery carrying oxygenated blood from the left
ventricle to the body. It is the largest artery of our heart that originates
- Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS): AIDS is a chronic, from the left ventricle. So as mentioned, it is responsible for carrying
potentially life-threatening condition caused by the human oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the entire body.
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV attacks the immune system,
specifically CD4+ T cells, which are crucial for fighting infections. As Pulmonary Arteries: Transport deoxygenated blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs. Pulmonary arteries bring blood from the right
ventricle, it is responsible for oxygenation and carbon dioxide removal
by transporting the deoxygenated blood from the heart, specifically the Prevention and Cure: Most stroke prevention methods include
right ventricle, to the lungs. maintaining a healthy lifestyle, which includes maintaining weight and
limiting alcohol intake. Persons with a history of circulatory diseases
Pulmonary Veins: Carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left have their blood pressure monitored. Treatment for stroke may include
atrium. From the lungs, the pulmonary veins return the deoxygenated therapy and activities. Many stroke patients require physical therapy
blood as oxygenated blood or oxygen-rich blood to the heart, and due to having mobility issues.
supply oxygenated blood to the entire body.

Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs. This is the Hypertension is when the pressure in your blood vessels is too
part of our heart that receives the blood that the pulmonary veins carry high. In this disease, the heart is forced to work and pump twice as
from the lungs to the heart. hard due to the blood forcing up the walls of the arteries. This is
usually nonlife-threatening.
Left Ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. It is
also the thickest muscle heart also known as [Link] left Symptoms: Usually Hypertension or high blood pressure doesn’t
ventricle uses its thick walls to generate necessary force as it is the show any symptoms, however other diseases, like stroke, is a strong
part of the heart responsible for generating most of the heart's indicator that a person has hypertension. People with hypertension
pumping power. It is also responsible for maintaining systemic blood can experience headaches, shortness of breath, and nosebleeds.
pressure and regulates cardiac output.
Cause: Similarly with stroke, an unhealthy lifestyle that consists of a
Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the sedentary lifestyle, unhealthy diet, and smoking habits can cause
superior and inferior vena cava. It helps the right ventricle by hypertension.
temporarily holding and storing blood until the right ventricle is ready to
pump it, regulating the blood flow to the right ventricle. Right atrium, Prevention and Cure: The main prevention for hypertension is also
just like the left ventricle, helps regulate cardiac output. maintaining a healthy lifestyle, with regular checkups to monitor the
condition of a person. There is no cure for hypertension.
Right Ventricle: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs for
oxygenation. This part of the heart receives blood from the right Aneurysm is an abnormal swelling or bulge in the wall of a blood
atrium. The right ventricle has thinner walls unlike the left ventricle. It vessel, such as an artery. This can be fatal as a ruptured aneurysm
regulates blood flow to pulmonary circulation and maintains optimal can cause a stroke, brain damage, or send a person into a coma.
pulmonary blood pressure. Without proper check-ups, an aneurysm can go undetected for a long
time, and is sometimes only discovered after a person has died.
Superior Vena Cava: Brings deoxygenated blood from the upper body Symptoms:
to the right atrium. It is a major vein located above the heart and the ● Sudden Headache
second biggest vein in the body. It brings deoxygenated blood from ● Nausea and Vomiting
upper body parts such as head, neck and upper limbs. ● Stiff Neck
Inferior Vena Cava: Bring deoxygenated blood from the lower body to ● Blurred or Double Vision
the right atrium. It is the largest vein in the body located below the ● Sensitivity to Light
heart. It brings deoxygenated blood from lower body parts such as ● Seizures
pelvis, abdominal organs and lower limbs. ● Loss of Consciousness
● Pain above your eye
● Confusion
The Blood vessels are the pathways that transport blood throughout ● Weakness or numbness
the body and include:
1. The Veins which return oxygen-poor blood back to the Cause:
heart. ● Inborn or Genetic
2. The Capillaries which are microscopic vessels where ● Smoking
oxygen, nutrients, and waste exchange between blood and ● Hypertension
tissues occurs. ● Substance use
3. The Arteries which carry oxygen-rich blood away from the ● Alcohol abuse
heart to the body.
Prevention and Cure:
The blood is the fluid that flows through the vessels, carrying essential Treating a ruptured aneurysm will require surgery to repair it.
elements and removing waste. It consists of: Preventative surgery is also available when doctors already detect a
1. Red Blood Cells: Transport oxygen from the lungs to the high chance of an aneurysm rupturing.
body and return carbon dioxide.
2. White Blood Cells: Fight infections and play a role in
immune defense.
3. Platelets: Help with blood clotting to prevent excessive
NERVOUS SYSTEM
bleeding.
4. Plasma: The liquid component that carries cells, nutrients, I. FUNCTION
hormones, and waste products. The Nervous System is a network of nerve cells that controls the
body by sending messages between the brain and the rest of the
IV. DISEASES [Link] is considered as the body’s storage center of information and
also the body’s control system. The Nervous System controls many
Stroke is a medical condition in which poor blood flow to the brain aspects of the body, including movement, breathing, thinking, and
feeling. It also regulates memory, learning, senses, wound healing,
causes cell death. People who had a stroke can also suffer from
sleep, heartbeat, and digestion. It makes sure that all the parts of the
several long-term problems, such as memory loss, loss of movement,
body are working together efficiently.
muscle weakness, or speech problems. From 2009 to 2019, Stroke is
the second leading cause of death in the Philippines, claiming about
II. ANATOMY
2.6% of population in 2019. (National Institute of Health)
Symptoms:
III. PHYSIOLOGY
● Sudden numbness or weakness in the face, arm, or leg,
1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
especially on one side of the body.
Central nervous system (CNS) is a processing center that manages
● Sudden confusion, trouble speaking, or difficulty
everything that your body does, from your thoughts and feelings to
understanding speech.
your movements. Your brain and spinal cord are “central” to your CNS
● Sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes.
because they take in and send out information to your entire body. The
● Sudden trouble walking, dizziness, loss of balance, or lack
Central Nervous System receives sensory information, process the
of coordination.
information it receives (integration) and responds with motor output.
● Sudden severe headache with no known cause.
Cause: Stroke can be caused by a variety of factors, such as high
Two main components of CNS: Brain and Spinal Cord
blood pressure, smoking, high cholesterol, diabetes and other
[Link]
circulatory diseases.
Brain is an essential organ that controls many body functions. It is What is Nerve Cell?
located within the skull that functions as organizer and distributor of The nerve cell is the basic unit of the nervous system and it is also
information for the body. Your brain receives and interprets all the called a neuron. There are billions of neurons in the body. A neuron
sensory information you encounter, like sights, sounds, smells and has a cell body containing the nucleus. In the cell body there are
tastes. root-like structures called the dendrites and axons. Dendrites carry
Three main parts of the brain: impulses toward the cell body while axons carry impulses away from
A.a. Cerebrum the cell body. The gap between neurons are called synapse.
Cerebrum interprets sights, sounds and touches. It also regulates
emotions, reasoning and learning. Your cerebrum makes up about
80% of your brain. IV. DISEASES
What are the lobes that make up your brain (Cerebrum)?
● Frontal lobes: The frontal lobes are in the front part of your Neurofibromatosis
brain, right behind your forehead. Neurofibromatosis (NF) refers to a group of three distinct genetic
● Occipital lobes: These lobes in the back of your brain allow conditions in which tumors grow in the nervous system. The tumors
you to notice and interpret visual information. are non-cancerous (benign) and often involve the skin or surrounding
● Parietal lobes: The parietal lobes are near the center of your bone. Although symptoms are often mild, each condition presents
brain. They receive and interpret signals from other parts of differently.
your brain. Three Distinct Types:
● Temporal lobes: These parts of the brain are near your ears A. Neurofibromatosis Type 1
on each side of your brain. The temporal lobes are important Neurofibromatosis type 1 is a condition characterized by changes in
in being able to recall words or places that you've been. skin coloring (pigmentation) and the growth of tumors along nerves in
● Limbic lobes: The limbic lobe sits deep in the middle the skin, brain, and other parts of the body. The signs and symptoms
portions of your brain. The limbic lobe is a part of your of this condition vary widely among affected people.
temporal, parietal and frontal lobes. Important parts of your B. Neurofibromatosis Type 2
limbic system include your amygdala (best known for Neurofibromatosis Type-2 (NF2) is a disorder characterized by the
regulating your “fight or flight” response) and your growth of noncancerous tumors throughout the nervous system, the
hippocampus (where you store short-term memories) most common being vestibular schwannomas or acoustic neuromas.
● Insular lobes: The insular lobes sit deep in the temporal, Neurofibromatosis has a 50% chance of occuring spontaneously, and
parietal and frontal lobes. another 50% chance to be passed on genetically. Below are potential
A.b. Cerebellum symptoms of NF2.
Cerebellum is the part under the cerebrum that maintains your C. Schwannomatosis
balance, posture, coordination and fine motor skills. Schwannomatosis, a type of neurofibromatosis, is a rare genetic
A.c. Brain stem disorder that results in multiple tumors (called schwannomas) that
Brain stem regulates many automatic body functions. You don’t grow on the coverings of peripheral nerves throughout the body and
consciously control these functions, like your heart rate, breathing, can cause debilitating pain and neurological dysfunction.
sleep and wake cycles, and swallowing.
B. Spinal cord Alzheimer’s Disease
Spinal cord serves as a channel for signal between the brain and the Alzheimer’s disease causes a decline in memory, thinking, learning
majority of the body parts, and controls some simple musculoskeletal and organizing skills over time. It’s the most common cause of
reflexes even without the processing of the brain. dementia and usually affects people over the age of 65. There’s no
cure for Alzheimer’s, but certain medications and therapies can help
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) manage symptoms temporarily.
Peripheral Nervous System) connects the central nervous system to
the organs and limbs. It plays key role in both sending information Epilepsy ( Seizure Disorder Neurological Disorder)
from different areas of your body back to your brain, as well as Epilepsy is a group of non-communicable neurological disorders
carrying out commands from your brain to various parts of your body. characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures. An epileptic seizure is
Two main divisions of PNS: Somatic Nervous System and the clinical manifestation of an abnormal, excessive, and synchronized
Autonomic Nervous System electrical discharge in the neurons. The occurrence of two or more
[Link] Nervous System unprovoked seizures defines epilepsy
Somatic Nervous System is associated with the voluntary control of
body movements. It consists of nerves that connect the brain and ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
spinal cord with muscles controlled by conscious effort (voluntary or
skeletal muscles) and with sensory receptors in the skin. Sensory I. FUNCTION
receptors are specialized endings of nerve fibers that detect The endocrine system comprises different glands that secrete
information in and around the body. There are main two parts of hormones that regulate metabolism, growth and development,
Somatic Nervous System: reproduction, and mood.
A.a. Spinal nerves
Spinal nerves connect the spinal cord with other parts of the body. It II. ANATOMY
carry motor and sensory signals between the spinal cord and the body.
The brain communicates with most of the body through the spinal The major endocrine glands in the body are the pituitary, thyroid,
nerves. There are 31 pairs of them, located at intervals along the parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries and testes.
length of the spinal cord.
A.b. Cranial nerves III. PHYSIOLOGY
Cranial nerves directly connect the brain and the brain stem with the
eyes, ears, nose, and throat and with various parts of the head, neck, Pineal Gland
and trunk. Cranial nerves are nerve fibers that carry information into The pineal gland, a small, pea- sized structure located deep within the
and out of the brain stem. There are 12 pairs of them. Cranial nerves brain, is primarily responsible for producing and secreting melatonin.
transmit sensory information, including touch, vision, taste, smell, and
hearing. Thalamus
The thalamus isn't a primary endocrine gland itself, but it acts as a
B. Autonomic Nervous System is associated with the involuntary crucial relay station for sensory information and plays a critical role in
control of body movements. The autonomic system is the part of the integrating information that influences endocrine function. It receives
peripheral nervous system responsible for regulating involuntary body input from various parts of the brain and body, including the
functions, such as heartbeat, blood flow, breathing, and digestion. It hypothalamus, which is the primary control center for the endocrine
has two subdivisions: system..
Two subdivisions of Autonomic Nervous System:
B.a. Sympathetic Nervous System is activated when the body is in a Hypothalamus
dynamic role or stress. (e.g., increased heart rate and breathing, A part of the brain that coordinates the endocrine system. It releases
dilation of pupil, sweating) hormones that signal the pituitary gland to direct the functions of other
B.b. Parasympathetic Nervous System maintains body functions glands, such as the thyroid and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus
and restores the body to normal or relaxed mode. also regulates body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, and
appetite.
Pituitary Gland balance of water, salts, and minerals (such as sodium, calcium,
Often referred to as the "master gland," the pituitary gland is a small phosphorus, and potassium) in your blood
gland located at the base of the brain, just below the hypothalamus.
Produces hormones that stimulate growth, and control the functions of B. Ureters
other glands The thin muscular tube extends from the pair of kidneys and helps in
the transport of urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. The
Thyroid Gland ureters work constantly, emptying urine into the bladder about every
The thyroid is a small, butterfly- shaped gland located at the front of 10 to 15 seconds
your neck, just under the skin. Its main purpose is to regulate
metabolism, the process by which your body converts food into energy C. Bladder
that all your cells need. It acts as a reservoir for urine. The bladder is located in the lesser
pelvis when empty and extends into the abdominal cavity when full. As
Thymus your bladder fills with pee, it expands. When it fills with 200-350 mL of
The thymus is a small organ located in the upper chest, just behind the pee, nerves in your bladder tell your brain to use the toilet.
sternum, and plays a crucial role in the immune and endocrine
systems. The endocrine system produces hormones called thymosins, D. Urethra
which are essential for the development and function of T- The urethra is the tube that lets urine leave your bladder and your
lymphocytes (T-cells) body

Adrenal Glands Other Organs Involved in Excretion

Adrenal glands, also known as suprarenal glands, are small,
triangle-shaped glands that are located on top of each of your two A. Skin
kidneys. They're a part of your endocrine system and produce certain The skin is the largest organ in the body. Its primary function is to prote
hormones that help regulate several important bodily functions. the different organs of the body. In addition, the skin excretes sweat.
particular, the skin eliminates compounds like NaCl, some amount of
Pancreas urea etc.
Pancreas is a large, tadpole- shaped gland situated deep in your belly.
It's part of your digestive system and your endocrine system. It plays B. Lungs
an important role in digestion and blood sugar regulation. Lungs are the primary part of the respiratory system. They help take in
oxygen and expel carbon dioxide. But, in this process, they also
Ovary eliminate some amount of water in the form of vapour.
The ovaries are small, oval- shaped glands located on either side of
your uterus. They produce and store your eggs (also called ovum) and C. Liver
make hormones that control your menstrual cycle and pregnancy. This organ has an important function in excreting waste from the body.
In fact, most drugs undergo first-pass metabolism in this organ. The
Testes kidneys also eliminate a few drugs. Furthermore, the liver eliminates
A testicle is part of the anatomy of men and people assigned male at excess fats and cholesterol. This is essential to maintain the health of
birth. The testicles make sperm and sex hormones, particularly the body
testosterone. The testicles are two small egg- shaped organs
contained in the scrotum.
IV. DISEASES
IV. DISEASES
A. KIDNEY STONES
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Kidney Stones (also called renal calculi, nephrolithiasis or
A hormonal disorder affecting women, where the ovaries produce an urolithiasis) are hard deposits made of minerals and salts that form
abnormal amount of male hormones, leading to symptoms like inside your kidneys.
irregular periods, excess hair growth, and acne. Cause: Diet, excess body weight, some medical conditions, and
certain supplements and medications
Diabetes Mellitus
A condition where the body is unable to properly regulate blood sugar Kidney stones form when your urine contains more crystal-forming
levels, either due to insufficient insulin production (Type 1) or the substances
body's inability to use insulin effectively (Type 2) - such as calcium, oxalate and uric acid
- than the fluid in your urine can dilute.
Hypothyroidism At the same time, your urine may lack substances that prevent crystals
A condition where the thyroid gland produces insufficient thyroid from sticking together, creating an ideal environment for kidney stones
hormone, leading to symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, depression, to form.
and sensitivity to cold
B. URINARY TRACT INJECTION
A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection in any part of the urinary
EXCRETORY SYSTEM system. Most_infections involve the lower urinary tract the bladder and
the urethra. Women are at greater risk of developing a UTI than are
I. FUNCTION men.
The excretory system also known as urinary system is a vital
biological system that deals with osmoregulation. UTIs typically occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract through the
It the regulation of the level of water in our body and removal of the urethra and begin to spread in the bladder.
waste and toxic substances from the body to maintain homeostasis The urinary system is designed to keep out bacteria. But the defenses
(balance and stability that our body maintains to function properly). sometimes fail. When that happens, bacteria may take hold and grow
into a full-blown infection in the urinary tract.
II. ANATOMY
C. KIDNEY FAILURE
Kidney Failure Also termed as renal failure, this is characterized by the
III. PHYSIOLOGY cessation of functioning of one or both kidneys.
Cause: damaged tubules, diabetes that has cardiac effects, kidney
The Human Excretory System is a set of special organs of the human stones, chronic drug intake to name
body, which play a major role in the removal of nitrogenous and other
unwanted wastes from the said body. The major organs of the human Acute renal failure is the term given to kidney failure when it occurs
excretory system are urethra, urinary bladder, pair of kidneys and all of a sudden.
pair of ureters. Though there are some organs that shares a function Chronic kidney failure is when the kidney functioning reduced
in this system which are skin, lungs and liver. gradually over a period of time.
Treatment options for kidney failure range from electrolyte therapy,
A. Kidney's antihypertensive drugs, dialysis and kidney transplant surgery.
Kidney's remove wastes and extra fluid from your body. It also remove
acid that is produced by. the cells of your body and maintain a healthy